21MA1301 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

UNIT-IV DEFINITIONS & THEOREMS

ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES:
A System consisting of a non-empty set and one or more n-ary
operations on the set is called an algebraic system. An algebraic
system will be denoted by {𝑆, 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , … . . . . }, where S is the non-
empty set and 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , … .. are n-ary operations on S.

1. Closure property:

For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆

For example, if , 𝑏 ∈ Z, 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ Z and 𝑎 × 𝑏 ∈ Z, where + and × are

the operations of addition and multiplication.

2. Associative property:

For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ S, (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐)

For example 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ Z

(𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑎 × 𝑏) × 𝑐 = 𝑎 × (𝑏 × 𝑐)

3. Commutative property:

For any , 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎

For example, if 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍, 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 × 𝑏 = 𝑏 × 𝑎

4. Identity element:

There exists a distinguished element 𝑒 ∈ 𝑆, such that for any ∈

𝑆, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎.

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 The element 𝑒 ∈ 𝑆 is called the identity element of S with
respect to operation ∗.

For example 0 and 1 are the identity elements of 𝑍 with respect to

the operations of addition and multiplication respectively, Since
for any 𝑎 ∈ Z

𝑎 + 0 = 0 + 𝑎 = 𝑎 and 𝑎 × 1 = 1 × 𝑎 = 𝑎.

5. Inverse element:

For each a ∈ 𝑆, ∃ an element 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝑆 such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = e and

𝑎−1 ∗ a = e. The element 𝑎−1 is called the inverse of a under the
operation ∗ .

For example for each a ∈ 𝑍, −𝑎 is the inverse of a under the

operation of addition, since

𝑎 + (−𝑎) = (−𝑎) + 𝑎 = 0, where 0 is the identity element of

Z under addition.

6. Distributive property:

For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏⨁𝑐 ) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ⊕ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑐)

In this case the operation ∗ is said to be distributive over the

operation ⨁.

For example the usual multiplication is distributive over

addition. Since 𝑎 × (𝑏 + 𝑐 ) = (𝑎 × 𝑏) + (𝑎 × 𝑐).

7. Cancellation property:

For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆, and 𝑎 ≠ 0

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 𝑎∗𝑏 =𝑎∗𝑐 ⇒ 𝑏=𝑐

𝑏∗𝑎 =𝑐∗𝑎 ⇒ 𝑏=𝑐

For example, cancellation property holds good for any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈

𝑍 under addition and multiplication.

8. Idempotent element:

An element 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆 is called an idempotent element with

respect to the operation ∗, if 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎.

For example 0 ∈ 𝑍 is an idempotent element under addition since

0 + 0 = 0 and 1 ∈ 𝑍 are idempotent element under multiplication,
since 1 × 1 = 1.

SEMIGROUP:

If S is a non-empty set and * be a binary operation on S, then

the algebraic system {S,*} is called a semi group, if the operation
* is associative.

(i.e) If for any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆 (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐)

Example: If E is the set of positive even numbers, then

{𝐸, +} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 {𝐸,×} are semi groups.

MONOID:

If a semi group {M,∗} has an identity element with respect to the

operation ∗, then {𝑀 , ∗} is called a Monoid.

(i.e.) If for any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑀 (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐)

and if there exists an element 𝑒 ∈ 𝑀 such that for any

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𝑎 ∈ 𝑀, 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑎, then the algebraic system {𝑀,∗} is called a
Monoid.

For example if N is the set of natural numbers, then

{𝑁, +} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 {𝑁,×} are monoids with identity elements
0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 respectively.

Note: The semi groups {𝐸, +} and {𝐸,×} are not monoids.

GROUP:

If G is a non-empty set and * is a binary operation of G, then the

algebraic system {𝐺,∗} is called a group if the following conditions
are satisfied.

(i) For all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺

(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) (Associative property)

(ii) ∃ an element 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 such that, for any

𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎. (Existence of identity)

(iii) For every 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, ∃ an element 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐺, such that

𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑎−1 ∗ a = e. (Existence of inverse)

Example: {𝑍, +} is a group under usual addition.

ABELIAN GROUP:

A group in which the binary operation * is commutative, is called

a commutative group or abelian group.

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Example:

The set of rational numbers excluding 0 is an abelian group

under usual multiplication.

