Unit – 1 - Instruments

Dr. D Venumadhava Chary

Professor, EEE Department
Outcomes of this session
• Measurement and various methods.
• Types of instruments
• Essential forces required in an instrument
• Construction and torque equation of PMMC instrument
• Advantages, disadvantages and errors
• Construction and torque equation of MI instrument
• Advantages, disadvantages and errors
Introduction
• Measurement: It is the act, or the result of quantitative comparison
between a predetermined standard. and or an unknown magnitude. Since
two quantities are compared and the result are expressed in numerical
value.
• Instrumentation : Instrumentation is the use of measuring instruments to
monitor and control a process. It is the art and science of measurement
and control of process variables within a production.
• Measurand: The physical quantity or the characteristic conditions which is
the object of measurement in an instrumentation system is termed as
measurand or measurement variable or process variable.
e.g. Fundamental Quantity: length, mass, time et.
• Derived Quantity : Speed, Velocity, Pressure etc. Laboratory, or
manufacturing area.
• Measured Value: Any value or any reading calculated from
measurement system or measuring instrument.
• True value: The true value of a quantity to be measured may be
defined as the average of an infinite number of measured values
when the average deviation due to various contributing factors tends
to zero.
• Error : Any deviation of measured value from true value
• Error = Measured Value - True Value
• Relative error = (Measured Value - True Value)/True Value
 Methods of measurement

Indirect Method
Direct Method
Measurement by direct methods is
The unknown quantity (measurand) is
always not possible, feasible and
directly compared against a standard
practicable. Hence in indirect method
The result is expressed as a numerical
the effect produced by the quantity id
number and a unit. Direct methods are
used to produce deflection in an
common for the measurement of
instrument.
physical quantities like length, mass
and time Ex: effect produced by electric current
Direct Methods Classified as:

• Deflection methods
Deflection method” includes the deflection of pointer on a scale
due to the quantity to be measured. Example: Wattmeter,
ammeter voltmeter
• Comparison methods
“Comparison method” include the comparison of the quantity
under measurement with a pre-defined standard quantity which
gives measurement. Example: potentiometer
Classification of Instruments
• Measurement involve the use of instruments as a physical means of
determining quantities or variables.
• Absolute/ Secondary Instruments
• Analog/ Digital Instruments
• Mechanical/Electrical or Electronic Instruments
• Active/Passive Instruments
• Manual/Automatic Instruments
• Self contained /Remote Indicating Instruments
• Deflection/null o/p instruments
Absolute or Primary/Secondary Instruments
• Absolute Instruments
• It gives the magnitude of quantity under measurement in terms of physical
constants of the instrument e.g. Tangent Galvanometer
• In this type of instruments no calibration or comparison with other instruments is
necessary.
• They are generally not used in laboratories and are seldom used in practice by
electricians and engineers.
• Secondary Instruments
• These instruments are so constructed that the quantity being measured can only
be determined by the output indicated by the instrument.
• These instruments are calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument or
another secondary instrument, which has already been calibrated against an
absolute instrument.
• e.g. Ammeter, Voltmeter etc.
Classification based on the various effects of electric current
Classification based on the various effects of electric current (or
voltage) upon which their operation depend.
• Magnetic effect: Used in ammeters, voltmeters, watt-meters,
integrating meters etc.
• Heating/thermal effect: Used in ammeters and voltmeters.
• Electromagnetic field of attraction/repulsion
• Electrostatic effect: Used in voltmeters.
• Electromagnetic induction effect: Used in ac ammeters, voltmeters,
watt meters and integrating meters.
Classification based on the Nature of their Operations
• Indicating instruments: Indicating instruments indicate, generally the
quantity to be measured by means of a pointer which moves on a
scale. Examples are ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter etc.
• Recording instruments: These instruments record continuously the
variation of any electrical quantity with respect to time. In principle,
these are indicating instruments but so arranged that a permanent
continuous record of the indication is made on a chart or dial
• Integrating instruments: These instruments record the consumption
of the total quantity of electricity, energy etc., during a particular
period of time. : Ampere-hour meter: kilowatt hour (kWh) meter,
kilovolt-ampere-hour (kVARh) meter.
(c) Classification based on the Kind of Current that can be Measurand.
• Direct current (dc) instruments
• Alternating current (ac) instruments
(d) Classification based on the method used
• Direct measuring instruments: These instruments converts the energy of the
measured quantity directly into energy that actuates the instrument and the value of
the unknown quantity is measured or displayed or recorded directly Examples are
Ammeter, Voltmeter, Watt meter etc.
• Comparison instruments: These instruments measure the unknown quantity by
comparison with a standard. Examples are dc and ac bridges and potentiometers.
They are used when a higher accuracy of measurements is desired
(e) Analog /Digital Instruments
• Analogue Instruments: The signal of an analog unit vary in a continuous fashion and
can take an infinite no. of values in a given range. E.g. ammeters, voltmeter, wrist
watch , speedometer etc.
• Digital instruments: Signals varying in discrete steps and taking on a finite no. of
different values in a given range are digital signals e.gs timer on a score board,
odometer of an automobile
Essential Requirements of Indicating Instruments
1. Deflecting torque (Td) : Deflecting torque causes the moving
system and pointer of the instrument to move from its zero
position. Production of deflecting torque depends upon the type of
indicating instrument and its principle of operation.
2. Controlling torque (Tc) : This force is requited in an indicating
instrument in order that the currents produce the deflection of the
pointer proportional to their magnitudes. Controlling torque is
equal and opposite to the deflection torque.
Two methods of Controlling Torque
i. Spring Control method
ii. Gravity control method
Spring Control method
• Two phosphor bronze hair
springs of spiral shapes are
attached to the spindle of the
moving system of the
instrument.
• They are wound in opposite
direction Pointer is attached to
the spindle of the moving
system.
Gravity control method
• In gravity control method, a small weight
is attached to the spindle of the moving
system
• Due to the gravitational pull, a control
torque (acting in opposite direction to the
deflecting torque) is produced whenever
the pointer tends to move away from its
initial position.
Comparison
Damping Torque:
• Damping Torque: Damping torque minimizes the oscillations of the
pointer about the final steady state deflection and makes it steady.. In
the absence of this torque, pointer continues oscillating to its final
position after reaching to its final position. Depending on the
magnitude of damping, it can be classified as underdamped, over
damped and critically damped.
 Methods of producing Damping Torque
Air friction Damping: It consists of a light aluminum piston which is attached to the
moving system. This piston moves in a fixed air chamber which is closed at one end.
The clearance between piston and chamber walls is uniform throughout and is very
small. When there are oscillations the piston moves into and out of an air chamber
against air friction and provides necessary damping torque.
Fluid Friction Damping: This form of damping is similar to air friction damping. Oil
is used in place of air and as the viscosity of the oil is greater, the damping torque is
also correspondingly greater. A disc is attached to the moving system this disc dips
into an oil pot and is completely submerged in oil.
When the moving system moves, the disc moves in oil and a frictional drag is
produced. This frictional drag always opposes the motion.
Eddy current Damping When a conductor moves in a magnetic field an emf is
induced in it and if a closed path is provided, a current (known as eddy current)
flows. This current interacts with the magnetic field to produce an electromagnetic
torque which opposes the motion.
Electromagnetic damping: The movement of a coil in a magnetic field produces a
current in the coil which interacts with the magnetic field to produce a torque. This
torque opposes the movement of the coil and slows the response. The magnitude of
the current and hence the damping torque is dependent upon the resistance of the
circuit to which the instrument is connected. The electromagnetic damping is used
in galvanometers.
Types of Instruments
1. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) type Instrument.
2. Moving Iron type Instrument
3. Electro Dynamometer type Instrument
4. Hot wire type Instrument
5. Thermocouple type Instrument
6. Induction type Instrument
7. Electrostatic type Instrument
