LAB REPORT #1

WRITING A LAB REPORT

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this laboratory exercise is to study the organization of a scientific paper. We will
do a few assignments to better understand how a scientific paper is written and organized.

INTRODUCTION

A formal lab report should follow the general format used for a research report published in a
scientific journal. Scientists are busy people who simply don’t have time to read through excess
verbiage. Scientists want to quickly read and understand the results and implications of scientific papers.
As a consequence, scientific writing is technical by nature, demanding precision, clarity and economy.
Learning how to write scientific papers generally requires a lot of practice, and the write-up of lab
reports provides an excellent opportunity to practice scientific writing. During some of your biology
classes you will be required to write reports on research papers published in scientific journals. As a
potential scientist, you should view this requirement as an opportunity to learn how scientists conduct
their research and conduct their research and communicate the results of their research.

Although different journals require different formats, all papers have a roughly similar outline.
They reflect the basic scientific method of asking a question, formulating hypotheses, conducting
experiments to test the hypotheses, and interpreting the results. Although not all journals require
authors to divide their papers into clearly labelled sections, this practice will help you in reporting your
findings in a clearly organized way. Therefore, you are asked to label each section in your lab papers,
except for the title and author.

ORGANIZATION OF A SCIENTIFIC PAPER

1. Title
The title should be no longer than 20 words, and should consist of a few well-chosen words
indicating the subject of the report. Be specific. For example, “Effects of Chemicals on Bacteria”
is too vague. A better title would be “Effects of Vitamins A and C on Mutation Rates Escherichia
coli.”
2. Abstarct
This section consists of a short paragraph, usually less than 150 words, summarizing the entire
study. This is the part of the paper that scientists read first to decide whether they are
interested in looking at the rest of the paper. It should briefly describe: (1) the purpose of the
study (introduction), (2) what was done (methods), (3) what was found (results), and (4) what

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 was concluded (discussion). The primary emphasis is on the results. This section is usually
written in the past tense.
3. Introduction
This section gives the background of the experiment, providing an explanation of the general
problem or area being investigated, telling why this problem is of interest, and outlining what
information is already known about the problem. The purpose of the study should be stated
clearly, and the hypothesis or hypotheses to be tested should be stated. Normally a brief review
of the literature is included in this section, but this will not be necessary in your lab reports. This
section is usually written in the past or present tense, never in the future tense.

4. This section often referred to as “Materials and Methods,” should include a concise description
of the materials, procedures, and equipment (if any) used. It should clearly describe the
experimental situation, the control situation (s) and the kinds of observations you made. There
should be enough brand names of equipment, concentrations and amounts of solutions,
species, size or age, sex, and other information about the experimental subjects should be
included. This section is written in paragraphs, and is not enumerated as a set of steps. This
section should be written in the past tense, not as a set of directions to your reader.
5. Results
The results of the study are most frequently presented in one or more tables, graphs or
drawings. The data in a table should not be repeated in a figure, or vice versa; either one
method or the other should be chosen to present data. Tables and figures (graphs or drawings)
should have clear titles, such as “Fig. 1. Frequency or genotypes in a population during
successive generations.”
The vertical (y) and horizontal (x) axes of a graph should be clearly labelled, usually with units
in parentheses, as in this example: “Body Length (mm).” A legend should clearly indicate what
the various point, line or bar patterns refer to.
The results section always includes a written description of the results, which should
summarize the general trends or inconsistencies in the data. Give the results should be given,
including those that do not support the hypothesis. When summarizing the results, you should
refer to each table or figure as appropriate, as in this example: “The recessive homozygous
condition disappeared from the population after 6 generations .Do not comment on opinions,
biases or interpretations of the results. This section should always be written in past tense.
6. Discussion
This section should not be a repetition of the introduction or the results. This is where you
should give your interpretations of the data and relate them to the questions posed in the
Introduction. If you have any unusual data that needs explanation, do it here or make a new
hypothesis as to why the results came out in a way you did not expect. Any potential sources of
error should be discussed in this section. Draw some conclusions that may be supported by your
data. What is the significance of your results? What are the main principles demonstrated by
your results? What further experiments should be performed to clear up discrepancies or
ambiguities in your results? How might your work best be continued or extended? No separate
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 section should be written for conclusion. Sometimes the results and discussion can be combined
into a single section, in which case it should be labelled as such (eg. ,Results and Discussion).
This section is usually written in the past or present tense.
7. Acknowledgments
This section is designed to credit the organizations and individuals who have helped in your
study, either by funding the individuals who have helped in your study, or by commenting on
the design, resultsor conclusions of the study (eg. Critically reviewing your manuscript). It will
not be necessary to include this section in your lab reports.
8. Literature Cited
Scientific papers always have a literature cited section. Only published books or articles cited
within the text should be included in this section. Normally the references are arranged in the
alphabetical order of the authors, although journals vary widely in their style. It will be
necessary to include this section in your lab reports.

ASSIGNMENTS
1. Spend ten minutes browsing through 5 different scientific journals. Briefly examine the
organization of several articles within each journal and compare the differences and
similarities in style and format among the different journals. Fill in the table on page 5.
2. Read through each journal and determine which sections are the abstract, introduction,
methods, results, and discussion. Fill in the answers in the Assignment Form, pg. 6.
3. The sentences of two published abstracts from scientific papers have been rearranged. Read
the sentences, and determine which sentences refer to the introduction, methods, results
and discussion. In most abstracts, this is difficult to do, since a sentence is often derived
from two sections (eg. Introduction and methods, or results and discussion), but in the
chosen abstracts each sentence can clearly be assigned to only one section of a paper. Fill in
the form on page 7, and turn in this form for credit.

ASSIGNMENTS #3

Rearranged sentences of abstract from Abstract #1

Algal Structural Defenses: Form and Calcification

In Resistance to Tropical Limpets.

1. The hypothesized defensive role of calcification and growth form has generally not been tested.
2. Experiments were conducted to test this hypothesis directly for an important group of grazers,
the docoglossan limpets, and a large variety of tropical algae with varying degrees of
calcification and different thallus form.
3. For these particular herbivores, and possibly others, these morphological features are not acting

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 as simple structural defences.
4. Other explanations for observed correlations or herbivore and plant abundance and the food
preferences of herbivores must be considered.
5. This is accomplished by mimicking the mode of feeding of the herbivore using its feeding
apparatus ( the redula) and directly measuring the forces required to remove tissue.
6. Neither calcification nor the thallus forms that had been suggested to act as structural defences
against grazers.
7. Growth form and calcification in marine macrophytes have been suggested to act as structural
defences against grazers.
8. Support for this hypothesis has been largely in direct, consisting of negative correlations of plant
and herbivore abundance and the observation that some herbivores prefer less calcified food
plants.
9. The results were opposite to predictions.