Order of a Group:

When G is finite, the number of elements of G is called the order

of G and denoted by 𝑜(𝐺 ) or |𝐺|.

If the element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, where 𝐺 is a group

with identity element e, then the least positive integer 𝑚 for

which 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑒 is called the order of the element 𝑎 and denoted as
𝑜(𝑎). If no such integer exists, then a is of infinite order.

Example: Let 𝐺 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖}, Then G is a group under

multiplication.

In this group, 𝑂(1) = 1, 𝑂(−1) = 2, 𝑂(𝑖) = 4, 𝑂(−𝑖) = 4

SUBGROUP:

If {𝐺 , ∗} is a group and 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺 is a non-empty subset, that

satisfies the following conditions

(1) For 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 , 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻

(2) e ∈ H where e is the identity element of {G , ∗}

(3) For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻, then {𝐻, ∗} is called a subgroup of

{𝐺 , ∗}.

Example: {𝑍 + , +} is a subgroup of {𝑍, +}.

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Monoid Homomorphism:

If {𝑀 , ∗ , 𝑒𝑀 } and {𝑇 , ∆ , 𝑒𝑇 } are any two monoids, where 𝑒𝑀 and

𝑒𝑇 are identity elements of 𝑀 and 𝑇 with respect to the
corresponding binary operations ∗ and ∆ respectively, then a
mapping 𝑔 : 𝑀 → 𝑇 is called monoid homomorphism if for any
two elements 𝑎 , 𝑏 ∈ 𝑀

𝑔(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = 𝑔(𝑎) ∆ 𝑔(𝑏) and 𝑔(𝑒𝑀 ) = 𝑒𝑇

Group Homomorphism:

If {𝐺 , ∗} and {𝐺 ′ , ∆} are two groups, then a mapping 𝑓 : 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ is

called a group homomorphism if for any two elements 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺
𝑓 ( 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ) = 𝑓 ( 𝑎 ) ∆ 𝑓( 𝑏 )

A group homomorphism 𝑓 is called group isomorphism if 𝑓 is

one-to-one and onto.

COSETS:

If (H,∗) is a subgroup of a group (G,∗), then the set 𝑎𝐻, where 𝑎 ∈

𝐺 defined by

𝑎𝐻 = {𝑎 ∗ ℎ/ℎ ∈ 𝐻} is called the left coset of H in G

generated by the element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺. 𝑎 is called the
representative(element) of the left coset 𝑎𝐻.

Similarly, the set 𝐻𝑎 defined by 𝐻𝑎 = {ℎ ∗ 𝑎/ℎ ∈ 𝐻} is called the

right coset of H in G generated by 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺. 𝑎 is again called the
representative (element) of 𝐻𝑎.

Kernel of a Homomorphism:
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If 𝑓 : 𝐺 ⟶ 𝐺 ′ is a group homomorphism from {𝐺 , ∗} to {𝐺 ′ , ∆},
then the set of elements of 𝐺 which are mapped into 𝑒 ′ , the
identity element of 𝐺 ′ is called the kernel of homomorphism 𝑓
and denoted by 𝑘𝑒𝑟(𝑓 ).

Cyclic Group:

A group {𝐺,∗} is said to be a cyclic group , if there exists an

element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 such that every element 𝑥 of 𝐺 can be expressed as
𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 for some integer 𝑛.

In such a case, the cyclic group is said to be generated by 𝑎 or 𝑎

is a generator of 𝐺.

𝐺 is also denoted by {𝑎}.

Permutation Group:

Let 𝑆 be a non-empty set. A bijective function 𝑓: 𝑆 → 𝑆 is called a

permutation.

If 𝑆 has 𝑛 elements, then the permutation is said to be of degree

𝑛. Usually we take 𝑆 = {1,2,3, … , 𝑛}.

The set of all permutations on a set of 𝑛 symbols is denoted by

𝑆𝑛 .

𝑆𝑛 is a group under composition of functions as operation.

The group 𝑆𝑛 is called the permutation group on 𝑛 symbols.

It is also known as symmetric group of degree 𝑛 and 𝑂(𝑆𝑛 ) = 𝑛!.