8. Rectifier type Instrument
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) type Instrument.
• Magnetic system: The PMMC instrument using the permanent magnet for creating the
stationary magnets. The Alcomax and Alnico material are used for creating the
permanent magnet because this magnet has the high coercive force.
• Moving Coil: The coil is the current carrying part of the instruments which is freely
moved between the stationary field of the permanent magnet. The current passes
through the coil deflects it due to which the magnitude of the current or voltage is
determined. The coil is mounted on the rectangular former which is made up of
aluminum.
• Control Torque: In PMMC instrument the controlling torque is because of the springs.
The springs are made up of phosphorous bronze and placed between the two jewel
bearings. The spring also provides the path to the lead current to flow in and out of the
moving coil.
• Damping Torque: The damping torque is used for keeping the movement of the coil in
rest. This damping torque is induced because of the movement of the aluminum core
which is moving between the poles of the permanent magnet.
• Pointer & Scale – The pointer is linked with the moving coil. The pointer notices the
deflection of the coil, and the magnitude of their deviation is shown on the scale. The
pointer is made of the lightweight material, and hence it is easily deflected with the
movement of the coil.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) type Instrument.
Torque Equation for PMMC Instrument
When current is passed through the moving coil placed in a magnetic field, it experiences force.
Let l= length of vertical side of the coil
d = length of horizontal side (width) of coil
N = number of turns in the coil
B = flux density in the air gap at coil position, Wb/m2
I = current, A
S = spring constant, NW/rad
Ɵ = final steady deflection
Force on each conductor = Bil newton
Force on each coil side = NBil newton
Deflecting Torque = force x distance = NBild = NBAi newton-meter
A = area of coil
N,B,A are constants
Deflecting Torque (Td) = Gi where G = NBA = NBld a constant
Controlling Torque Tc = S Ɵ
For final steady deflection Tc = Td
S Ɵ = Gi
𝐺
𝜃= 𝑖 radian
𝑆
Deflection (Ɵ) is directly proportional to current (i) (uniform scale)
Advantages and Disadvantages of PMMC Instruments
Advantages
• The scale of the PMMC instruments is correctly divided (uniform scale)
• The power consumption of the devices is very less.
• The PMMC instruments have high accuracy because of the high torque weight ratio.
• The single device measures the different range of voltage and current. This can be done by the
use of multipliers and shunts.
• The PMMC instruments use self shielding magnet which is useful for the aerospace applications.
Disadvantages
• The following are the disadvantages of the PMMC instruments.
• The PMMC instruments are only used for the direct current. The alternating current varies with
the time. The rapid variation of the current varies the torque of the coil. But the pointer can not
follow the fast reversal and the deflection of the torque. Thus, it cannot use for AC.
• The cost of the PPMC instruments is much higher as compared to the moving coil instruments.
Errors in PMMC Instrument
Errors due to
• Weakening of magnets: Magnetic Flux Density decreases with weakening of Permanent Magnet
due to ageing and temperature effect which tend to decrease the deflection of needle of
instrument.
• Weakening of springs: The value of Spring Constant decreases with weakening of Spring due to
ageing and temperature effect which will increase the deflection for a particular current and
magnetic flux density. Note that the weakening of spring have the opposite impact to that of
weakening of magnet.
• Change in resistance due to temperature rise : Increase in resistance of moving coil with
temperature will decrease the current flowing through the moving coil resulting into error in
reading of PMMC Instruments.
Errors can be minimized by
• Weakening of Permanent Magnet: To prevent the weakening of Permanent Magnet due to
ageing and temperature effect, magnets are aged by heat and vibration treatment during
manufacturing process. These processes make the magnet to retain its magnetism over a longer
period of time.
• Weakening of spring: The weakening of Spring can be reduced by careful use of material and pre-
aging during manufacturing process.
• In Permanent Magnet Moving Coil or PMMC Instruments, 1°C increase in temperature reduces
the strength of spring by 0.04% and reduces the air gap flux density of magnet by 0.02%. Thus the
net effect is to increase the deflection of instrument by 0.02% / °C.
Moving iron instruments
• Construction and basic principle operation
• Moving-iron instruments are generally used to measure alternating voltages and currents. In moving-
iron instruments the movable system consists of one or more pieces of specially-shaped soft iron,
which are so pivoted as to be acted upon by the magnetic field produced by the current in coil.
There are two general types of moving-iron instruments namely:
• Repulsion (or double iron) type (figure 1)
• Attraction (or single-iron) type (figure 2)
The brief description of different components of a moving-iron instrument is given below:
• Moving element: a small piece of soft iron in the form of a vane or rod.
• Coil: to produce the magnetic field due to current flowing through it and also to magnetize the iron
pieces.
• In repulsion type, a fixed and movable vanes are used and magnetized with the same polarity.
• Control torque is provided by spring or weight (gravity).
• Damping torque is normally air friction damping device consisting of an air chamber and a moving
vane attached to the instrument spindle.
• Deflecting torque produces a movement on an aluminum pointer over a graduated scale.
Principle of Operation
• In Moving Iron Instruments, a plate or vane of soft iron or of high
permeability steel forms the moving element of the system. The iron van is
so situated that it can move in the magnetic field produced by a stationary
coil. Figure below shows a simple moving iron instrument.
• The stationary coil is excited by the current or voltage under measurement.
• When the coil is excited, it becomes an electromagnet and the iron vane
moves in direction of offering low reluctance path.
• Thus the force of attraction is always produced in a direction to increase
the inductance of coil.
• The vane follows the low reluctance path, the net flux in air gap will
increase which means increased flux linkage of coil and hence inductance
of coil will increase.
• It shall also be noticed that, the inductance of coil is variable and depends
on the position of iron van.
Torque Equation of Moving Iron Instruments:
• Suppose that, at any instant of time current flowing in the coil is I , instrument inductance is L and the deflection is Ɵ. If the
current increases by dI then the deflection changes by dƟ and the inductance dL.
• In order to effect an increment dI in the current there must be an increase in the applied voltage given by
𝑑 𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝐼
𝑒 = 𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐼 = 𝐼 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐿 𝑑𝑡.