Abstract #2

Direct Evidence For Meteorologically Driven Long-Range

Dispersal of an Economically Important Moth.

1. These findings also strengthen the compatibility of other components of A. Ipsilon physiology
and behaviour with “oogenesis flight syndrome” ( sexual maturity after long-range flight).
2. Nocturnal Flights at high altitudes and then difficulty in species identification have resulted in
paucity of evidence supporting long-range dispersal of moth –species attacking economic crops.
3. The climatological conditions that allow this rapid long-range movement were qualified and the
data suggest that the moths were travelling at altitudes of 1<500m.
4. Blank cutworm moths (Agrolis ipsilon) were reared on diet containing a marker dye and were
reared on diet containing a marker dye and were released at Crowley, Lousiana and colloge
station , Texas.
5. Traps baited with A.ipsilon sex hormone were stationed in a line east to west over 618km
6. Ecological and evolutionary research on lepdiptora migrated has traditionally concentrated on
the long range dispersal of day-flying butterflies.
7. Follow release ,six male moths were captured after two to four nites in Misouri,Kansas and
Iowa.
8. These results may provide information on the mechanisms for long range migration of many
moth species into the north central united States
9. There are 6 trap lines 108 km apart north to south and two ore trap lines 729km further south

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 ECOLOGY LAB # 1 – ASSIGNMENT FORM

Style and format of the five journals

JOURNAL NAME SIMILARITIES DIFFERENCES

1. a. Write one sentence that may typically be found in an Abstract.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

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______________________________________________________________________________

b. Identify two methods of presenting results.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

c. In one sentence, give the conclusion of one of the articles.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

2. Read Abstract # 1 and determine which sentence(s) fit each of the categories below.

Introduction: __________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Methods: ______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Results: _______________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
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Discussion: _____________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

3. Rearrange the sentences of Abstract # 2, listing the numbers in order to show progression
from introduction to discussion.
_____________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

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 Laboratory Exercise #2
Extinction

OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this exercise is firstly, to familiarize students with the types and causes
of extinction, secondly, to introduce them to known tropical species that are likely to become
extinct and determine particular attributes that make them endangered and lastly to
endangered positive attitudes to the preservation of biodiversity.

INTRODUCTION
Extinction has been defined as “the death of the species” and is believed by most
biologists to be a natural process occurring for millions of years as the forces of natural
selection, act against these species. It has been speculated that most species that ever existed
are now extinct, however, the evidence to support such a suggestion is inconclusive.
According to geological history, there are two major types of extinction: Background
Extinction and Mass Extinction. The first type is suggested to be occurring everyday as the
activities of competition, predation etc., are combined with minor changes in the physical
environment to force adaptation events. When adaptation does not occur, the species
eventually dwindles in extinction. Mass extinction on the other hand has been associated with
cataclysmic events usually of global proportions such as meteor collisions or ice ages, which
destroy hundreds of species in a short space of time.
Recently, scientists have suggested that due to the activities of humankind on the earth,
the so-called Background Extinction Rate Extinction has increased so rapidly, that it resembles
more closely the effect of Mass Extinctions. Since humans are believed to be responsible for this
new extinction event, it is referred to as Anthropogenic Extinction.

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 As a result of the recent rapid increase in the rate of extinction, ecologists have tried to
ascertain some of the particular anthropogenic causes that lead to species extinction. These
causes include Habitat Destruction, Hunting (includes Fishing), Pest and Predator Control,
Incidental Death (includes by catch and road kills), and Epidemic Disease (worsened by exotic
species and domestic herding).
However, ecologists have noticed that some taxonomic groups and species with
particular lifestyles match more than one of the above-mentioned attributes, begin to
characteristically show reduced population sizes and are initially classified as being threatened-
i.e.low species populations but not in imminent danger of extinction. Once the gene pool is
reduced and there is no reversal in the effects that led to the initial reduction, then these
species populations are reclassified as endangered, ie, low species populations in imminent
danger of extinction.
In the West Indian islands there are a number of endangered species, some more
popular than others. The leatherback turtle, Dermochelys coriacea, is one of the largest reptiles
in the world and nests on beaches in various West Indian islands including Trinidad and Tobago.
Ecological studies have aided in efforts to prevent the further reduction of its population. Other
endangered species native to Trinidad and Tobago include the West Indian Manatee, Trichecus
manatus, an aquatic mammal and the Pawi, Pipile pipile, a turkey –like, terrestrial bird. Neither
of these species has been as extensively studied as the leatherback turtle.
The challenge faced by conservation biologists is, that even though a species is
endangered, its future existence is too often largely determined by whether it is a valuable to
humans alive in its native habitat or dead on a plate or on a clothes rack. Species must be seen
as having intrinsic (having a right to exist) whether as part of national heritage, a performer in
ecosystem services or simply as a fascinating example of natural beauty. While utilitarian
(usefulness to humans) concepts of value based on needs for food, clothing or shelter or as a
source of economic wealth cannot ne negated, they are often short-term and threaten the
ultimate survival of species including the human species.

METHODS
A. Read and discuss the introduction among your group members and answer the following
questions: (answers to be submitted at the end of lab)
1. From your prior knowledge, identify species (or groups of species) that you know of that
became extinct via: a. Mass Extinction and b. Background Extinctions
2. For each of the anthropogenic causes of extinction given above, show how the
increasing human population size is connected to it.
3. Name five species (from different taxonomic groups) to which humans attribute
utilitarian value. For each species, suggest a different intrinsic/ecological value that can
be attached to it.

