Guiding

Principles for
Creating Safe,
Inclusive,
Supportive, and
Fair School
Climates

March 2023
U.S. Department of Education

Miguel A. Cardona, Ed.D.

Secretary of Education

Office of Planning, Evaluation and Policy Development

Roberto J. Rodríguez
Assistant Secretary

March 2023

Availability of Alternate Formats

On request, this publication is available in alternate formats, such as Braille or large print. For more
information, please contact the Department’s Alternate Format Center at 202-260-0818 or via e-mail at
[email protected].

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Washington, DC 20202.

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Contents
Guiding Principles for Creating Safe, Inclusive, Supportive, and Fair School Climates ......................... 3
Guiding Principle 1: Foster a sense of belonging through a positive, safe, welcoming, and inclusive
school environment. ................................................................................................................................ 7
Guiding Principle 2: Support the social, emotional, physical, and mental health needs of all students
through evidence-based strategies. ........................................................................................................ 9
Guiding Principle 3: Adequately support high-quality teaching and learning by increasing educator
capacity ................................................................................................................................................... 12
Guiding Principle 4: Recruit and retain a diverse educator workforce ................................................ 14
Guiding Principle 5: Ensure the fair administration of student discipline policies in ways that treat
students with dignity and respect (including through systemwide policy and staff development and
monitoring strategies)............................................................................................................................ 15
U.S. Department of Education Resources to Improve School Climate and Build Educator Capacity . 18

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Guiding Principles for Creating Safe, Inclusive, Supportive, and Fair
School Climates
All students deserve learning environments that are safe, inclusive, supportive, and fair. Schools can
both keep their school community—including students and school staff—safe while ensuring every
student is included, supported, and treated fairly. Consistently applied, evidence-based approaches to
discipline are important tools for creating learning environments that are foundational to the success of
all students.

The Department appreciates school administrators, teachers, and educational staff across the nation
who are working to administer student discipline fairly, and to provide a safe, positive, and
nondiscriminatory educational environment for all students and educators. The Department also
recognizes that harsh or unfair exclusionary discipline practices and frequent disparities in the use of
exclusionary discipline practices for children of color, LGBTQ students, and children with disabilities can
contribute to students feeling unwelcome, unsafe, and unsupported. i When this happens, schools miss
crucial opportunities to support students’ needs and put students on the path toward success. Instead,
schools should provide students with the social, emotional, physical, academic, and mental health
support they need to thrive. To that end, more and more schools serving students in pre-K through
grade 12 are using evidence-based approaches to meet students’ social, emotional, academic, and
mental health needs. This resource, Guiding Principles for Creating Safe, Inclusive, Supportive, and Fair
School Climates, provides guidance on how to maintain safe, inclusive, supportive, and fair learning
environments for students and school staff and includes specific recommendations for evidence-based
practices to give students what they need to learn and grow. ii

This resource identifies five guiding principles and suggests actions schools and school districts can take
to create inclusive, safe, supportive, and fair learning environments. The resource also lists federal
resources to support these efforts. The five guiding principles are:

1. Foster a sense of belonging through a positive, safe, welcoming, and inclusive school
environment;

i
Exclusionary practices include the formal or informal removal, whether on a short-term or long-term basis, of a
student from a class, school, or other educational program or activity for violating a school rule or code of conduct.
Examples can include detentions, in-school suspensions, out-of-school suspensions, suspensions from riding the
school bus, expulsions, disciplinary transfers to alternative schools, and referrals to law enforcement, including
referrals that result in school-related arrests. An in-school suspension is an instance in which a child is temporarily
removed from his or her regular classroom(s) for at least half a day for disciplinary purposes but remains under the
direct supervision of school personnel. Direct supervision means school personnel are physically in the same
location as students under their supervision.
ii
The Department’s guidance on evidence use can be found at
https://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/essa/guidanceuseseinvestment.pdf. The Department’s What Works
Clearinghouse (available at https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/) identifies the tier of evidence that reviewed studies meet,
as applicable. The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) Evidence Based
Practice Resource Center has additional resources that may be helpful (available at
https://www.samhsa.gov/resource-search/ebp).

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 2. Support the social, emotional, physical, and mental health needs of all students through
evidence-based strategies;

3. Adequately support high-quality teaching and learning by increasing educator capacity;

4. Recruit and retain a diverse educator workforce; and

5. Ensure the fair administration of student discipline policies in ways that treat students with
dignity and respect (including through systemwide policy and staff development and monitoring
strategies).

This resource references evidence-based policies, practices, and programs that can help create safe,
inclusive, supportive, and fair learning environments for all students to learn, grow, and become
successful.

The Need for More Effective Approaches

Many schools and districts across the country have taken steps to implement fair student discipline
approaches that keep students safely in learning environments. Yet nationwide data continues to
suggest that some school practices—such as suspensions, expulsions, and the use of corporal
punishment—harm or unnecessarily push students out of school for behavior that does not pose a
threat to others or the student themselves. 1 As shown below, these practices often disproportionately
affect students of color, students from low-income backgrounds, English learners, students with
disabilities, and students who identify as LGBTQ. This is a pattern seen as early as preschool.

Data and research suggest some schools may use unfair discipline policies and practices that lead to
the disproportionate exclusion of certain students from school or the classroom.

For example, during the 2017-18 school year— the most recent school year for which data are available
from the Department’s Civil Rights Data Collection—Black students made up 15 percent of the total pre-
K-12 public school student population yet accounted for 38 percent of all pre-K-12 school expulsions. 2 In
nearly 20 percent of those instances, students received no educational supports during their expulsion –
furthering the risk of students falling behind. Likewise, Black students were more than twice as likely to
receive an in-school suspension and more than three times as likely to receive an out-of-school
suspension compared to all other students. 3 The disproportionate use and overuse of exclusionary
discipline practices for Black students even exists at the preschool level. During the 2017-18 school year,
Black students made up 18 percent of pre-K enrollment but accounted for more than 43 percent of
students receiving one or more out-of-school suspensions. 4

A deeper look into data on race/ethnicity and gender, and race/ethnicity and disability show even larger
disparities. Black girls made up 15 percent of girls enrolled, yet accounted for 44 percent of girls
receiving one or more out-of-school suspensions in public schools. 5 Native American girls made up .5
percent of girls enrolled, yet accounted for 1.4 percent of out-of-school suspensions in public schools. 6
Black students with disabilities were twice as likely to receive one or more in-school suspensions and
four times as likely to receive an out-of-school suspension when compared to their white peers. 7
Additionally, a study of six Oregon school districts found that English learners in middle school and high
school were suspended at higher rates than their non-English learner peers. 8

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Some research has found that LGBTQ+ students report they are also more likely to be disciplined than
their non-LGBTQ+ peers. For example, LGBTQ+ students of color report being suspended at twice the
rate of their non-LGBTQ peers. 9 Similarly, LGBTQ+ youth report being suspended for dress code
violations or school offenses related to their identity expression, likely contributing to the
disproportionate suspensions this group of students’ experiences. 10 Almost all public school dress code
policies contain rules with subjective language, which are at greater risk of being inconsistently enforced
based on LGBTQ+ status as well as race, ethnicity, and disability. 11

While a range of factors contribute to disproportionality in rates of student discipline, research shows
that substantial disparities in disciplinary rates for Black students are not explained by differences in
behavior.