• Electrical Energy supplied is 𝑒𝐼𝑑𝑡 = 𝐼 2 𝑑𝐿 + 𝐼𝐿𝑑𝐼

1 1
• Thus the energy stored changes from 𝐿𝐼 2 𝑡𝑜 𝐼 + 𝑑𝐼 2
𝐿 + 𝑑𝐿
2 2
1 2 1
hence change in stored energy is 2
𝐼 + 2𝐼𝑑𝐼 + 𝑑𝐼 2 𝑙 + 𝑑𝐿 − 2 𝐿𝐼 2
Neglecting second and higher order terms in small quantities this becomes
1
𝐼𝐿𝑑𝐼 + 2 𝐼 2 𝑑𝐿
When there is a small increment in current supplied there will be a small deflection 𝑑𝜃
Let 𝑇𝑑 =deflecting torque
Then mechanical work done = 𝑇𝑑 𝑑𝜃
From the principle of conservation of energy
Electrical energy supplied = increase in stored energy + mechanical work done
𝐼 2 𝑑𝐿 + 𝐼𝐿𝑑𝐼 = 𝐼𝐿𝑑𝐼 + +𝑇𝑑 𝑑𝜃
1
𝑇𝑑 𝑑𝜃 = 2 𝐼 2 𝑑𝐿
1 𝑑𝐿
𝑇𝑑 = 𝐼 2
2 𝑑𝜃
• At equilibrium (final steady) position,
• Controlling torque = deflecting torque
𝑇𝑐 = 𝑇𝑑
1 2 𝑑𝐿
𝑆𝜃 = 𝐼
2 𝑑𝜃
1 𝐼2 𝑑𝐿
𝜃=
2 𝑆 𝑑𝜃
Hence the deflection is proportional to square of the rms value of the
operating current. ( non uniform scale)
 Advantages and dis-advantages of MI instruments
Advantages of the moving iron instruments.
• Universal use – The MI instrument is independent of the direction of current and hence used for both AC
and DC.
• Less Friction Error – The friction error is very less in the moving iron instrument because their torque
weight ratio is high. The torque weight ratio is high because their current carrying part is stationary and
the moving parts are lighter in weight.
• Cheapness – The MI instruments require less number of turns as compared to PMMC instrument. Thus, it
is cheaper.
• Robustness – The instrument is robust because of their simple construction. And also because their
current carrying part is stationary.
Disadvantages of Moving Iron Instruments.
• Accuracy – The scale of the moving iron instruments is not uniform, and hence the accurate result is not
possible.
• Errors – Some serious error occurs in the instruments because of the hysteresis, frequency and stray
magnetic field.
• Waveform Error – In MI instrument the deflection torque is not directly proportional to the square of the
current. Because of which the waveforms error occurs in the instrument.
• Difference between AC and DC calibration – The calibration of the AC and DC are differed because of the
effect of the inductance of meter and the eddy current which is used on AC. The AC is calibrated on the
frequency at which they use.
Error in Moving iron instruments:
There are two types error. one is occur in both ac and dc and other is occur only ac
Errors with Both dc and ac.
• Hysteresis error : this error occurs as the value of flux density is different of same current for
ascending and descending values. The flux density is higher for descending value there for
instruments read higher for descending value current this error can be minimize using small iron
parts and other method is used nickel iron alloy
• Temperature error: the effect of temperature change on moving iron instruments varies chiefly
from the temperature coefficient of spring. For minimize the error the series resistance should be
made of material like Manganin which has small temperature coefficient. the value of resistance
should large as compare with coil resistance.in order to reduce the self heating.
• Stray Magnetic fields: It is a also called demagnetization fields. this is weak at full scale deflection
hence it can easily distorted . these error can be minimized using an iron case or iron shied over
working parts
Errors with A.C. only:
• Frequency error: Change in frequency is also cause of change in reactance of working coil and
also change the eddy currents setup in the metal parts of instrument.
• Reactance of Instruments coil: the change of reactance of the instrument coil is importance in
case of voltmeter. where a addition resistance put in series with instrument coil to reduce this
effect.
Shunts and multipliers
Multiplier
Dynamometer type instruments:
• These instruments are the modified form of permanent magnet moving coils type. Here operating field is
produced by a permanent but by another fixed coil.
• When connected to ac supply, the current in Fixed coil and Moving coil reverse simultaneously, therefore the
torque produced is unidirectional.
• The moving system and the control system are similar to those of permanent magnet type. Such instruments can
be used for both a.c and d.c circuits. They can be used as ammeters and voltmeters but are generally used as
wattmeters.
Principle of Dynamometer type instruments:
• These instruments are based on that principle the mechanical force exists between the current carrying
conductors.
Construction of Dynamometer type instruments:
• A dynamometer type instrument as shown in fig essentially consists of a fixed coil and a moving coil.
• The fixed coil is split into two equal parts which are placed close together and parallel to each other.
• The moving coil is pivoted in between the two fixed coils.
• The fixed and moving coils may be excited separately or they may be connected in series depending upon the
use to which the measurement is put.