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B. Research lifestyle features of the Manatee and the Pawi to aid in answering the following
questions (to be brought in at next week’s lab):
1. What are the arthropogenic factors threatening the survival of the Manatee and
Pawi ?
2. Describe three intrinsic values that can be attached to Manatee and Pawi to
encourage its conservation.
3. What are the lifestyle patterns of the three species mentioned above that make
them extinction -prone?
4. Review the approaches that were shown in use to conserve the mantee. From these
select one applicable approach and outline an experimental proposal that can be
used to test the effectiveness of that approach in the conservation of either the
West Indian Manatee or the Pawi. Your outline must have the following elements:
a. Null hypothesis (this is a manner of stating your prediction but in a fashion that
you hope your experiment will nullify. It’s essential pretext is that there is no
correlation between your tests and the results, ie. The results are strictly due to
chance.)
b. Purpose statement (outlines your objectives and outcomes)
c. Methodology & Materials (outlines what is to be done and what is used to
accomplish it)
d. Approach to Results Analysis (describes how you plan to approach the analysis
of the results, eg. Literature review and comparison, statistical tests,
mathematical modelling, computer simulations, etc)

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 Lab #3

Demography

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this exercise is to statistically analyze the mortality and natality rates of two
populations by constructing life history tables and graphs.

INTRODUCTION

An individual is born once , but a population fluctuates over time, it usually remains relatively
stable when its ecological condition remain constant. New individuals can be added to a population in
two ways, by birth and immigration. Individuals can leave a population in two ways, by death and
emigration. Births and deaths are generally expressed as rates, that is, as numbers in a given time. If we
ignore immigration and emigration –which is easy enough to do on paper but generally difficult in
nature—then changes in population size depend on the balance between birth and death rates. If the
two are equal, then the population size is stable. If the birth rate exceeds the death rate, the population
grows; and if the death rate exceeds the birth rate, the population declines.

A life table summarizes the statistics of death and survival of a population, by age. There are two
basic types of life tables. The first type, referred to as “age specific” or “dynamic,” records the fate of a
group of animals all born at the same time; this group is referred to as a cohort. The second type of life
table, referred to as “time specific” records the mortality of each age class taken in proportion to their
numbers in a population. It involves the assumption that the birth and death rates are constant and that
the population is stationary. In this exercise we will consider both types of life table.

Several variables need to be recorded in order to calculate life tables:

n0=number of individuals at beginning of study (cohort)

x=age of individuals

nx=number of survivors at the beginning of age class x

dx=number of deaths during age class x

lx=proportion of organisms surviving at the beginning of age class x (n x/n0)

qx=mortality rate of age x calculated as d x/nx

Lx=average number alive in age class (nx+nx+1)/2

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 Tx=cumulative sum Lx from the bottom up

ex =life expectancy at age x, calculated as T x/nx

A fecundity table summarizes the statistics of natality, or births, of a population by age. It uses
the survivors’ column, nx, values are converted to a proportionality referred to as survivorship (l x), in this
case by dividing each age value by 1000 females of the birth year. To adjust mortality, the m x values are
multiplied by the corresponding lx, or survivorship, values. The resulting value, l xmx values for all age
groups is the net reproductive rate, R 0, which represents the average number of females that will be left
during a lifetime by a newborn female. If R0=1, each female will be replacing itself and the population
will remain stable, R0 > 1, the population will increase; if R0 < 1, the population will decrease.

ASSIGNMENT

During Lab Session

1. Using the formulas above, fill in the missing data for two life tables, one for each sex, of a
human population.
2. Prepare a graph of the survivorship for the white females, using l x for the y-axis (using a
logarithimic scale)and age for the x-axis.
3. Write a comparative paragraph outlining the key differences in mortality trends between males
and females at the various stages of the life history. Give at least two (2) reasons why there may
be differences between the sexes.
4. Using the information and formulas above, fill in the missing data for the fecundity table.
5. Calculate the net reproductive rate and answer the question at the bottom of the table 3.

EITHER

1. Visit a nearby cemetery and collect data for a cohort comprising at least 50 individuals (all born
in the same year)
2. Using the data on their time of death, construct an age-specific life table –remember to
complete data conversion using the total as 1000.

NB. Raw data and cemetery locale information must be supplied in order that points are allocated.

OR

1. Collect obituary information daily for three weeks from one of the three daily newspapers-
Express, Guardian or Newsday. (minimum #=100)
2. Using data on their age at the time of death, construct a time-specific life table-remember to
complete data conversion using the total as 1000.
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3. Prepare a graph of the data and correctly ascertain the survivorship curve type.

NB. Raw data and cemetery locale information must be supplied in order that points are allocated.

Table 1. life table for white male humans in the United States, as of 1998. Note that the estimate for
life expectancy should be calculated by 5, because the formula given is for 1-year intervals rather
than 5-year intervals. This estimate is very crude.

AGE Survivors Deaths Death Lx Tx Life

(years) nx dx Rate Expectancy
x qx ex
0-1 100000 1104 0.0110 99,448
1-5 98,896 220 0.0022 98,786
5-10 98,676 138 0.0014
10-15 98,538 165
15-20 98,373 615
20-25 97,758 854
25-30 96,904 865
30-35 96,039 1,024
35-40 95,015 1,276
40-45 93,739 1,592
45-50 92,147 2,261
50-55 89,886 3,457
55-60 86,429 5,273
60-65 81,156 7,639
65-70 73,517 9,996
70-75 63,521 12,842
75-80 50,679 14,852
80-85 35,827 15,189 28,232.5 38,551.5
85+ 20,638 20,638 10,319 10,319 2.5

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TABLE 2 Life table for white female humans in the United States, as of 1988. Note that the estimate
for life expectancy should be calculated by 5, because the formula given is for 1-year intervals rather
than 5-year intervals. This estimate is very crude.

AGE Survivors Deaths Death Lx Tx Life

(years) nx dx Rate Expectancy
x qx ex
0-1 1000000 890 0.0089 99,555
1-5 99110 175 0.0018 99,022.5
5-10 98935 101 0.0010
10-15 98834 100
15-20 98734 240
20-25 98494 272
25-30 98222 321
30-35 97901 405
35-40 97496 567
40-45 96929 817
45-50 96112 1293
50-55 94819 2077
55-60 92742 3217
60-65 89525 4810
65-70 84715 6716
70-75 77999 9435
75-80 68564 12640
80-85 55924 16671 47588.5 67215
85+ 39253 39253 19626.5 19626.5 2.5

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Table 3. Fecundity table for females of a Red Deer population.

Age Survivorship Age-specific lxmx

x lx Fecundity
mx
1 1.000 0 0
2 .863 0 0
3 .778 .311 .242
4 .694 .278
5 .610 .308
6 .526 .400
7 .442 .476
8 .357 .358
9 .181 .447
10 .059 .289
11 .051 .283
12 .042 .285
13 .030 .283
14 .025 .282
15 .017 .285
16 .009 .284
Net Reproductive rate =R0

What does the value of R0 tell us about this population?