Multiple studies show that differences in discipline rates for Black students generally are not explained
by differences in behavior. 12 Studies also suggest that higher rates of poverty among students of color
do not fully explain racial disparities in discipline. 13 Instead, research suggests that some of the
disparities in student discipline can be attributed to differences in subjective interpretations of
behaviors, despite the absence of significant objective differences in behaviors. 14 For example, Black
students are more likely than their white peers to receive a disciplinary action for offenses that are
subjectively characterized, like “disrespect,” “disruption,” or “defiance.” 15

Unfair student discipline practices can cause students to feel unsafe in learning environments and
result in a negative school climate overall, including a range of poor academic, social, emotional, and
mental health outcomes.

While there may be limited circumstances where classroom or school removals are used to provide
adequate supports and ensure the safety and wellbeing of students and staff, it is important to consider
the impact of exclusionary discipline policies and to ensure they are appropriately and fairly
implemented. The consequences of exclusionary discipline on students are well documented. Most
immediately, a student removed from their class can lose important instructional time which can
negatively impact the student’s academic success and increase the likelihood that the student will
repeat a grade or disenroll from school altogether. For example, during the 2017-18 school year, more
than 2.5 million students missed more than 11 million school days collectively, or 63,000 years of
instruction, due to exclusionary disciplinary actions. 16 Even for students who are otherwise regularly
attending school and passing their classes, a single suspension early in their high school years can lead to
further suspensions, absenteeism, and truancy, failing grades throughout their remaining high school
years, and not finishing high school. 17

In addition, exclusionary practices increase the likelihood that a student becomes involved in the
juvenile legal system. A Texas study that reviewed millions of student records over a six-year span found
that students who have been suspended or expelled are significantly more likely to become involved in
the juvenile legal system during the following school year than students who have not experienced
exclusionary discipline. 18 Additionally, state laws and school discipline policies that require a referral to
law enforcement or the juvenile legal system for minor misconduct further increase a student’s
exposure to the juvenile legal system. 19

The overuse of punitive and exclusionary disciplinary practices can create a negative school climate for
all students and staff by discouraging the development of open and trusting relationships between

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students and school staff. 20 In addition, exclusionary discipline practices, particularly for younger
students, can present a critical challenge for working parents and guardians, especially those from low-
income backgrounds with limited affordable care options who may have to leave work or arrange child
care, often with short notice and the risk of losing employment or wages. 21

A wide body of research shows that suspensions and expulsions can be harmful and ineffective at
reducing challenging behavior. 22 Importantly, suspensions and expulsions do not reduce future rates of
disruptive behavior – students who receive suspensions in early grades are more likely to be suspended
for similar offenses later. This is true even when controlling for a student’s socioeconomic status,
race/ethnicity, disability, and academic achievement. 23

Given the evidence showing the negative short and long-term outcomes associated with exclusionary
discipline, states, districts, schools, and early childhood programs should identify ways to significantly
reduce the unnecessary use of exclusionary discipline and, when used, ensure it is not used in ways that
are unfair to certain groups of students. Research shows that social, emotional, cognitive, and academic
development are interconnected, suggesting that learning environments can be designed in ways that
help students overcome challenges, in turn helping them to grow personally and academically. 24 School
climates that reflect a holistic understanding of student development – in other words, conditions that
are safe, inclusive, supportive, and fair for all students – have been shown to be more effective than
zero tolerance approaches in meeting students’ social, emotional, physical, mental, and academic well-
being and needs. 25

The Department identified these five guiding principles to address the challenges above:

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Guiding Principle 1: Foster a sense of belonging through a positive, safe, welcoming, and
inclusive school environment.

A positive school climate includes policies and practices that foster school safety for all; promote a
supportive academic, disciplinary, and physical environment; and encourage and maintain respectful,
trusting, and caring relationships throughout the school community. Research shows that a positive
school climate is associated with better academic outcomes (e.g., test scores and graduation rates),
greater student engagement, improved risk prevention and health outcomes, and increased teacher
retention. 26 States, districts, and schools can work to proactively foster students’ sense of belonging by
taking steps, including but not limited to:

• Increasing efforts to promote a positive school climate. A positive school climate includes
strong relationships among staff, students, and families. 27 For example, with professional
development and coaching, educators can work to build strong relationships with students by
expressing care, challenging growth, providing support, sharing power, and inspiring students to
be successful. 28 This includes creating safe environments where students feel like they belong,
have positive peer relationships, and are receiving equitable opportunities and supports to meet
high expectations (e.g., instruction that includes and makes connections to students’ lived
experiences and identities). Evidence suggests that the overuse of exclusionary practices is
associated with a poor school climate, which can ultimately foster distrust and lead to poorer
educational outcomes. 29 In contrast, strong student-teacher relationships are associated with
academic motivation, a sense of belonging, and achievement. 30
• Providing students equitable access to mental health services that are welcoming and
inclusive with regard to race, ethnicity, culture, language, sexual orientation, gender identity,
socioeconomic status, disability, and religion. This may be accomplished by increasing the
number and diversity of school counselors, mental health professionals, social workers,
psychologists, nurses, and other integrated support staff throughout the school. 31 Students of
color are less likely than white students to report that they feel they can reach out to a teacher
or counselor for mental health support. 32 Schools should consider providing adequate support
and training for educators and mental health professionals to provide safe and open
environments for all students to feel connected and empowered to seek additional support.
• Providing rigorous, culturally relevant, and welcoming learning environments. Research
suggests that raising the bar to provide academically rigorous and challenging learning
environments with clear and consistently high expectations is associated with mutual respect
between students and educators. 33 When educators create rigorous learning environments with
clearly-communicated high expectations, students believe in their abilities and have more
positive attitudes towards school. 34 Additionally, research suggests that brain development
flourishes when students feel emotionally and physically safe, feel respected by adults, and are
challenged in their learning. 35 To create more rigorous learning environments where students
feel challenged, respected, and connected, educators may draw and build upon students’ prior
knowledge, experience and interests to make connections between the curriculum and the
community. For example, schools can use project-based learning or service learning 36 to give
students the opportunity to learn about issues they care about (e.g., environmental challenges,
homelessness, civic engagement or community service). Research suggests culturally relevant

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 education can be positively associated with higher levels of students’ social, emotional, and
academic wellbeing and has been found to encourage more trusting relationships with teachers,
improved academic outcomes, stronger community ties, and a deeper sense of belonging in
school. 37 Schools can foster a positive environment where each student is welcomed by
creating authentic peer and educator engagement with respect for cultures represented within
school communities.
• Ending the practice of corporal punishment in schools. Recent research has confirmed prior
studies demonstrating that corporal punishment is ineffective and harmful. 38 Corporal
punishment harms children and youth physically, emotionally, psychologically, behaviorally, and
academically. 39 Not only can corporal punishment lead to serious physical pain and injury, 40 but
it is also associated with higher rates of mental health problems; 41 higher rates of aggression,
antisocial behavior, and other externalizing problems; 42 and lower cognitive ability and
academic achievement. 43 Instead, a coordinated system of whole school evidence-based
intervention practices has been found to be more effective. This includes strategies such as the
Good Behavior Game, 44 trauma-informed practices, 45 social and emotional wellbeing, 46
restorative practices, 47 and positive behavioral interventions and supports, 48 that are more
effective than corporal punishment or exclusionary discipline in addressing students’ individual
needs and improving school climate and safety.