• The moving coil is attached to the moving system so that under the action of deflecting torque, the pointer
moves over the scale.
• The controlling torque is provided by two springs which also serve the additional purpose of leading the current
into and out of the moving coil. Air friction damping is provided in such instruments.
Working of Dynamometer type instruments:
• When instrument is connected in the circuit, operating currents flow
through the coils. Due to this, mechanical force exists between the
coils. The result is that the moving coil moves the pointer over the
scale. The pointer comes to rest at a position where deflecting torque
is equal to the controlling torque.
• by reversing the current, the field due to fixed coils is reversed as well
as the current in the moving coil, so that the direction of deflecting
torque remains unchanged. Therefore, such instruments can be used
for both d.c and a.c measurements.
 Construction and Working Principle of Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter
• There are two types of coils present in the electrodynamometer. They are Moving Coil and Fixed coil
• Moving coil moves the pointer with the help of spring control instrument. Limited of current flows through
the moving coil so as to avoid heating. So in order to limit the current we have connected the high value
resistor in series with the moving coil.
• The moving coil is air cored and is mounted on a pivoted spindle and can move freely.
• In electrodynamometer type wattmeter, moving coil works as pressure coil. Hence moving coil is connected
across the voltage and thus the current flowing through this coil is always proportional to the voltage.
Fixed Coil
• The fixed coil is divided into two equal parts and these are connected in series with the load, therefore the
load current will flow through these coils. Now the reason is very obvious of using two fixed coils instead of
one, so that it can be constructed to carry considerable amount of electric current. These coils are called the
current coils of electrodynamometer type wattmeter.
Control System
Spring control, only spring controlled systems are used in these types of wattmeter. Gravity controlled
system cannot be employed because there will be appreciable amount of errors.
Damping System
Air friction damping is used, as eddy current damping will distort the weak operating magnetic field and thus
it may leads to error.
Scale
There is uniform scale which is used in these types of instrument as moving coil moves linearly over a range
of 40 degrees to 50 degrees on either side.
Construction
Advantages of electrodynamometer type wattmeter
Advantages
• Scale is uniform up to a certain limit.
• They can be used for both to measure ac as well dc quantities as scale is
calibrated for both.
Errors in Electrodynamometer Type Wattmeter
• Errors in the pressure coil inductance.
• Errors may be due to pressure coil capacitance.
• Errors may be due to mutual inductance effects.
• Errors may be due connections.(i.e. pressure coil is connected after current
coil)
• Error due to Eddy currents.
• Errors caused by vibration of moving system.
• Temperature error.
• Errors due to stray magnetic field.
Errors in dynamometer type watt meters
1. Pressure coil inductance.
In an ideal dynamo-meter type watt meter the current in pressure coil in phase with the applied voltage . But in
practically the pressure coil of watt meter has an inductance and current in it will lag behind the applied voltage . If
there is no inductance the current in pressure coil will be in phase with the applied voltage.
In the absence of inductance in pressure coil of wattmeter , it will read correctly in all power factors and frequency.
The wattmeter will read high when the load power factor is lagging ,as in that case the effect of pressure coil
inductance is to reduce the phase angle between load current and pressure coil current . Hence the wattmeter will read
high . This is very serious error.
The wattmeter will read low when the load power factor is leading as in that case the effect of pressure coil inductance
is to increase the phase angle between load current and pressure coil current .Hence the wattmeter will read low.
Compensation for inductance of pressure coil.
Inductance of pressure coil can be reduced by means of capacitor connected in parallel with a portion
of multiplier (series resistance.
 Errors in dynamometer type watt meters contd.
2.Pressure coil capacitance.
The pressure coil circuit may have capacitance in addition with inductance. This capacitance mainly due to the inter
turn capacitance of the series resistance. The effect of capacitance is opposite to that due to inductance. Therefore the
wattmeter will read high when the load power factor is leading.
The inductance in pressure coil circuit will always more than inductance, hence the error caused by capacitance will be
nullified by that due to inductance.