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 Lab #4

Microhabitat Analysis I-Physical Characteristics

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this exercise is to engender a better understanding of the abiotic factors that
may cause the differences in habitat distribution of species. We will examine microclimatic differences
between an aquatic habitat and a terrestrial environment each in a closed forest and in a forest clearing.
The exercise simultaneously exposes students to simple manual equipment that can be used in
measuring these factors.

INTRODUCTION

A site has a particular climate determined primarily by abiotic factors of moisture, light, wind
exposure, heat, and in some cases, substrate composition. These climatic features, interacting with
dispersal, habitat selection and tolerance limits of individual species, determine what organisms will
occur there. Once organisms occupy a site, however, they modify the climate (as they do there other
physical features, such as the soil) by their activities. Such effects are termed reactions. Many organisms,
such as the herbs and the soil invertebrates of a tropical rain forest, exist in a climate that owes more to
other organisms of the community than to the regional climate.

This exercise is a simple introduction to these concepts. Depending on equipment and time, it
could be expanded in ways such as determining wind velocity at various heights or distances into the
forest, examining microclimatic differences among topographic sites, or measuring the effect of the
forest canopy on the spectral composition of light.

METTHODS

Experiment 1- Terrestrial Microhabitat Differences Between Forest and Clearing

1. In a closed forested spot, place :

a. A soil thermometer into the ground
b. A laboratory thermometer on the ground
c. A laboratory thermometer 1 m above ground
d. A laboratory thermometer 3 m above ground
e. A hygrometer on the ground (ensure that wet bulb is moistened first)
2. Wait five minutes and record temperatures for each thermometer, including those on the
hygrometer, and determine the relative humidity for the hygrometer.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 in a forest clearing.
4. Collect a sample of soil from each of these areas to do your chemical analysis (lab 5).

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 5. Plot the temperature data on a bi-variate graph, using temperature on the y-axis and the four
levels on the x-axis. Use circles for the enclosed forest and the x’s for the clearing. The humidity
data does not need to be plotted on the graph.

Experiment 2 – Aquatic Microhabitat Differences Between Forest and clearing

1. In a shallow pool of a forest stream overshadowed by forest trees, hold/place:

A. a laboratory thermometer into the stream bed.
B. A laboratory thermometer on the water’s surface.
C. A laboratory thermometer 1m above the water’s surface
D. A laboratory thermometer 3m above the water’s surface.
E. A hygrometer on the water’s surface
2. Wait 5 minutes and record the temperatures for each thermometer, including those on the
hygrometer, and determine the relative humidity for the hygrometer.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 in a shallow pool exposed to light.
4. Collect a sample of soil from each of these areas to begin chemical analysis.
5. Plot the temperature data on a bi-variate graph, using temperature on the y-axis and the four
levels on the x-axis. Use circles for the enclosed forest and the x’s for the clearing. The humidity
data does not need to be plotted on the graph.

ASSIGNMENTS

A In preparation for writing discussion, answer the following questions among your group and
submit a collective report at the end of the lab exercise.

1. What effect does the forest canopy have on temperatures at or near the ground /water’s
surface? What is the reason for these effects?

2. What effect does a forest have on humidity ? What is the reason?

3. For each of the 4 habitats tested in this exercise, select one microhabitat and suggest an
organism that may prefer that habitat then outline one advantage that it derives from that choice of
microhabitat.

4. Since climatic factors vary spatially and temporarily, what variations could you expect in the
following factos:

a. Temperature

i. on the surface of a still pool of water in a forest opening at noon

ii. within the crevice of a rock cave 1m high at night

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 b. Humidity

i. on the surface of the ground in a treefall gap during the dry season

ii. within a tank bromeliad 3m above the ground in the rainy season

B Write a research report of the experiments. The written report is due at the beginning of the next
lab session and will be assessed on the format and discussion analysis. Include:

1. Title (centered; less than 20 words)

2. Name of student (centered)
3. Abstract (summarizing study—esp. Results; one paragraph)
4. Introduction (one paragraph—include your null hypotheses here)
5. Materials and methods (one paragraph per experiment; do not enumerate)
6. Results (one paragraph per experiment; refer to graphs as Fig1 Fig 2 etc.; also include
relative humidity results)
7. Discussion (about two paragraphs from each experiment)

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 Lab #5
Microhabitat Analysis II-Soil Chemical Composition Analysis

OBJECTIVES
This exercise continues with the purposes of the previous week and seeks to engender a
better understanding of the abiotic factors that may cause the differences in habitat
distribution of species. From the areas studied for their physical features a soil sample was
collected to identify certain chemical features, which may result from the unique
combination of features of the microhabitat.

INTRODUCTION
Soil is a complex mixture of organic and inorganic materials resulting from the
weathering of mineral rocks by the action of wind and water, decomposition of organic
matter from formerly living organisms and mixed with smaller quantities of air and water.
Since the types of mineral rocks and organisms will differ from place to place the basic type
of soil in an area will be fairly unique.
In addition to the source of origin, factors of usage and exposure to physical conditions
of the environment will also impact on the chemical composition of the soil. Areas exposed
to high levels of rainfall or situated in anoxic conditions in a stagnant pool will of necessity,
reflect different chemical contents from drier or more aerobic conditions.
Soils are of critical importance to agriculture. It is said that loamy soil ( soil with
sufficient quantities of sand, silt and clay) is ideal for agriculture since its texture allows for
proper drainage, yet at the same is workable and retains a fair quantity of water. However,
some crops may differ in that regard. For example rice needs greater quantities of clay to
retain water in the seeding stage to reduce the development of certain diseases of the crop.
Nonetheless, these textual features are also crucial in determining the soil’s chemical
qualities, since the clay content is known for increasing the adherence of positive ions to the
soil for uptake by plant roots.
This exercise focuses on soil from microhabitats within a single ecosystem, the
rainforest ecosystem. However, studies of soils from different ecosystems, such as savannas
or grasslands, dessert soils and soils from polar ecosystems also tend to show distinct
features indicative of the climatic and vegetative characteristics of the area. Thus, an
exercise such as this can be expanded to analyze the dynamic interrelationship between the
soil, its vegetative cover and the precipitation or temperature regime of the area and as
such can be useful to the maintenance of ecosystem quality for the inhabiting organisms.