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Guiding Principle 2: Support the social, emotional, physical, and mental health needs of
all students through evidence-based strategies.

Safe, inclusive, supportive, and fair learning environments are highly predictive of students’ well-being
and academic success. 49 Students thrive when school systems work proactively to improve the school
environment; evidence shows these actions can reduce health and safety threats and increase academic
success. 50 To reduce the risk of stress, trauma, and other adverse experiences, schools can increase
protective factors like making investments in positive relationships and improving students’ connection
to school.

Steps that states, districts, and schools can take to proactively improve learning environments for
students include, but are not limited to:

• Establishing a Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) Framework for students. MTSS is an

evidence-based framework for organizing a continuum of practices to support each student’s
educational, social, emotional, and behavioral needs that integrates academic and behavioral
supports and interventions. 51 Universal or Tier 1 supports are designed to serve as a foundation
in which educators build a proactive, positive, supportive, and connected school community.
Tier 2 and 3 targeted supports provide both additional instruction and individualization to
increase the likelihood of student success. MTSS can also be applied to mental health by
implementing policies and interventions that promote student wellbeing, prevent behaviors
that interfere with class time, and provide an opportunity for early identification and support. 52
The Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports provides resources and
implementation strategies. Some steps to consider when developing effective practices at the
district or school-level include:

1. Carefully reviewing disaggregated (e.g., race, ethnicity, gender identity, disability, and
income) discipline data (e.g., suspensions, expulsions, corporal punishment, referrals to law
enforcement tickets) and other data that may be used for early intervention (e.g.,
attendance, engagement, academic performance, and other on-track indicators) to better
understand and address trends and patterns among all students and underserved
populations.
2. Identifying and implementing evidence-based practices (e.g., restorative practices,
Blueprints for Healthy Youth Development, and positive behavioral interventions and
supports) to address the needs of students, promote positive behavior, build on student
assets, and develop social emotional skills and well-being. Schools should regularly review
data to understand the effectiveness of evidence-based interventions.
3. Providing ongoing professional development and technical assistance to staff to ensure
implementation fidelity. Schools can also leverage a problem-solving framework, as
described below, to build a continuum of supports to match the needs of students.

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 Figure 1. MTSS Continuum of Interventions and Supports

• Using data to identify evidence-based supports and then building systemic supports to ensure
successful and sustainable implementation. For example, district and school MTSS leadership
teams should include a cross-representation of skills and roles, such as administrators, behavior
specialists, school psychologists, counselors, social workers, nurses, special education teachers,
and teacher leaders. The team should then systemically review student data and make decisions
about allocating resources and filling gaps in staff skill sets by planning appropriate professional
development and ongoing technical assistance.
• Using early intervention strategies. Early interventions conducted by mental health staff are
associated with positive academic and developmental outcomes, such as fewer disciplinary
incidents, increased student engagement with school, and elevated graduation rates. 53
Individual student data patterns should be routinely examined through existing data sources
(e.g., discipline, attendance, academic outcomes) or with a screener to identify students who
may need additional supports.
• Investing in integrated student supports (ISS). Schools can improve student well-being by
systemically supporting academic and non-academic needs of students. Implementing ISS
should include needs assessments, student support coordination, community partnerships, use
of data for continuous evaluation and improvement, and full integration into existing school
systems and structures.

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• Implementing high-quality restorative practices. Restorative practices are both a prevention
and intervention strategy about building community, giving space to learn and correct mistakes,
and addressing root causes through listening, healing, and accountability. 54 Research has found
that high-quality restorative practices can be associated with positive outcomes, including
improved social relationships and reductions in student misbehavior. 55 Schools may consider
hiring one person to be responsible for implementing high-quality restorative practices, such as
peer mediation and restorative conversations, circles, and conferences.
• Investing in full-service community schools. While every community school is different, the four
pillars of community schools – integrated student supports; expanded learning time and
opportunities; family and community engagement; and collaborative leadership and practice –
are associated with positive academic and non-academic outcomes, including reduced
disciplinary incidents, reduced absenteeism, and increased reports of positive school climates. 56

• Implement the Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child (WSCC) model. This model is
designed to meet the need for greater emphasis on both the psychosocial and physical
environment as well as the increasing roles that community agencies and families play in
improving childhood health behaviors and development. The WSCC model also addresses the
need to engage students as active participants in their learning and mental and physical health.
The WSCC model is student-centered and emphasizes the role of the community in supporting
the school, the connections between health and academic achievement and the importance of
evidence-based school policies and practices. The WSCC model has 10 components: physical
education and physical activity; nutrition environment and services; health education; social and
emotional climate; physical environment; health services; counseling, psychological and social
services; employee wellness, community involvement; and family engagement.

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Guiding Principle 3: Adequately support high-quality teaching and learning by increasing
educator capacity.
Students benefit from identifying an adult who they can trust and go to for support in school. 57
Providing educators with training, coaching, and support can help them effectively manage class
behavior, ensure students are engaged, and help them to build trusting relationships with students and
their families.

Steps that states, districts, and schools can take to proactively support high-quality teaching and
learning include, but are not limited to:

• Requiring pre-service and ongoing professional development, learning, and mentoring

opportunities. A significant number of teacher preparation programs do not ensure that future
educators learn the essential classroom management strategies supported by strong research, 58
which can leave teachers feeling unprepared to support the behavioral needs of students.
Insufficient support and training on classroom management is associated with a range of
negative outcomes for students and educators. 59 To address this, state educational agencies
(SEAs) can work with colleges and universities to ensure pre-service teachers are receiving
adequate training before they enter the classroom. Additionally, schools, school districts, and
SEAs can provide continuous professional learning opportunities about maintaining positive
class environments, limiting bias, improving trauma-informed approaches, and increasing
positive behavior. Opportunities for all educators to engage in learning, including through pre-
service and ongoing mentoring, can improve teacher effectiveness and student achievement. 60
• Helping educators understand child and youth development and how it relates to student
behavior and discipline. Educators should also learn how to identify student behaviors that are
developmentally appropriate versus concerning and learn how to give young students the
opportunity to learn, grow, and express themselves in productive ways. Educators should also
learn how to monitor progress toward meeting grade-level standards.
• Adopting policies and practices that focus on developing, repairing, and sustaining
relationships (e.g., restorative practices). Schools can successfully implement restorative
practices with high-quality, well-trained support staff and schoolwide training on these
practices.
• Ensuring there is sufficient in-school access to diverse and certified mental health staff (e.g.,
certified psychologists, counselors, social workers, and behavior specialists). Schools should
consider providing training in culturally competent, trauma-informed, and evidence-based
interventions for mental health professionals. For example, to provide school-based mental
health professionals with the tools they need to address the growing mental health crisis among
young people, schools can also provide staff gatekeeper training, or another training to support
students at risk of self-harm.
• Requiring detailed documentation for all disciplinary actions, including class and school
removals. The documentation for all disciplinary actions should contain a detailed description of
the student conduct, all actions taken by school staff to address the conduct and, if applicable,
the disciplinary actions taken (e.g., documenting corrective actions taken including exclusionary
and other methods).