Rings:

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An algebraic system(𝑅, +, ∙), where 𝑅 is a non-empty set and +
and . are two closed binary operations which may be different
from ordinary addition and multiplication is called a ring, if the
following conditions are satisfied.

1. (𝑅, +) is an abelian group

2. (𝑅, ∙) is a semigroup.

3. The operation ∙ is distributive over +

(i.e) for any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅

𝑎 ∙ (𝑏 + 𝑐 ) = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 + 𝑎 ∙ 𝑐 and

(𝑏 + 𝑐 ) ∙ 𝑎 = 𝑏 ∙ 𝑎 + 𝑐 ∙ 𝑎

Example:

Set of integers (𝑍 ), real numbers (𝑅 ), rational numbers (𝑄) and

complex numbers (𝐶 ).

Commutative Ring:

If (𝑅 , ∙) is commutative, then the ring (𝑅 , + , ∙) is called a

commutative ring.

Ring with identity or unity:

If (𝑅 , ∙) is a monoid, then the ring (𝑅 , + , ∙) is called a ring

with identity or unity.

Zero divisors:

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 If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are two non-zero elements of a ring 𝑅 such that 𝑎 ∙
𝑏 = 0, then 𝑎 and 𝑏 are divisors of zero or zero divisors.

Example: If 𝑅 is the set of integers modulo 6 under addition and

multiplication modulo 6, the elements of 𝑅 are
[0], [1], [2], [3], [4], [5].

Now [2] ×6 [3] = [0] but [2] ≠ 0 and [3] ≠ 0.

Therefore, [2] and [3] are zero divisors in 𝑅.

(i.e) in a ring, 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 = 0 with neither 𝑎 = 0 nor 𝑏 = 0.

Integral Domain:

A commutative ring with unity (containing atleast 2 elements)

and without zero divisors is called integral domain.

Example:

The ring of integers is an example of an integral domian,

whereas (𝑍6 , +6 , ×6 ) is not an integral domain since it has zero
divisors.

Field: A commutative ring 𝑅 with multiplication identity,

containing atleast two elements is called a field, if every non-zero
element of 𝑅 has a multiplicative inverse in 𝑅.

Example: The ring of rational numbers (𝑄 , + , ∙) is a field, since

it is a commutative ring with identity and the multiplicative
inverse of every non-zero element of 𝑄 is in 𝑄.

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1) Prove that the necessary and sufficient
condition for a non empty subset 𝐻 of a group {𝐺 , ∗} to be a
subgroup is 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⟹ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻.
Proof: (i) Let 𝐻 be a subgroup.
Then if 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻
Therefore, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻 by closure property.
Hence, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⟹ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻.
Thus, the condition is necessary.
(ii) Let 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻, where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, where 𝐻 is not empty subset
of 𝐺.
If 𝑏 = 𝑎, the given condition gives

𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻
𝑒 ∈ 𝐻 ---------(1)
Using the given condition for the pair 𝑒, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻,
we have 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻

𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻 -------(2)
Using the given condition for the pair 𝑒, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻,
we have 𝑒 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻
𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻 -------(3)
Using the given condition for the pair
a, 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻, we have a ∗ (𝑏−1 )−1 ∈ 𝐻
a ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 -------(4)
From (1), (2), (3) and (4), it follows that {𝐻,∗} is a subgroup of
{𝐺,∗}.

Thus the condition is sufficient.

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2) Show that the union of two subgroups of a group 𝐺 is a
subgroup of 𝐺 iff one is contained in the other.
Proof:
Let 𝐻1 and 𝐻2 be two subgroups of 𝐺.
Let 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 be a subgroup of 𝐺.
Assume that 𝐻1 ⊈ 𝐻2 and 𝐻2 ⊈ 𝐻1
Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻2 − 𝐻1 ⟹ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻2 and 𝑎 ∉ 𝐻1
and b ∈ 𝐻1 − 𝐻2 ⟹ b ∈ 𝐻1 and b ∉ 𝐻2
Thus 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 where 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 is a subgroup of 𝐺.
Then 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 ⟹ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 (By closure property)
If 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1

Then 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏, 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻1
Now, (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻1
𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑏−1 ) ∈ 𝐻1
𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻1
𝑎 ∈ 𝐻1 which is a contradiction.
If 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻2 and a ∈ 𝐻2
Then 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏, 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻2
Now, 𝑎−1 ∗ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∈ 𝐻2
(𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎) ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻2

e ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻2
b ∈ 𝐻2 which is a contradiction.
Hence, if 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 is a subgroup of 𝐺, then either 𝐻1 ⊆ 𝐻2 or
𝐻2 ⊆ 𝐻1 .