METHODS
This exercise requires that you collect the soil sample be collected the week before and
the activities for DAY 1 and part of DAY 2 (Preparing the Soil Extract) be completed

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 sometime before the lab day to allow all the chemical tests to be completed on the day of
the lab.
The details of the process for chemical testing of the soil are on the attached pages.
Please read carefully and follow all safety precautions.

Chemical composition of soil

Preparation
Collecting the soil sample:
 (skip this step if your teacher is providing your sample). Get a can, bag or box. Select
an area for sampling, and then collect scoops of soil from several different points
within a one meter diameter. Don’t include large rocks or pieces of plants in your
sample. Be sure to take soil from the surface and from several inches below the
surface. Collect about three cups of soil, mix it well with your hands or a stick.
 Observe your sample; squeeze some in your hand. Describe it. Is it damp, dry,
grainy, fine,stiff,slippery,crumbly, etc? Record our observations on your data sheet.

Day 1

Water Content

 Get a metal cup and a plastic spoon from the kit. Use a pencil or a marker to
label the cup with your group members’ names.
 Weigh the empty metal cup on a triple balance and record this weight on your
data sheet.
 Add four to five spoonfuls of your soil to the cup, then weigh again and record
the value.
 Place the cup and soil in an oven for about an hour at 175 0C (3500F) to dry the
soil thoroughly. Instead, your teacher may tell you to heat the metal cup on a
plate for 10-15 minutes.
 Weigh the cup and dry soil, record this weight, then calculate the percent of
water in your sample.

Organic Matter

 Label a test tube with a name(s). Add one level spoonful of fresh soil to test tube.
 Add 120 drops of sodium hydroxide solution to the test tube.
 Pipette 6ml of distilled water to the test tube.
 Stopper the test tube and, with your thumb over the stopper, shake well. Place it in a
test tube rack overnight.

20
 Day 2

Organic Matter (continued)

Organic molecules, like proteins, fats, and sugars, dissolve in sodium hydroxide,
resulting in a color change.

 Observe the contents of your test tube and notice that the solid material has solid to the
bottom. The liquid layer may be colored. A pale yellow color indicates a small amount of organic
material, orange, a moderate amount and brown a large amount.

Compare your results with those of other lab groups. Is there any relation between the amount of
organic matter and the water content of different samples?

pH (acidity)

Scientists measure the acidity of the soil in terms of pH (pH is the negative logarithm of the
hydrogen ion content). The pH scale ranges from very acidic (1) to very alkaline (14) with 7 considered
neutral. pH is very important to plants and animals that live in the soil. Small changes in pH can make big
differences in the ways that plants and animals behave. For example, if the pH changes from 7 to 8, a
plant will have a great deal of difficulty absorbing enough magnesium through its roots to create
chlorophyll.

 Place one heaping spoonful of dried soil into the center cup of the labform.
 Pipet enough distilled water to just saturate the soil, then add 5 more drops. Let the soil sit for
30 seconds.
 Use the spoon to press the soil to the side of the labform and release the water.

Take a strip of pH indicator paper from the vial and dip into the water. Compare its color with the color
chart on the indicator paper container. Record the number that corresponds with the color you
obtained.

Carbonates

These ions are found in many minerals, the most common is calcite. Carbonates are also
produced from carbon.
21
  Add one spoonful of dried soil into a clean tube in the labform
 Add 10 drops of hydrochloric acid solution to the tube.
 The formation of bubbles indicates that carbonates are present in the soil. Record the
observations.

Clean your labform and use distilled water for the final rinse.

Preparing a soil extract

You now need to prepare a soil extract. This acid extract will contain the dissolved nutrients that
are in your soil sample.

 Label a test tube with your names. Add one level scoopful of dried soil to the test tube.
 Pipet 8 ml of distilled water in the test tube.
 Add 2 drops of the acetic acid solution to the test tube.
 Stopper the tube and, keeping your thumb on the stopper, shake well for about a minute. Place
the test tube in test tube rack overnight. Be sure it’s labelled with your names.

Soil extract (continued):

Carefully pour off the liquid in your test tube into a plastic sample cup. This is your soil extract.

Nitrates:

Nitrates are needed by living things to make proteins, and other important parts of cells. They
dissolve in water and are easily washed away by the rain. For this reason, fertilizers are used to replace
the lost nitrates in the soil.

 Pipette 20 drops of soil extract into a clean tube of the labform.

 Obtain a nitrate testing strip and dip reagent end of test strip briefly (1-2) into soil extract in
tube.
 Remove, and after 60 seconds observe and record results.
 Nitrates are present if lower reagent strip turns red. Nitrites are present if the upper reagent
strip turns red.

Phosphates

Phosphates are very important to plant and animals. They are part of many important molecules
in all cells. Phosphates are often lacking from soil, and must be added with fertilizer.

 Pipette 20 drops of the soil extract to a clean tube of the lab form.

22
  Add 5 drops of phosphorous reagent.
 Add a piece of tin and wait 15 to 20 seconds.
 A blue color indicates the presence of phosphates; the darker the blue, the higher the amount
of phosphate. Record your results.

Sulphates

Sulphates are important to the manufacture of proteins by plants. They are formed from
minerals in the soil and dead plant and animal material.

 Pipette 20 drops of the soil extract into a clean tube in the labform.
 Obtain sulphate testing strip. Dip reagent end of test strip into the soil extract tube for one
second.
 One or more reagent pads turning yellow/orange indicates the presence of sulphates. The more
reagent pads that react positively indicate a higher amount of sulphates present.

Ammonium:

Ammonium ions are another form of nitrogen in the soil. Some plants and bacteria use
ammonium as their source of nitrogen rather than nitrates. Ammonium is also found in many fertilizers.

 Place a piece of ammonium test paper into a clean depression in the labform.
 Pipet 2 drops of soil extract onto the ammonium test paper.
 Add 7 drops of sodium hydroxide solution
 A brownish yellow color shows the presence of ammonium ions. Records your results.

Magnesium

Magnesium is the key component of chlorophyll, the green pigment produced by plants. This
pigment allows the plant to capture sunlight and to convert it into energy for themselves. Plants which
do not receive enough magnesium appear yellowish because they cannot make chlorophyll.