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• Revising reporting policies to provide clear definitions of infractions and possible
consequences that are well-aligned with the behavior at issue to ensure discipline is
consistent, objective, and appropriate.

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Guiding Principle 4: Recruit and retain a diverse educator workforce
All students can benefit from a diverse teacher workforce. Additional research suggests that teachers
from diverse backgrounds are more likely to hold beliefs and use classroom practices associated with
improved outcomes for all students, including students of color. 61 For example, some studies have
shown that Black students are more likely to graduate, less likely to face exclusionary discipline, and
more likely to be engaged in school if taught by an educator who is also Black. 62 Steps that schools and
districts can take toward elevating the teaching profession by recruiting and retaining diverse educators
include, but are not limited to:

• Expand the diversity of the educator workforce and the use of culturally sustaining practices.
Some research shows that teachers of color build strong relationships with students of color,
connect with their lived experiences, and view those experiences as assets, which can ultimately
reduce the need for exclusionary discipline. 63
• Expand the diversity of school-based mental health professionals. Hiring and retaining diverse
mental health professionals can improve relatability and accessibility and reduce stigma. 64
Adults charged with meeting the mental health needs of students should be adequately trained,
including in the use of trauma-informed services, and supported to meet the specific social,
emotional, and mental health needs of the students with whom they interact.

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Guiding Principle 5: Ensure the fair administration of student discipline policies in ways
that treat students with dignity and respect (including through systemwide policy and
staff development and monitoring strategies).

By expanding policies to include positive actions and high expectations, along with requiring the use of a
continuum of supports to increase student success, states and districts can shift the focus of their
disciplinary practices to promote a positive and supportive school environment focused on supporting
students and keeping them in the classroom learning as much as possible. Schools should objectively
define disciplinary infractions to reduce subjectivity and ensure that consequences are administered
consistently and fairly without regard to race or other characteristics, such as sex or disability.

However, educators should also view fairness in implementation, not simply through a set of infractions
and prescribed set of consequences, but rather through practices that ensure each student’s needs are
proactively met within the educational environment. A proactive focus on student needs and strengths
may increase the likelihood of fair and equitable outcomes in the administration of school discipline.

Steps that states, districts, and schools can take to create and implement fair discipline policies and
practices include, but are not limited to:

• Co-creating policies with educators, parents, caregivers, and community members through
both formal (e.g., high-quality school climate surveys) and informal (e.g., forums, feedback
boxes) methods. Research has found that information-sharing to improve parent and family
knowledge, making families feel welcome and a part of school communities, and building
infrastructure, systems, and educator capacity to improve family engagement is associated with
improved social, emotional, and academic outcomes. 65 Disciplinary and restorative actions, and
decisions related to those actions, should include families and students to help ensure all
involved understand why students are facing discipline and how disciplinary action will lead to
growth and improvement.
• Considering if a discipline strategy appropriately meets the needs and developmental stage of
each student. This may include reviewing discipline policies and practices to ensure they are
developmentally appropriate, especially for young learners (e.g., some states have limited the
use of exclusionary discipline for young learners). 66 This is important because there are large
differences in development and experiences for students. Early education programs should
dedicate time to evaluating the developmental appropriateness of behavioral expectations and
consequences. Aligning discipline to appropriate grade-level standards can support high-quality
implementation. For example, what may be appropriate for elementary school students looks
different for high school students.
• Ensuring student discipline policies and procedures are clear and accessible. Students, families,
and community members should have clear and detailed information about what is in discipline
policies and procedures, where they can find them, and how the policies and procedures will be
implemented. Likewise, to ensure fair and consistent application and community buy-in, the
school community should understand rules, expectations, and potential disciplinary actions.
• Developing consistent, two-way communication with families, before a problem arises, to help
build a strong partnership between students’ lives at home and school. 67 Communication should

15
 be in multiple languages and accessible using a range of communication methods (e.g., phone,
email, and text messages) to ensure every family has relevant information.68
• Evaluating the impact of policies and practices on different groups of students. Educators, in
collaboration with students and their families, where appropriate, should regularly review state
and district discipline policies and procedures (e.g., codes of conduct, school rules, and dress
and grooming codes) and analyze discipline data disaggregated by race, ethnicity, gender
identity, and disability status, among other characteristics, to ensure that policies and
procedures do not unfairly disadvantage a group of students. Such ongoing reviews and
analyses should drive changes in policies and procedures. An example of such a change could be
eliminating subjective and unclear language that results in disproportionate discipline of certain
students.
• Committing to supporting students, educators, and families through systemic change.
Systemic change can be achieved through districtwide or schoolwide implementation of an
evidence-based framework, like Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS). Schools
that implement PBIS with fidelity often see reduced exclusionary discipline practices and
improved school climate. 69 Effective implementation may also include the following strategies:
collecting, using, and reporting disaggregated discipline data; using that data to adjust and
improve implementation; investing in systems to support sustained implementation;
implementing a framework that is preventative, multi-tiered, and culturally responsive; using
high-quality and engaging instruction; developing equitable discipline policies; using
professional development strategies to limit bias; and meaningfully engaging community and
families. 70 Schools effectively using PBIS often use evidence-based practices to support student
needs, engage families and community members to co-create culturally responsive practices,
regularly evaluate effectiveness of practices using data, rely on teams of experts to guide
practices, and develop content expertise through coaching and ongoing professional
development.
• Establishing clear roles for law enforcement and school security that ensure they comply with
Federal civil rights laws and are not involved in student discipline incidents that can otherwise
be handled by trained educators and certified mental health professionals.
Across the country, there is wide variation in the roles of school-based police. Schools should
implement high-quality practices in the training and use of SROs in schools, consistent with the
Guiding Principles for SROs published by the U.S. Department of Justice. The Department
encourages school officials to make decisions regarding whether to place school-based police
(e.g., law enforcement, security, or school resource officers and others with arresting powers) in
schools only after seeking and receiving significant community input. If schools and school
districts ultimately choose to use school-based officers, they must ensure that these police or
other security personnel, like all employees and contractors, comply with Federal civil rights
laws that prohibit discrimination on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, or disabilities. 71
They should also ensure police officers and security personnel interact with students and the
school community in ways that create a safe, inclusive, supportive, and fair school climate. This
may include adopting memorandums of understanding and policies that establish clear roles so
that law enforcement and security are not involved in situations that do not merit their
intervention, such as routine student discipline. In addition, schools should, consistent with the
Guiding Principles for SROs published by the U.S. Department of Justice:

16
 o conduct a comprehensive vetting process that includes an interview panel that selects
candidates from a diverse pool of high-quality security or law enforcement personnel
who have volunteered for the position and who have experience working with children
and youth, as well as training outlined below;
o provide training and ongoing professional development on strategies such as MTSS, de-
escalation, alternatives to arrest, conflict resolution, trauma-informed and restorative
practices, proper referrals to educators and mental health professionals, child and
adolescent development, emergency response, and federal civil rights laws;
o Establish clear roles for law enforcement so that they do not respond to situations that
may not merit law enforcement intervention, such as prohibiting involvement in school
disciplinary incidents that could otherwise be handled by school staff. Law enforcement
should only be engaged in serious threats to school safety or serious criminal behavior
that cannot be safely addressed through the school discipline process or as required by
law. Doing so not only enhances public safety, but also public trust;
o Conduct community and family engagement, including by soliciting feedback on how to
increase safety, and meaningfully responding to that feedback; and implement
accountability measures and data-driven annual evaluations of the use of security or law
enforcement (See also Guiding Principles for SROs), including by collecting, maintaining,
and analyzing data and reporting disaggregated data including by a student’s race,
ethnicity, age, sex, type of offense, English language learner status, and disability,
regarding student-officer interactions, including referrals of students, arrests, citations,
and use of force, to ensure nondiscrimination based on disability, race, color, national
origin, gender, or another protective class.

Schools that choose to include or expand the presence of school police should consider developing clear
guidelines that address the above considerations, such as memoranda of understanding. Schools should
also consider providing training for school-based police and educators on students’ civil rights, on
distinguishing behavior that can properly be handled by educators from conduct that cannot be safely
addressed by the school’s disciplinary process, and on developmentally appropriate strategies for
building trusting relationships with students and families.

17
U.S. Department of Education Resources to Improve School Climate and Build Educator
Capacity

Federal investments and technical assistance centers are available to support states, districts, and
schools as they work to create safe, inclusive, supportive, and fair school climates. The following
programs may be used to invest in one or more evidence-based practices in the guiding principles above.

The Title IV, Part A, Student Support and Academic Enrichment Program provides funding via a formula
to SEAs and local educational agencies (LEAs) to improve students’ academic achievement by increasing
the capacity of states, districts, schools, and local communities to provide all students with access to a
well-rounded education; improve school conditions for student learning; and improve the use of
technology in order to improve the academic achievement and digital literacy of all students.

The Title IV, Part B, Nita M. Lowey 21st Century Community Learning Centers program provides funds
via a formula to states, which in turn competitively award grants for community learning centers that
provide academic enrichment opportunities during non-school hours for children, particularly students
who attend high-poverty and low-performing schools. The program helps students meet state standards
in core academic subjects, such as reading and math; offers students a broad array of enrichment
activities that can complement their regular academic programs; and offers literacy and other
educational services to the families of participating children.

The Title I, Part D, Prevention and Intervention Programs for Children and Youth Who Are Neglected,
Delinquent, or At-Risk support improvements for educational services for children and youth in state,
Tribal, and local institutions who are neglected or delinquent. The program also supports youth who are
at risk of not finishing high school, who have dropped out of high school, and who are returning from
correctional facilities or institutions for neglected or delinquent children and youth.
The Title II, Part A, Supporting Effective Instruction State Grants provides annual formula funds to SEAs
and LEAs that may be used to address inequities in access to effective teachers for underserved
students, provide professional development, reduce class sizes, improve teacher recruitment and
preparation, increase the diversity of the teacher workforce, and a wide range of other educator related
uses. Title II funds can specifically be used to implement MTSS and build educator capacity in this area.
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Part B requires SEAs and LEAs to meet the
functional, including behavioral, needs of eligible children with disabilities as part of their obligation to
provide a free appropriate public education. This includes considering the use of positive behavioral
interventions and supports, and other strategies, to address behavior that impedes the child’s learning
or that of others. Thus, IDEA Part B funds can be used to provide support and direct services related to
addressing the behavior of children with disabilities, including providing technical assistance and
professional development and training in this area.
The Education Innovation and Research (EIR) program provides funding to create, develop, implement,
replicate, or take to scale entrepreneurial, evidence-based, field-initiated innovations to improve
student achievement and attainment for high-need students and rigorously evaluate such innovations.
The Mental Health Service Professional Demonstration Grant program provides competitive grants to
support and demonstrate innovative partnerships to train school-based mental health services providers
for employment in schools and LEAs.

18
The School Based Mental Health program provides competitive grants to states and districts to increase
the number of qualified (i.e., licensed, certified, or credentialed) mental health services providers
providing school-based mental health services to students in districts with demonstrated need.
The Project Prevent Grant program provides grants to districts to increase their capacity to implement
community and school-based strategies to help prevent community violence and mitigate the impacts of
exposure to community violence. Project Prevent grant funds allow districts to increase their capacity to
identify, assess, and serve students exposed to community violence by helping LEAs to (1) offer affected
students mental health services; (2) support conflict management programs; and (3) implement other
community and school-based strategies to help prevent community violence and to mitigate the impacts
of exposure to community violence.
The Full-Service Community Schools program provides support for the planning, implementation, and
operation of full-service community schools that improve the coordination, integration, accessibility,
and effectiveness of services for children and families, particularly for children attending high-poverty
schools, including high-poverty rural schools.
The Promise Neighborhoods program supports efforts to significantly improve the academic and
developmental outcomes of underserved students including ensuring school readiness, high school
graduation, and access to a community-based continuum of high-quality services.

Technical Assistance Centers

The National Center on Safe and Supportive Learning Environments (NCSSLE) offers information and
technical assistance to states, districts, schools, intuitions of higher learning, and communities focused
on improving school climate and conditions for learning. NCSSLE provides resources and technical
assistance on high-quality measurement tools and has compiled a School Climate Improvement
Resource Package for district and school leaders, teachers, school staff, and other members of the
school community. For more information, visit: https://safesupportivelearning.ed.gov/.

The Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports works to improve the capacity of states,
districts, and schools to establish, scale-up, and sustain the PBIS framework. For more information, visit:
https://www.pbis.org/.

The National Center for Pyramid Model Innovations (NCPMI) works to improve and support the
capacity of state systems and local programs to implement an early childhood MTSS to improve the
social, emotional, and behavioral outcomes of young children with, and at risk for, developmental
disabilities or delays. For more information, visit: https://challengingbehavior.org/.

The Title IV-A Center provides states with support for implementing Title IV, Part A Student Support and
Academic Enrichment (SSAE) program. The center develops high quality resources, information, and
training aligned with well-rounded education to improve the safety and health of students. For more
information, visit: https://t4pacenter.ed.gov/.