3.Error due to mutual inductance.

Errors may occurred due to the mutual inductance between the current and pressure coils of the watt meter. These
errors are quite low at power frequencies. But they increased with increase in frequencies.
The effect of mutual inductance can be avoid by arranging the coil system in such a way that they have no mutual
inductance. So we can eliminate the errors due to mutual inductance. The Drysdale Torsion head wattmeter is an
example for such type.
4.Eddy Current errors.
Eddy currents are induced in the solid metal parts and within the thick conductors by the alternating magnetic field
produced by the current coil. This eddy current produce their own magnetic field and it will alter that produced by the
main current in the current coil and thus error occurred.
This error can be minimized by avoiding solid metal parts as much as possible and by using stranded conductors for
high current applications.
Errors in dynamometer type watt meters contd.
5.Stray Magnetic field Errors.
The electrodynamometer type watt meters has a weak operating field and therefore it
effected by stray magnetic fields it will resulting in serious errors. Hence these
instruments should be shielded against stray magnetic field.

6.Errors caused by vibration of moving system.

The torque on the moving system varies with frequency which is twice that of voltage.
If the parts of the moving system has a natural frequency which is resonance with the
frequency of torque pulsation, the moving system would vibrate with a considerable
amplitude. These vibrations will cause errors. This error can be reduced by design. .
7.Temperature Error.
The change in room temperature may affect the indication of wattmeter. This is
because of change in temperature will change in resistance of pressure coil and stiffness
of springs which provide controlling torque. This effect are opposite in nature and cancel
each other. The use of material of having negligible temperature coefficient of resistance
will reduce change in resistance the pressure coil with change in temperature.
• Derive the torque equation of electrostatic type instrument.- Assignment
Reactive Power Measurement in Balanced Three-Phase Circuit
• The single wattmeter method is used for measuring the reactive power of the
balanced three-phase circuit as shown in figure.
• The current coil of the Wattmeter is connected in series with one line, and the
pressure coil is connected across the remaining two lines.
• Voltage across the pressure coil is V13 = V1-V3 (vector difference)= VL
• Current through the current coil is I2 = IL

V3

V1

ϕ 900
I2

V2 -V3 V13
• Power read by the wattmeter = current through current coil X voltage
across PC X cosine of angle between V & I
= V13 X I2 X Cos(900+Φ)
= -VL X IL X SinΦ
Reactive power in 3 phase circuit = √3 VL X IL X SinΦ
There fore reactive power = √3 X Wattmeter reading
Reactive power measurement:
Single Phase VAR meter
• The varmeter is a type of
the Electrodynamometer Wattmeter in
which the pressure coil of the meter is
made highly inductive. The terms “highly
inductive” means, the voltage of the
pressure coils lags at an angle of 90° with
that of the current coil.
• The current which passes through the
current coil is the load current. The load
current has a phase difference of 90°
concerning that of the supply voltage, and
it is given by the equation shown below.