 Pipet 20 drops of soil extract in the clean tube in the lab form.
 Add 1 drop sodium hydroxide solution to the extract.
 Add 1 drop magnesium reagent to the extract.
 Observe the mixture after 30 seconds. A pinkish cloudy appearance indicates a large amount of
magnesium. A brownish color indicates a medium amount, and a very pale tan or yellow color
means that the soil lacks sufficient magnesium to grow healthy plants. Record your results.

Calcium

23
 Calcium ions are used by many enzymes in plant and animal cells. Since calcium is found in a
number of different minerals, such as limestone and marble, it is usually present in sufficient amounts in
the soil.

 Pipet 20 drops of soil extract into a clean tube in the labform.

 Add 20 drops of ammonium solution to the extract.
 A white, cloudy appearance indicates that calcium is present. Record your results.

Potassium

Potassium is another material required by plants. Since potassium, like nitrates, is often washed
away by rain, it is also a common ingredient in fertilizers. Potassium and sodium are involved in the
transport of materials inside the plant. In animals they are important to the activity to the nervous
system.

 Obtain a piece of potassium testing paper. Place it in the center well of the labform.
 Pipet one drop of soil extract onto the testing paper.
 Add 2 drops of the phosphorous reagent to the same spot on the paper.
 An orange or red remaining on the test paper where the paper was placed indicates the
presence of potassium ions. The paper surrounding this spot will turn yellow, an indication of no
potassium. Record your results.

Iron

Iron, manganese, boron, and cobalt are some of the trace elements needed by plants in very
small amounts. Each type of ion may take part in only one or two reactions in the whole plant. Iron is a
typical trace element found in most soils.

 Place a piece of iron test paper in a clean depression in the labform.

 Pipet 1 drop of soil extract onto the test paper.
 A brownish-red spot indicates the presence of irons. Record your results.

Soil analysis table:

Summarize the results of your tests by filling in the chart below in your soil sample.

Material Results

Percent water content

Organic material(0-5)

pH (1-14)

24
 nitrates (present and absent)

carbonates (high,med,low,none)

phosphates (high,med,low,none)

sulphates (high,med,low,none)

ammonium (present or absent)

magnesium (high,med,low,none)

calcium (high,med,low,none)

potassium (present or absent)

iron (present or absent)

ASSIGNMENT

1. Compile a table comparing your group results with that of the other lab teams.
2. Write a summary that outlines the results as they relate to the sources of the soil sample and
suggest reasons for the differences.
3. Based on the results and comparing information on the general characteristics of rainforest soil,
outline two applications (ecological or economic) to which these findings can be made, one as it
relates to the aquatic microhabitat and the other as it relates to the terrestrial microhabitat.
4. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible:
a. Describe two key factors that will determine the total amount of water that a given amount
of soil can hold.
b. Explain clearly and explicitly why a farmer would want to know the chemical composition of
the soil?
c. Describe at least three factors that might cause the chemical composition of the soil in a
particular area to change.

25
 Exercise #6
Predation

The purpose of this exercise is to determine the diet of a predatory bird and try to view
this both in the context of optimal foraging by the owl and in broader terms of predator-
prey relationships and energy flow. We will be examining the prey remains in the
regurgitated pellets of the barn Owl (Tyto alba), a nocturnal bird with a cosmopolitan
distribution.

INTRODUCTION
Predation is one of the most important interactions between interactions. From that
standpoint of the individual predator, predation is largely a matter of optimizing its foraging
looking in the right places and taking the right food items to maximize its energy (or perhaps
nutrient) intake. From the standpoint of the individual prey, it is a matter of predator
defense and avoidance and, when these fail, it is a source of mortality important in
determining such demographic traits as age structure, longevity, and ratio. At the
population level, predation sometimes limits or regulates both predator and prey numbers,
and , of course food is very often the object of competition, both intra- and inter-
specifically. The enhanced fitness of the more rapacious predator or the swifter or wilier
prey leads to evolutionary changes that, in some cases, fit predator and prey into a tight,
coacting system—often referred to as an “arms race.” At the level of the ecosystem,
predation is the basis of energy transfer.
In this exercise we examine some aspects of owl predation by using an indirect method,
the examination of regurgitated pellets. Owls belong to two families of birds, Tytonidae and
Strigidae. They swallow their prey whole in large chunks, but they do not digest bones,
teeth, fur or feathers. Rather than eliminating these undigestible parts as faeces, they are
compressed in the gizzard and passed to the proventriculus, from which they subsequently
regurgitated. Most owls are nocturnal, so it is difficult to observe their hunting directly. By
day the owl roosts in some protected spot and produces on e or two pellets with remains
from the prey of the preceding night. Any individual owl usually has one or a few roosts that
it habitually uses, so it is often possible to locate these and pick up many pellets over the
course of a few months.
A great can be learned about the food of the owl by identifying and counting bones in
the pellets. They give a virtually complete record of owl’s vertebrate food. If an owl eats a
mouse and a sparrow, the bones of the mouse and the sparrow will show up in the next
day’s pellet. If we know the number of pellets the owl produces a day, we can calculate the
actual quantity of food, thereby energy, it took in. Invertebrates in the diet are difficult to
deal with, so for the few species of owls in which invertebrates are important as prey, the
estimates of food and energy intake will be too low.

26
 MATERIALS AND METHODS

1. View the video about the lifestyle of Tyto alba and pay careful attention to the approach
described to study the pellets.
2. Put a pellet in the fingerbowl (culture dish) or similar container. Tear it apart with
fingers and forceps, separating the fur from the bones. Treat the bones reasonably
gently; bird bones can be crushed and teeth can be lost from mammal skulls.
3. Clean enough of the adhering fur from the bones for identification; the bones do not
need to be absolutely clean.
4. Sort the bones into different categories.
5. Identify the species of prey in each pellet by genus. Keys and identified bone parts will
be available for comparison.
6. Identify the minimum number of prey items in the pellet.
7. Calculate the mean number of prey items in each pellet.
8. Calculate the mean number of prey items per species in each pellet.
9. Calculate the percentage of each prey species in the diet of the owl.

ASSIGNMENT

A. In preparation for writing your discussion, answer the following questions with your
group members and submit a collective report at the end of the lab exercise.
1. Which category of prey species made up the greatest part of the owl’s diet? Suggest two
possible reasons why?
2. Are all of the animals that the owl caught nocturnal? State the basis of your answer. If
the answer is no, account for their presence in the owl’s diet.
3. Identify the likely habitats for each of the categories of prey found. If the owl was
responsible for all of the pellets, where would you say the owl was searching for food?
4. Identify at least three other types of information that could be obtained by studying
prey remains in owl pellets?
5. What are two advantages as a predator that an owl might gain by being nocturnal?
6. What are two features (each) of owl’s 1? Structure; 2. Physiology and 3. Behaviour that
allow them to be successful nocturnal predators?