The National Center to Improve Social and Emotional Learning and School Safety (CISELSS) works to
expand the knowledge and capacity of state and local education agencies (SEAs, LEAs) to integrate
evidence-based social and emotional and school safety programs and practices with academic learning.
For more information, visit: https://selcenter.wested.org/.

19
Additional Federal Programs:

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Healthy Schools program plays a unique role in
bringing together the education and public health sectors. The Healthy Schools program supports
evidence-based school policies, practices, and programs for physical activity, healthy eating, managing
chronic conditions, health services, and supportive school environments. For more information, visit:
https://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/.

The National Center for School Mental Health University of Maryland, Funded by HRSA – Maternal
Child Health Bureau. The mission of the NCSMH is to strengthen policies and programs in school mental
health to improve learning and promote success for youth and provides resources and webinars for
school communities. https://www.schoolmentalhealth.org/.

Project AWARE (Advancing Wellness and Resiliency in Education) program builds or expands the
capacity of State Educational Agencies (SEA), in partnership with State Mental Health Agencies (SMHAs)
overseeing school-aged youth. Project AWARE provides training for school personnel and other adults
who interact with school-aged youth to detect and respond to mental health challenges, and connects
school-aged youth, who may present with behavioral health challenges and their families to needed
services. For more information, visit: https://www.samhsa.gov/school-campus-health/project-aware.

Legal Disclaimer

For the reader’s convenience, this document contains examples and information from outside
organizations. Inclusion does not constitute an endorsement by the U.S. Department of Education of any
outside organization, or the- products or services offered, or views expressed. Other than statutory and
regulatory requirements included in the document, the contents of this guidance do not have the force
and effect of law and are not meant to bind the public in any way. This document is intended to provide
clarity to the public regarding best policies, practices, and existing requirements under the law or agency
policies.

20
ENDNOTES:

1
U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights. (2021). An overview of exclusionary discipline practices in
public schools for the 2017-18 school year. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED615866
2
U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights, Civil Rights Data Collection. (n.d.). 2017-18 State and
National Estimations. https://ocrdata.ed.gov/estimations/2017-2018.
3
U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights, Civil Rights Data Collection. (July 2021). Discipline Practices in
Preschool, 2017-2018. https://ocrdata.ed.gov/assets/downloads/crdc-DOE-Discipline-Practices-in-Preschool-
part1.pdf; U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights, Civil Rights Data Collection. (June 2021). An
Overview of Exclusionary Discipline Practices in Public Schools for the 2017-18 School Year.
https://ocrdata.ed.gov/assets/downloads/crdc-exclusionary-school-discipline.pdf
4
U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights, Civil Rights Data Collection. (July 2021). Discipline Practices in
Preschool, 2017-2018. https://ocrdata.ed.gov/assets/downloads/crdc-DOE-Discipline-Practices-in-Preschool-
part1.pdf; U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights, Civil Rights Data Collection. (June 2021). An
Overview of Exclusionary Discipline Practices in Public Schools for the 2017-18 School Year.
https://ocrdata.ed.gov/assets/downloads/crdc-exclusionary-school-discipline.pdf
5
U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights, Civil Rights Data Collection. (n.d.). 2017-18 State and
National Estimations. https://ocrdata.ed.gov/estimations/2017-2018.
6
U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights, Civil Rights Data Collection. (n.d.). 2017-18 State and
National Estimations. https://ocrdata.ed.gov/estimations/2017-2018.
7
U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights, Civil Rights Data Collection. (n.d.). 2017-18 State and
National Estimations. https://ocrdata.ed.gov/estimations/2017-2018.
8
Burke, A. (2015). Suspension, Expulsion, and Achievement of English Learner Students in Six Oregon Districts. REL
2015-094. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation
and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Northwest.
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED558158.pdf
9
GLSEN. (2016). Educational Exclusion: Drop Out, Push Out, and the School-to-Prison Pipeline among LGBTQ Youth.
https://www.glsen.org/sites/default/files/2019-11/Educational_Exclusion_2013.pdf
10
GLSEN. (2016). Educational Exclusion: Drop Out, Push Out, and the School-to-Prison Pipeline among LGBTQ
Youth. https://www.glsen.org/sites/default/files/2019-11/Educational_Exclusion_2013.pdf
11
Government Accountability Office. (Oct. 2022). Department of Education Should Provide Information on Equity
and Safety in School Dress Codes. (GAO-23-105348). https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-23-105348.pdf (93% of
public schools contain rules with subjective language, which researchers say may be disproportionately applied to
vulnerable student groups, including LGBTQI+ students, Black students, and students with disabilities); U.S.
Commission on Civil Rights. (July 2019). Beyond Suspensions: Examining School Discipline Policies and Connections
to the School-to-Prison Pipeline for Students of Color with Disabilities. https://www.usccr.gov/files/pubs/2019/07-
23-Beyond-Suspensions.pdf (discussing risks of relying on subjective standards in school discipline).
12
Staats, C. (2014). Implicit racial bias and school discipline disparities. Exploring the connection. Kirwan Institute.
https://kirwaninstitute.osu.edu/sites/default/files/pdf/ki-ib-argument-piece03.pdf; Skiba, R. J., & Williams, N. T.
(2014). Are Black kids worse? Myths and facts about racial differences in behavior. The Equity Project at Indiana
University, 1-8. https://indrc.indiana.edu/tools-resources/pdf-
disciplineseries/african_american_differential_behavior_031214.pdf ; Welsh, R. O., & Little, S. (2018). The school
discipline dilemma: A comprehensive review of disparities and alternative approaches. Review of Educational
Research, 88(5), 752-794. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654318791582
13
Fabelo, T., et al. (July 2011). Breaking Schools’ Rules: A Statewide Study of How School Discipline Relates to
Students’ Success and Juvenile Justice Involvement. Council of State Governments Justice Center.
https://csgjusticecenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Breaking_Schools_Rules_Report_Final.pdf; Skiba, R.J.,
et al. (Aug. 2014). Parsing Disciplinary Disproportionality: Contributions of Infraction, Student, and School
Characteristics to Out-of-School Suspension and Expulsion. American Education Research Journal, 51(4), 660-61.
https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831214541670 ; Welsh, R.O., & Little, S. (Oct. 2018). The School Discipline Dilemma:

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A Comprehensive Review of Disparities and Alternative Approaches. Review of Education Research, 88(5), 752,
756-72. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654318791582
14
Quintana, S. M., & Mahgoub, L. (2016). Ethnic and racial disparities in education: Psychology's role in
understanding and reducing disparities. Theory Into Practice, 55(2), 94-103.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2016.1148985
15
Fabelo, T., et al. (July 2011). Breaking Schools’ Rules: A Statewide Study of How School Discipline Relates to
Students’ Success and Juvenile Justice Involvement. Council of State Governments Justice Center.
https://csgjusticecenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Breaking_Schools_Rules_Report_Final.pdf; Baker, T. L.
(2019). Reframing the connections between deficit thinking, microaggressions, and teacher perceptions of
defiance. Journal of Negro Education, 88(2), 103-113. https://doi.org/10.7709/jnegroeducation.88.2.0103; Blake, J.
J., et al. (2011). Unmasking the inequitable discipline experiences of urban Black girls: Implications for urban
educational stakeholders. The Urban Review, 43(1), 90-106. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-009-0148-8; U.S.
Department of Education Office for Civil Rights. (Aug. 16, 2022). Letter to Elvin Momon, Superintendent, Victor
Valley Union High School District.
https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/investigations/more/09145003-a.pdf (finding that the district
discriminated based on race in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Title VI) and its implementing
regulations by disciplining Black students more frequently and more harshly than similarly situated white students.
OCR identified a pattern of disparate disciplinary actions across types of discipline, schools, and grade levels that
imposed greater harms – including in significant lost learning time – on Black students than their white peers).
16
Losen, D. & Whitaker, A.. (2018). 11 Million Days Lost: Race, Safety, and Discipline at U.S. Public Schools.
https://www.aclu.org/sites/default/files/field_document/final_11-million-days_ucla_aclu.pdf; U.S. Department of
Education Office for Civil Rights, Civil Rights Data Collection. (n.d.). 2017-18 State and National Estimations.
https://ocrdata.ed.gov/estimations/2017-2018.
17
Balfanz, R., Brynes, V., & Fox, J. (2014). Sent home and put off-track: The antecedents, disproportionalities, and
consequences of being suspended in the ninth grade. Journal of Applied Research on Children: Informing Policy for
Children at Risk, 5(2), 11-14. http://digitalcommons.library.tmc.edu/childrenatrisk/vol5/iss2/13
18
Fabelo, T., et al. (July 2011). Breaking Schools’ Rules: A Statewide Study of How School Discipline Relates to
Students’ Success and Juvenile Justice Involvement. Council of State Governments Justice Center.
https://csgjusticecenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Breaking_Schools_Rules_Report_Final.pdf;
19
Bacher-Hicks, A., Billings, S. B., & Deming, D. J. (2019). The school to prison pipeline: Long-run impacts of school
suspensions on adult crime (No. w26257). National Bureau of Economic Research.
http://www.nber.org/papers/w26257
20
Thapa, A., et al. (2013). A review of school climate research. Review of Educational Research, 83(3), 357-385.
https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654313483907
21
Bell, C. (2021). Suspended: Punishment, violence, and the failure of school safety. JHU Press.
22
Nese, R. N., et al. (2021). Moving away from disproportionate exclusionary discipline: Developing and utilizing a
continuum of preventative and instructional supports. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children
and Youth, 65(4), 301-311. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2021.1937019 ; Zeng, S., et al. (2019). Adverse
childhood experiences and preschool suspension expulsion: A population study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 97,
104149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104149
23
Skiba, R. J., Arredondo, M. I., & Williams, N. T. (2014). More than a metaphor: The contribution of exclusionary
discipline to a school-to-prison pipeline. Equity & Excellence in Education, 47(4), 546-564.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10665684.2014.958965
24
Osher, D., et al. (2017). Science of Learning and Development: A Synthesis. American Institutes for Research.
https://www.air.org/sites/default/files/downloads/report/Science-of-Learning-and-Development-Synthesis-Osher-
January-2017.pdf
25
Zero Tolerance Policies and Practices require students who break certain school rules to face mandatory
penalties, which may include suspensions, expulsions and referral to law enforcement. Boccanfuso, C., & Kuhfeld,
M. (2011). Multiple Responses, Promising Results: Evidenced-Based Nonpunitive Alternatives to Zero Tolerance.

22
Child Trends. https://www.childtrends.org/publications/multiple-responses-promising-results-evidence-based-
nonpunitive-alternatives-to-zero-tolerance
26
Berkowitz, R., et al. (2017). A research synthesis of the associations between socioeconomic background,
inequality, school climate, and academic achievement. Review of Educational Research, 87(2), 425-469.
http://doi.org/10.3102/0034654316669821
27
Mapp, K. L., & Kuttner, P. J. (2013). Partners in Education: A Dual Capacity-Building Framework for Family-School
Partnerships. Southwest Educational Development Laboratory. https://www2.ed.gov/documents/family-
community/partners-education.pdf
28
Roehlkepartain, E. C., et al. (2017). Relationships first: Creating connections that help young people thrive. Search
Institute. https://www.search-institute.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/2017-Relationships-First-final.pdf
29
Jones, E. P., et al. (2018). Disciplined and Disconnected: How Students Experience Exclusionary Discipline in
Minnesota and the Promise of Non-Exclusionary Alternatives. America’s Promise Alliance.
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED586336.pdf
30
Scales, P. C., et al. (2020). Effects of developmental relationships with teachers on middle‐school students’
motivation and performance. Psychology in the Schools, 57(4), 646-677. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22350
31
U.S. Department of Education. (2021). Education in a pandemic: The disparate impacts of COVID-19 on America’s
students. https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/20210608-impacts-of-covid19.pdf ; Mulhern, C.
(2020). Beyond teachers: Estimating individual guidance counselors’ effects on educational attainment.
Unpublished Manuscript, RAND Corporation. https://cepr.harvard.edu/files/cepr/files/counselors_mulhern.pdf
32
Croft, M., Hayes, S., & Moore, R. (2020). Supporting the mental health well-being of high school students. ACT
Equity. https://www.act.org/content/dam/act/unsecured/documents/R1798-mental-health-2020-01.pdf
33
Matsumura, L. C., Slater, S. C., & Crosson, A. (2008). Classroom climate, rigorous instruction and curriculum, and
students' interactions in urban middle schools. The Elementary School Journal, 108(4), 293-312.
https://doi.org/10.1086/528973
34
Cherng, H. Y. S. (2017). If they think I can: Teacher bias and youth of color expectations and achievement. Social
Science Research, 66, 170-186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2017.04.001
35
Darling-Hammond, L., & DePaoli, J. (2020). Why School Climate Matters and What Can Be Done to Improve It.
State Education Standard, 20(2), 7. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1257654.pdf
36
Grossman, J. & Duchesneau N. (July 2021). Advancing Equity Through Service Learning: Building on Strengths
Students Have Gained After a Year of Turmoil. https://www.mdrc.org/sites/default/files/RWJF-
Service_Learning.pdf.
37
Kana’iaupuni, S., Ledward, B. & Jensen, U. (2010). Culture-based education and its relationship to student
outcomes. Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools, Research & Evaluation,
https://www.ksbe.edu/assets/research/collection/10_0117_kanaiaupuni.pdf
38
Gershoff, E., Sattler, K. M. P., Holden, G. W. (2019). School Corporal Punishment and Its Association with
Achievement and Adjustment. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 63, 1-8.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2019.05.004
39
Gershoff, E., Sattler, K. M. P., Holden, G. W. (2019). School Corporal Punishment and Its Association with
Achievement and Adjustment. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 63, 1-8.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2019.05.004; Gershoff, E. (2013). Spanking and Child Development: We Know
Enough Now to Stop Hitting Our Children. Child Development Perspectives, 7(3), 133-37.
https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12038 ; Gershoff, E. (2010). More Harm Than Good: A Summary of Scientific
Research on the Intended and Unintended Effects of Corporal Punishment on Children. Law and Contemporary
Problems, 73(2) 31-56. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8386132/ ; Durrant, J. & Ensom, R. (2012).
Physical Punishment of Children: Lessons from 20 Years of Research. Canadian Medical Association Journal,
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40
Garcia by Garcia v. Miera, 817 F.2d 650, 653 (10th Cir. 1987) (A nine-year-old student was corporally punished
twice. In the first instance, a teacher held the student upside down by her ankles while the principal hit her with a
wooden paddle five times on the front of her leg, between her knee and waist. The paddle broke and the student
had a welt and two-inch cut on her leg, which became a permanent scar. The second incident resulted in the