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 Conversely,
If 𝐻1 ⊆ 𝐻2 ,
Then 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 = 𝐻2 , which is a subgroup of 𝐺.
If 𝐻2 ⊆ 𝐻1 ,
Then 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 = 𝐻1 , which is a subgroup of 𝐺.
Hence, the union of two subgroups of a group 𝐺 is a
subgroup of 𝐺 iff one is contained in the other.

3) Prove that the intersection of two subgroups

of a group {𝐺,∗} is again a subgroup of {𝐺,∗}.

Proof: Let 𝐻1 and 𝐻2 be two subgroups of a group 𝐺.

𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 is a non empty set since atleast the identity element is

common to both 𝐻1 and 𝐻2 .

Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 , then 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻1 and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻2

b ∈ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 , then b ∈ 𝐻1 and b ∈ 𝐻2

Since 𝐻1 is a subgroup of 𝐺

𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻1 (∵ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1 ) --------- (1)

Since 𝐻2 is a subgroup of 𝐺

𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻2 (∵ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻2 ) --------- (2)

From (1) and (2), we have 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2

(i.e) 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 implies ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 .

Hence, 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 is a subgroup of 𝐺.
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4) Show that group homomorphism preserves identity, inverse
and subgroup.
Solution:
If 𝑓 : 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ is a group homomorphism from {𝐺 , ∗} to {𝐺 ′ , ∆},
then
(i) 𝑓 (𝑒) = 𝑒 ′ , where 𝑒 and 𝑒 ′ are the identity
elements of 𝐺 and 𝐺 ′ respectively.
(ii) For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑓(𝑎−1 ) = [𝑓(𝑎)]−1
(iii) If 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺, then
𝑓 (𝐻 ) = {𝑓(ℎ)/ℎ ∈ 𝐻 } is a subgroup of 𝐺 ′ .
Proof:
(i) f(e ∗ e) = f(e) ∆ f(e)
[By definition of homomorphism]
𝑓 (𝑒 ) = 𝑓 (𝑒 ) ∆ 𝑓 (𝑒 )
(i.e) 𝑓(𝑒) ∆ 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑓 (𝑒)

Therefore, 𝑓 (𝑒) is an idempotent element of {𝐺 ′ , ∆}.

But the only idempotent element of a group is its identity

element. Hence, 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒 ′

(ii) For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐺

Therefore, 𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 ) = 𝑓 (𝑎) ∆ 𝑓(𝑎−1 )
𝑓 (𝑒) = 𝑓(𝑎) ∆ 𝑓(𝑎−1 )
𝑒 ′ = 𝑓 (𝑎) ∆ 𝑓(𝑎−1 )
(i.e) 𝑓 (𝑎) ∆ 𝑓(𝑎−1 ) = 𝑒 ′ --------- (1)
Similarly, 𝑓 (𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑎−1 ) ∆ 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑓 (𝑎−1 ) ∆ 𝑓(𝑎)

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 𝑒 ′ = 𝑓 (𝑎−1 ) ∆ 𝑓(𝑎)

𝑓 (𝑎−1 ) ∆ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑒 ′ ----------(2)

From (1) and (2), we have

𝑓 (𝑎−1 ) is the inverse of 𝑓 (𝑎)

Hence, 𝑓 (𝑎−1 ) = [𝑓 (𝑎)]−1.

(iii) Let ℎ1 , ℎ2 ∈ 𝐻

Then ℎ1 ′ = 𝑓 (ℎ1 ) and ℎ2 ′ = 𝑓 (ℎ2 ) ∈ 𝑓 (𝐻 )

Now ℎ1 ′ ∆ (ℎ2 ′ )−1 = 𝑓 (ℎ1 ) ∆ [𝑓(ℎ2 )]−1

= 𝑓(ℎ1 ) ∆ 𝑓(ℎ2 −1 ) [By (ii)]

= 𝑓(ℎ1 ∗ ℎ2 −1 ) [By homomorphism]

= 𝑓 (ℎ3 ) , where ℎ3 = ℎ1 ∗ ℎ2 −1 ∈ 𝐻

as 𝐻 is a subgroup.