B Write a research report of the experiments. The written report is due at the beginning of the next
lab session and will be assessed on the format and discussion analysis. Include:

1. Title (centered; less than 20 words)

2. Name of student (centered)
27
3. Abstract (one paragraph; summarizing study—esp. Results; one paragraph)
4. Introduction (one paragraph—include your null hypotheses here)
5. Materials and methods (one paragraph per experiment; do not enumerate)
6. Results (one descriptive paragraph in addition to the table of calculated values)
7. Discussion (about two or more paragraphs-focus on explaining the results).

28
 Lab #7
RAINFOREST ECOSYSTEM-ECOLOGICAL CHARACTER

The purpose of this exercise is to become acquainted with the physical and biological
components of the rainforest ecosystem of Maracas Valley, Trinidad. We will be visiting the rainforest at
El Tucuche to observe the rocks, soils, plants and animals.

METHODS

1. We will walk along the forest trail to make general observations firstly of the features of the
physical surroundings, each of which should be checked off.
2. Next, search along the trail for the plants and animals listed and record the relative amount seen
[ none (0), few (1-10),many (>10)]:

ASSIGNMENT

Write a descriptive summary of the physical features and biological components observed in the
rainforest. In your summary, explain how the ecological character of the rainforest is derived through
the unique adaptive interactions of the physical and biological aspects. Turn in the completed report at
the following laboratory session.

Physical Features

A. Rocks are mostly: F. Most of the trees are

_bare _broad-leaved
_covered with lichens _narrow-leaved
_covered with moss

B. Soil is relatively G. Trunks of the tallest trees are

_dry relatively:
_humid _narrow at the base
_broad at the base

C. Soil color is mostly H .Most leaves are in the forest

_black _canopy
_brown _midstory

29
 _gray _understory
_red
D. Biomass is greatest for: I. Amount of light reaching
_plants forest floor is highest
_animals in:
_undisturbed forest
_treefall gaps
E. Height of tallest trees is: J. Forest undergrowth is
_0-10 m relatively greater in :
_10-20 m _undisturbed forest
_20-30 m _treefall gaps
_>30 m

Biological Components

A. Forms of plant life seen _orange fruit

_fungi _red fruit
_algae _green fruit
_moss _blue fruit
_lichen _purple fruit
_ferns
_cacti
_palms
_pines B. Invertebrate animals seen:
_bamboo _worms
_vines or lianas _molluscs
_epiphytic bromeliads/orchids _centipedes
_heliconia/bananas _millipedes
_white flowers _spiders
_yellow flowers _scorpions
_orange flowers _leafcutter ants
_red flowers _army ants
_green flowers _other ants
_blue flowers _other ants
_purple flowers _bees and wasps
_white fruit _termites
_yellow fruit _katydids
_beetles
_bugs
_cicadas
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 _crickets

_grasshopper

_buttrflies _antbirds

_moths _manakins

_flycathers _thrushes

_swallows _vireos/greenlets/warblers

Vertebrate animals seen include: _honeycreepers/tanagers

_fish _finches

_frogs _blackbirds

_toad _rodents

_snakes _carnivores

_lizards _ungulates

_amphisbaenians _bats

_turtles _primates (excluding humans)

_crocodililans

_tinamous other organisms observed that are not

_vultures in lists above:

_hawks _________________________

_trogons __________________________

_hummingbirds ____________________________

_swifts ____________________________

_woodpeckers _____________________________

_woodcreepers

31
 LAB #8

SAMPLING AND DENSITY ESTIMATION.

OBJECTIVES

Students will learn some principles of sampling and then apply these to study abundance,
especially density. We also learn some specifics of several widely used methods of estimating density
and population size.

INTRODUCTION

Scientists frequently want to be able to characterize a population or compare populations. For

example, they want to know the density (number per unit area) of beech trees in a forest or to know
whether high blood pressure is more frequent in persons living away from them. In some circumstances
it may be possible to deal with complete populations, to count every tree in the forest to examine every
human in a population. For example, we might visit a small island and live-trap and weigh every mouse
on it. We would then know, among other things, the total population size and weight of that population
of mice. Traits of whole populations are called parameters; the weight of the island mouse population
would be a parameter, as would be the average weight of all the adult female mice.

More often we cannot or do not care to spend the time or money to deal with total populations.
Instead we sample, that is, we examine a fraction of the population. We generalize from the traits the
sample possesses (called statistics) to the traits (parameters) of the population. If the sample is
representative of the whole population, we may do this and draw conclusions that (after allowing for
some statistical uncertainty) will be correct. Two features determine whether a sample will be a
representative; the sample must be unbiased and it must be adequate in size.

These two matters are discussed in the sections on choosing samples and determining the size
of samples. In the rest of this exercise sampling is directed toward the estimation of abundance of
organisms (or stand-ins for them such as poker chips or dots on paper); however, any trait of population
of organisms or of a community or ecosystem can be studied by sampling, and basically the same
principles will apply. Random samples, random rather than systematic samples are usually
recommended.

Taking a random sample required procedures to assure randomness. it is not sufficient simply to
try to place sample haphazardly, avoiding conscious bias. When samples are located in this way, test
usually disclose definite biases-the samples somehow avoid poison ivy patches, including the largest
trees, or turn out to be too evenly spaced. Since the aim is to give every unit of the population an equal
and independent likelihood of being chosen, the basic approach to randomizing samples is to use
chance to determine the samples. For example, we may wish to locate several square meter sample
plots in a field. We could establish a system of coordinates on the field with letters for the north-south
coordinates and east west coordinates. We could then put tags with the letters in one hand, tags with

32
numbers in another hat and draw them in pairs. If we pulled out A and 2, then one sample would be
located in the field where line A crossed line 3. If we wanted to introduce some further randomization,
we might flip a coin twice to decide whether to locate the plot NE, NW, SE, or SW from that point.
Drawing numbers from hats, flipping coins, rolling ice, and the like are all appropriate ways of making
random decisions ; however, we can usually achieve the same effect more simply by using random
numbers generated by a calculator or a computer or included in tables.