23
student having red marks and bruises on her butt, hitting her back on a desk, and subsequently experiencing pain
for weeks.).
41
Afifi, T. O., et al. (2012). Physical Punishment and Mental Disorders: Results from a Nationally Representative US
Sample. Pediatrics, 130(2), 184-92. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-2947 ; Tracie O. Afifi, et al. (2017). Spanking
and Adult Mental Health Impairment: The Case for the Designation of Spanking as an Adverse Childhood
Experience. Child Abuse and Neglect, 71, 24–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.01.014
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Aucoin, K. J., Frick, P. J., & Bodin, S. D. (2006). Corporal Punishment and Child Adjustment. Journal of Applied
Developmental Psychology, 27, 527-541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2006.08.001 ; Hyman, I. A. & Perone, D.
C. (1998). The Other Side of School Violence: Educator Policies and Practices That May Contribute to Student
Misbehavior. Journal of School Psychology, 36(1), 7–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-4405(97)87007-0
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Corporal Punishment in Schools and Its Effect on Academic Success: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on
Healthy Families and Communities of the House Committee on Education and Labor, 111th Congress. (2010).
https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-111hhrg55850/pdf/CHRG-111hhrg55850.pdf ; Tomoda, A., at al.
(2009). Reduced Prefrontal Cortical Gray Matter Volume in Young Adults Exposed to Harsh Corporal Punishment.
NeuroImage, 47(2), T66-T71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.03.005
44
Kellam, S. G., et al. (2011). The good behavior game and the future of prevention and treatment. Addiction
Science and Clinical Practice, 6(1), 73-84. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3188824/
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The National Child Traumatic Stress Network. Schools. Retrieved July 5, 2022, from
https://www.nctsn.org/trauma-informed-care/creating-trauma-informed-systems/schools ; Trauma and Learning
Policy Initiative. Helping Traumatized Children Learn. https://traumasensitiveschools.org/
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Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning, https://casel.org/; Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention. (2022). Strategies to Create a Healthy and Supportive School Environment.
https://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/sec_schools.htm.
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Klevan, S. (2021). Building a Positive School Environment Through Restorative Practices. Learning Policy Institute,
https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/product/wce-positive-school-climate-restorative-practices-brief; International
Institute for Restorative Practices. Retrieved from https://www.iirp.edu/
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Center on Positive Behavior Interventions & Supports. Retrieved from https://www.pbis.org/
49
Aldridge, J. M., & McChesney, K. (2018). The relationships between school climate and adolescent mental health
and wellbeing : A systematic literature review. International Journal of Educational Research, 88, 121-145,
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construct, measurement, and impact on student outcomes. Educational Psychology Review, 28(2), 315-352,
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Moore, K., et al. (2015). Preventing violence: A review of research, evaluation, gaps, and opportunities. Child
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opportunities/; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2009). School Connectedness: Strategies for
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Administration, 48(8), 91-95. https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/multi-tiered-system-supports-mtss-
implementation/docview/1935584863/se-2
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Hoover, S. A., et al. (2019). Advancing Comprehensive School Mental Health Systems: Guidance from the Field.
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Global Pediatric Health, 6. https://doi.org/10.1177/2333794X19828745
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from Here? National Education Policy Center. https://nepc.colorado.edu/publication/restorative-justice

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Katic, B., Alba, L. A., & Johnson, A. H. (2020). A systematic evaluation of restorative justice practices: School
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schools-effective-school-improvement-report
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high school students. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(6), 807-20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9884-
2
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the productivity of mentees? Labour Economics, 63, 101792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2019.101792
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Blazar, D. (2021). Teachers of Color, Culturally Responsive Teaching, and Student Outcomes: Experimental
Evidence from the Random Assignment of Teachers to Classes. EdWorkingPaper No. 21-501. Annenberg Institute
for School Reform at Brown University; Castro, A. S., & Calzada, E. J. (2021). Teaching Latinx students: Do teacher
ethnicity and bilingualism matter? Contemporary Educational Psychology, 66, 101994.
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students in North Carolina. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 39(3), 485-510.
https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373717693109
63
Lindsay, C. A., & Hart, C. M. (2017). Exposure to same-race teachers and student disciplinary outcomes for Black
students in North Carolina. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 39(3), 485-510.
https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373717693109
64
Aby, M., & Gonzalez Benson, O. (2021). Funding diversity: A case study of a state-initiated, funding-driven
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Garbacz, S. A., et al. (2017). Family engagement in education and intervention: Implementation and evaluation
to maximize family, school, and student outcomes. Journal of School Psychology, 62, 1–10.
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66
Rafa, A. (2019). Policy Analysis: The Status of School Discipline in State Policy. Education commission of the
states. https://www.ecs.org/wp-content/uploads/The-Status-of-School-Discipline-in-State-Policy.pdf
67
Mapp, K. L., & Kuttner, P. J. (2013). Partners in Education: A Dual Capacity-Building Framework for Family-School
Partnerships. Southwest Educational Development Laboratory. https://www2.ed.gov/documents/family-
community/partners-education.pdf
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We note that Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Lau v. Nichols, 414 U.S. 563 (1974) requires school
districts to ensure that English learner students can meaningfully participate in all programs and activities of the
school district and to ensure meaningful communication with parents or legal guardians who have limited English
proficiency.
69
McIntosh, K., et al. (2021). Effects of an equity-focused PBIS approach to school improvement on exclusionary
discipline and school climate. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 65(4), 354-
361. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1306763
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McIntosh, K., et al. (2018). A 5-point intervention approach for enhancing equity in school discipline. Office of
Special Education Programs Technical Assistance Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports.
https://www.pbis.org/resource/a-5-point-intervention-approach-for-enhancing-equity-in-school-discipline

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Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination based on race, color, or national origin by
recipients of Federal financial assistance. 42 U.S.C. §§ 2000d–2000d-7. Title IX of the Education Amendments of
1972 prohibits discrimination based on sex by recipients of Federal financial assistance. 20 U.S.C. §§ 1681 – 1688.
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and Title II of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 both
prohibit discrimination based on disability, the former by recipients of Federal financial assistance, the latter by
State and local governments, regardless of whether they receive Federal funds. 29 U.S.C. § 794; 42 U.S.C. §§ 12131
–12134.

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