(i.e) ℎ1 ′ ∆ (ℎ2 ′ )−1 ∈ 𝑓 (𝐻 )

Thus ℎ1 ′ , ℎ2 ′ ∈ 𝑓 (𝐻 ) ⟹ ℎ1 ′ ∆ (ℎ2 ′ )−1 ∈ 𝑓 (𝐻 )

Hence, 𝑓 (𝐻 ) is a subgroup of 𝐺 ′ .

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5) State and prove Lagrange’s Theorem.

Statement:

The order of a subgroup of a finite group divides the order of

the group.

Proof: Let (𝐺,∗) be a finite group of order n.

∴ O(𝐺 ) = 𝑛

Let (𝐻,∗) be a subgroup of 𝐺 of order 𝑚

∴ O(𝐻 ) = 𝑚

Step: 1

To Prove: Set of all left cosets of 𝐻 form a partition for 𝐺.

Let 𝑎𝐻 and 𝑏𝐻 be two left cosets of 𝐻.

We shall prove either 𝑎𝐻 = 𝑏𝐻 Or 𝑎𝐻 ∩ 𝑏𝐻 = ∅

Suppose 𝑎𝐻 ∩ 𝑏𝐻 ≠ ∅

Then say 𝑐 ∈ 𝑎𝐻 ∩ 𝑏𝐻

⟹ 𝑐 ∈ 𝑎𝐻 and 𝑐 ∈ 𝑏𝐻

⟹ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ ℎ1 where ℎ1 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺

⟹ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ ℎ1 where ℎ1 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 ------(I)

and 𝑐 = 𝑏 ∗ ℎ2 where ℎ2 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 -----(1)

Post multiplying (I) by ℎ1 −1 , we have

𝑐 ∗ ℎ1 −1 = 𝑎 ∗ ℎ1 ∗ ℎ1 −1
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 𝑐 ∗ ℎ1 −1 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒

𝑐 ∗ ℎ1 −1 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒

𝑐 ∗ ℎ1 −1 = 𝑎 -------(2)

Take an element 𝑥 from 𝑎𝐻

𝑥 ∈ 𝑎𝐻

𝑥 = 𝑎 ∗ ℎ3 where ℎ3 ∈ 𝐻

𝑥 = 𝑐 ∗ ℎ1 −1 ∗ ℎ3 [By (2)]

𝑥 = 𝑏 ∗ ℎ2 ∗ ℎ1 −1 ∗ ℎ3 [By (1)]

𝑥 = 𝑏 ∗ ℎ4 where ℎ4 = ℎ2 ∗ ℎ1 −1 ∗ ℎ3 ∈ 𝐻

𝑥 ∈ 𝑏𝐻

Therefore, 𝑎𝐻 ⊆ 𝑏𝐻 --------(3)

Similarly, 𝑏𝐻 ⊆ 𝑎𝐻 --------(4)

From (3) and (4), we have 𝑎𝐻 = 𝑏𝐻

Moreover, 𝑎𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺

⋃𝑎∈𝐺 𝑎𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺 ------(5)

Since 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎 ∈ 𝑎𝐻

Now 𝑎 ∈ ⋃𝑎∈𝐺 𝑎𝐻

𝐺 ⊆ ⋃𝑎∈𝐺 𝑎𝐻 -------(6)

From (5) and (6), we have

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 ⋃𝑎∈𝐺 𝑎𝐻 = 𝐺

Step: 2

To prove: There is a one to one correspondence between any two

left cosets of H in G

Define 𝑓: 𝐻 → 𝑎𝐻 by 𝑓(ℎ) = 𝑎 ∗ ℎ where ℎ ∈ 𝐻 and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺

Let 𝑓 (ℎ1 ) = 𝑓 (ℎ2 )

𝑎 ∗ ℎ1 = 𝑎 ∗ ℎ2

ℎ1 = ℎ2 [By left cancellation]

Therefore, 𝑓 is one-one.

Let 𝑦 ∈ 𝑎𝐻 ⇒ 𝑦 =𝑎∗ℎ

Take preimage 𝑥 = ℎ in 𝐻.

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (ℎ )

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎 ∗ ℎ

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑦

Therefore, 𝑓 is onto.

Since 𝑓 is both one-one and onto,

𝐻 and 𝑎𝐻 have same number of elements.

⟹ |𝐻| = |𝑎𝐻| = 𝑚.

Step: 3

To prove: 𝑂(𝐻 )|𝑂(𝐺 )

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 Assume that there are 𝑘 disjoint left cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺.

Say, 𝑎1 𝐻, 𝑎2 𝐻, … , 𝑎𝑘 𝐻 are 𝑘 distinct left cosets of 𝐻.

𝑎1 𝐻 ∪ 𝑎2 𝐻 ∪ … ∪ 𝑎𝑘 𝐻 = 𝐺

|𝑎1 𝐻 ∪ 𝑎2 𝐻 ∪ … ∪ 𝑎𝑘 𝐻| = |𝐺|

|𝑎1 𝐻| + |𝑎2 𝐻| + ⋯ + |𝑎𝑘 𝐻| = 𝑛

[Since all 𝑘 left cosets are distinct]

𝑚 + 𝑚 + ⋯ + 𝑚(𝑘 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠) = 𝑛
𝑛
𝑘𝑚 = 𝑛 ⇒ 𝑘=
𝑚

𝑚|𝑛

(i.e) 𝑂(𝐻 )|𝑂(𝐺 )

Hence, the order of a subgroup of a finite group divides the

order of the group.

6) Prove that intersection of two normal subgroups of a group

will be a normal subgroup.
Solution: Let 𝐻1 and 𝐻2 be two normal subgroups of G.

Then 𝐻1 and 𝐻2 are subgroups of G.

First we have to prove that 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 is a subgroup of G. 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 is

a non empty set since the identity element is common to both 𝐻1
and 𝐻2 . Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 then 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻1 and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻2

𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 then 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻2
since 𝐻1 is a subgroup of G.

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 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻1 (since 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1 ) ------(1)
Since 𝐻2 is a subgroup of G.
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻2 (since 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻2 ) ------(2)
From (1) and (2) we have
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2
Hence 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 is a subgroup of G.
Now let 𝑥 be any element of G and ℎ be any element of
𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 .
Then ℎ ∈ 𝐻1 and ℎ ∈ 𝐻2 .
since 𝐻1 is a normal subgroup of G, we have
𝑥 −1 ∗ ℎ ∗ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻1 -------(3)
since 𝐻2 is a normal subgroup of G, we have
𝑥 −1 ∗ ℎ ∗ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻2 -------(4)
From (3) and (4) we have
𝑥 −1 ∗ ℎ ∗ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 .
Hence 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 is a normal subgroup of G.

7) If 𝐺1 and 𝐺2 are groups and 𝑓 : 𝐺1 → 𝐺2 is a homomorphism,

prove that the kernel of 𝑓 is a normal subgroup of 𝐺1 .
Solution:
Given 𝑓 : 𝐺1 → 𝐺2 is a group homomorphism
𝑓 (𝑒 ∗ 𝑒 ) = 𝑓 ( 𝑒 ) ∆ 𝑓(𝑒 )
(By definition of group homomorphism)
(i.e) 𝑓 (𝑒) = 𝑓(𝑒) ∆ 𝑓(𝑒)
𝑓 (𝑒 ) ∆ 𝑓(𝑒 ) = 𝑓 (𝑒 )
𝑓 (𝑒) is an idempotent element of {𝐺2 , ∆}.

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But the only idempotent element of a group is its identity
element.
Therefore, 𝑓 (𝑒) = 𝑒 ′
Since 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒 ′ where 𝑒 and 𝑒 ′ are the identities of 𝐺1 and 𝐺2 .
𝑒 ∈ 𝑘𝑒𝑟(𝑓 )
(i.e) 𝑘𝑒𝑟(𝑓 ) is a non-empty subset of {𝐺1 , ∗}.
Let 𝑎 , 𝑏 ∈ 𝑘𝑒𝑟(𝑓 )
Then 𝑓 (𝑎) = 𝑒 ′ and 𝑓 (𝑏) = 𝑒 ′
(By definition of kernel)
Now 𝑓 (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ) = 𝑓(𝑎) ∆ 𝑓(𝑏−1 )
= 𝑓 (𝑎) ∆ [𝑓(𝑏)]−1
(∵ 𝑓 is a group homomorphism, we have
for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑓 (𝑎−1 ) = [𝑓 (𝑎)]−1 )
𝑓 (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ) = 𝑒 ′ ∆ (𝑒 ′ )−1
𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ) = 𝑒 ′ ∆ 𝑒 ′
= 𝑒′
Therefore, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝑘𝑒𝑟(𝑓 )
Thus when 𝑎 , 𝑏 ∈ 𝑘𝑒𝑟(𝑓 ), we have
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏−1 ∈ 𝑘𝑒𝑟(𝑓 )
Hence, 𝑘𝑒𝑟(𝑓 ) is a subgroup of 𝐺1 .
Now for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾,
𝑓(𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑘 ∗ 𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑎−1 ) ∆ 𝑓(𝑘 ) ∆ 𝑓(𝑎)
= 𝑓 (𝑎−1 ) ∆ 𝑒 ′ ∆ 𝑓(𝑎)
(By definition of kernel)
= [𝑓 (𝑎)]−1 ∆ 𝑓(𝑎)
(∵ 𝑓 is a group homomorphism, we have

20
 for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑓 (𝑎−1 ) = [𝑓 (𝑎)]−1 )
𝑓 (𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑘 ∗ 𝑎) = 𝑒 ′
Therefore, 𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑘 ∗ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐾
(∵ if 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺1 and 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾 implies that 𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑘 ∗ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐾)
Hence, 𝑘𝑒𝑟 𝑓 is a normal subgroup of 𝐺1 .
8) Prove that every subgroup of a cyclic group G is cyclic.
Solution:
Let G be a cyclic group generated by the element a.
Let H be a subgroup of G.
If H = G or {e}
Evidently, H is a cyclic group.
If not, the elements of H are non-zero integral powers of a.
Since, if ar ∈ H, then a−r ∈ H
Let m be the least positive integer such that
am ∈ H --------- (1)
Now let an be any arbitrary element of H.
When n is divided by m, let q be the quotient and r be the
remainder, then n = mq + r where 0 ≤ r < m ---- (2)
Since am ∈ H, (am )q ∈ H
(i.e) amq ∈ H
Then (amq )−1 ∈ H
As H is a subgroup, inverse exist.
a−mq ∈ H
Now an ∈ H, a−mq ∈ H
an−mq ∈ H
ar ∈ H [By (2)]

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 From (1) and (2), we have
r=0
n = mq
an = amq
a n = (a m )q
Thus every element an ∈ H is of the form (am )q
Hence, H is a cyclic subgroup generated by am .

9) Prove that every finite group of order 𝑛 is isomorphic to a

permutation group of order 𝑛.
(OR) State and prove Cayley’s representation theorem.

Proof: Step: 1

Let (𝐺 , ∗) be a group.

∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, define 𝑓𝑎 : 𝐺 → 𝐺 by 𝑓𝑎 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑥

Claim: 𝑓𝑎 is a permutation (i.e) to prove 𝑓𝑎 is one-one and onto.

(i) 𝑓𝑎 is one-one:

Let 𝑓𝑎 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓𝑎 (𝑦)

Then 𝑎 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑦

Pre-multiplying by 𝑎−1 , we have

𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑦

𝑒∗𝑥 =𝑒∗𝑦

𝑥=𝑦 Therefore, 𝑓𝑎 is one-one.

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 (ii) 𝑓𝑎 is onto:

Let 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺

Taking a prei-mage for 𝑥

𝑥 = 𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺

𝑓𝑎 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑥

= 𝑎 ∗ (𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑦)

= (𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 ) ∗ 𝑦

=𝑒∗𝑦

=𝑦

(i.e) 𝑓𝑎 (𝑥 ) = 𝑦 Therefore, 𝑓𝑎 is onto.

Hence, 𝑓𝑎 is a permutation.

Step:2 𝑃 = {𝑓𝑎 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠/𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 }

𝑓𝑎 ∘ 𝑓𝑏 (𝑥) = 𝑓𝑎 (𝑓𝑏 (𝑥))

= 𝑓𝑎 (𝑏 ∗ 𝑥 )

= 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑥 )

= (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ) ∗ 𝑥

𝑓𝑎 ∘ 𝑓𝑏 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓𝑎∗𝑏 (𝑥 )

𝑓𝑎 ∘ 𝑓𝑏 = 𝑓𝑎∗𝑏

Claim: (𝑃 , ∘) is a group.

(i) (𝑃 , ∘) is called a permutation group.

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Let 𝑓𝑎 , 𝑓𝑏 ∈ 𝑃 where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺

Then 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺

So, 𝑓𝑎∗𝑏 ∈ 𝑃

𝑓𝑎 ∘ 𝑓𝑏 = 𝑓𝑎∗𝑏 ∈ 𝑃

So, composition is a binary operation on 𝑃.

(𝑖𝑖) Associative:

Let 𝑓𝑎 , 𝑓𝑏 , 𝑓𝑐 ∈ 𝑃

Then 𝑓𝑎 ∘ (𝑓𝑏 ∘ 𝑓𝑐 ) = 𝑓𝑎 ∘ 𝑓𝑏∗𝑐

= 𝑓𝑎∗(𝑏∗𝑐)

= 𝑓(𝑎∗𝑏)∗𝑐

= 𝑓𝑎∗𝑏 ∘ 𝑓𝑐

= (𝑓𝑎 ∘ 𝑓𝑏 ) ∘ 𝑓𝑐

(i.e) 𝑓𝑎 ∘ (𝑓𝑏 ∘ 𝑓𝑐 ) = (𝑓𝑎 ∘ 𝑓𝑏 ) ∘ 𝑓𝑐

So, Composition operation is associative.

(𝑖𝑖𝑖) Existence of Identity:

𝑓𝑎 ∘ 𝑓𝑒 = 𝑓𝑎∗𝑒 = 𝑓𝑎

𝑓𝑒 ∘ 𝑓𝑎 = 𝑓𝑒∗𝑎 = 𝑓𝑎

𝑓𝑒 ∈ 𝑃 which is the identity element.

(iv) Existence of Inverse:

If 𝑓𝑎 ∈ 𝑃, then 𝑓𝑎−1 ∈ 𝑃
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 Now 𝑓𝑎 ∘ 𝑓𝑎−1 = 𝑓𝑎∗𝑎−1 = 𝑓𝑒 ∈ 𝑃

𝑓𝑎−1 ∘ 𝑓𝑎 = 𝑓𝑎−1 ∗𝑎 = 𝑓𝑒 ∈ 𝑃

So, 𝑓𝑎−1 is the inverse of 𝑓𝑎 .

As 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑓𝑎−1 ∈ 𝑃

Therefore, (𝑃 , ∘) is a group.

Step: 3

Define 𝜑 : (𝐺 , ∗) → (𝑃 , ∘) by 𝜑(𝑎) = 𝑓𝑎

(i) 𝜑 is one-one:

Let 𝜑(𝑎) = 𝜑(𝑏)

𝑓𝑎 = 𝑓𝑏

𝑓𝑎 (𝑥) = 𝑓𝑏 (𝑥 )

𝑎∗𝑥 = 𝑏∗𝑥

𝑎 = 𝑏 [By right cancellation law]

Therefore, 𝜑 is one-one.

(ii) 𝜑 is onto:

Let 𝑦 ∈ 𝑃 for some 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺

Then 𝑦 = 𝑓𝑎

Guess a pre-image 𝑥 = 𝑎

𝜑 (𝑥 ) = 𝜑 (𝑎 )

= 𝑓𝑎
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 =𝑦

Therefore, 𝜑 is onto.

(ii) 𝜑 is homomorphism:

𝜑(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = 𝑓𝑎∗𝑏

= 𝑓𝑎 ∘ 𝑓𝑏

= 𝜑 (𝑎 ) ∘ 𝜑 ( 𝑏 )

(i.e) 𝜑(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = 𝜑(𝑎) ∘ 𝜑(𝑏)

Therefore, 𝜑 is homomorphism.

Since 𝜑 is one-one, onto, homomorphism.

𝜑 is an isomorphism. Hence, (𝐺 , ∗) ≅ (𝑃 , ∘).

26