A random numbers table (see inside from cover) consists of a long series of digits that has been
checked for non- randomness. To use it, simply enter the table in some way that prevents your
exercising choice in the first sample (for example, pick a starting point anywhere in the table, then omit
the first five digits and begin with the sixth); then simply take the numbers in the table here are in pairs;
if your procedure required two- digit numbers from, say, 15 to 60, just skip the pairs that outside that
range. The table can be used for other than two-digit numbers by grouping the numbers as needed,
ignoring the spaces. For example, for three-digit numbers, block off digits in threes:

35 60 79 18

For 356, 079,181, 416 and 290

14 16 29 02

These are blocked off from left to right but you could go in some other direction. For three –
digit numbers between 200 and 900 you would skip 079 and 181.

I. Quadrat Sampling:
The sampling method originated with F.E. Clements (Pound and clements 1898). The
following description is for the artificial plant population. On it each symbol corresponds to
a plant stem. Take random quadrats 5 cm on a side (using the transparent plastic quadrats
provided).Iimagine that your quadrat corresponds to a square meter quadrat in the field.
Count the numbers of squares ( which we wil consider) to represent a species of mint),
triangles ( a kind of sedge), suns (sunflower), and starts (starflower) in each of 12 quadrats
and enter the figures in the data sheet.

To deal with plants that are partly in and partly out of the quadrat, adopt some
reasonable convention. One possibility is to include plants than are more than half in and
exclude ones less than half in. Another is to include all the border plants that are more than
half in. Another is to include all the border plants that are more than half in and exclude
ones less than half in. Another is to include all the border plants on the north and east sides
and exclude all these on the south and west sides.

Density. After two quadrats and again 12, calculate an average density (number of stems
per quadrat) and enter those figures in the data sheet. The actual densities of the four

33
 species are 3.3 mints, 3.3 starflowers, 3.3 sunflowers, 0.33 sedges per quadrat. Calculate the
percentage errors for each species using the formula:
% error= (estimate density-actual density)/ actual density x 100

Lab #9

Community Similarity

OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this exercise is to allow students to participate in an invertebrate
sampling exercise and to compare two invertebrate communities in close proximity for similarity
of species composition.

INTRODUCTION
Ecologists would like to understand the degrees of species similarity between
communities, and how the similarities or differences may relate to current or previous
ecological factors. To do so, it is necessary to identify and count the different species found in
these communities and to compare them with other communities at different times/seasons
and in different locales.

SAMPLING

Ideally, to determine the number of species of a given taxonomic group in a community,

a census (total count) should be carried out. However, this poses several challenges as a result of size of
the community, time consumption and mobility of the organisms under study. For example, the
organisms under study for this exercise are butterflies, which are highly mobileand whose range can be
as large as (or larger than) one hectare (10,000m 2). Thus, to complete a census for butterflies would be
very time consuming and ultimately inaccurate.

Alternatively, sampling methods are used, two of the most popular methods being the mark-
release-recapture approach and the point count approach.

Mark –release –recapture Approach

For this method, a sample of the population is collected at random points and each individual
caught is marked (using an unobtrusive means that should not alter normal behaviours) and then
released. A subsequent visit to the community and a second round of sampling is completed and the
number of marked individuals expressed as a proportion of these caught in the second sample used
along with the initial number of marked ones to indicate the total population.

34
Point-count Approach

For this method, random points along a trail are selected and the number of representative
organisms spotted (pointed out) within a specific distance from the point are counted for a specific time
period. The number of species at each sampling point and overall are then tallied.

For this exercise the second method (point count) will be utilized, but since the data is to be
compared with data collected at a previous date and another site, effective comparison will require an
aspect of identification for species which are not easily recognized. This will be completed using nets
and guidebooks and/or identification keys.

COMMUNITY SIMILARITY

T o determine community similarity, ecologists have been known to use several types of
calculations involving presence-absence matrices including the Jaccard co-efficient, the Sorensen co-
efficient and the Simple matching co-efficient. For this exercise, the jaccard co-efficient will be used.

The Jaccard co-efficient (C3) is expressed as:

Cj =a/(a+b+c)

Where a=the number of species common to both sites

b=the number of species in site B, but not A

c=the number of species in site A, but not B

The data gathered for this exercise can be used for comparisons at the species level including species
evenness, species dominance and ofcourse species richness. However for greater accuracy, samples will
need to be taken on more than one occasion.

EXERCISE

The point count and identification exercises are to be carried out at Morne Catherine, in Chaguaramas
along the trail known to be frequented by several butterflies. The class will be divided into two groups
which will operate from opposite ends of the trail, moving inward.

Each group will be sub-divided in two smaller groups. One sub-group will be responsible for carrying out
point counts, the other group for the netting and identification of species at the randomly selected

35
sampling points. In essence, we will count the number of species and the abundance of each species
encountered.

Point Counts

Within each hour on the trail, students from each group are expected to carry out at least ten reliably
completed 5-minute point counts for butterflies occurring within a five minute radius. Points are to be
selected using numbers from the random numbers table as steps (or meters) along the trail. One
individual should be responsible for taking records of the count (with names or descriptions), another
for keeping the time score; for the actual counting.

Netting and Identification

Using the butterfly net, one should make a slow, quiet approach from behind or below the resting
butterfly, drawing the butterfly to the base of the net with some swift movement. Care should be taken
to prevent injury to the butterfly by folding the net so that unnecessary fluttering around is avoided.
While one student holds the net another student should record the identifying features. In all, the
procedure should not take much longer than one to two minutes, since the intent is to avoid killing any
of the butterflies. This done, reference to the guidebook is used to aid in identification. NB. Identifying
features include: colour, size, shape of antennae, shape of wings, comparison of features of upside and
underside of wing, presence of tail on lower wings, rate of wing flapping during flight, sound of wing in
flight (if any).

All data is to be put into table form similar to the table provided from data from Pointe Gourde and
calculation of similarity between both areas completed and presented in groups.

36
 Lab #10

VEGETATION SAMPLING

OBJECTIVES
The purposes of this are to see the forest through the trees by learning how to
quantitatively measure characteristics of a forest, and by comparing the structure of an
exotic pine plantation with a native broad leaved forest.

INTRODUCTION
Ecologists would like to understand the degree of species interdependence within
communities, how the distribution of communities depends upon past and present
environmental factors, and what the role of communities is in such ecosystem activities as
energy transfer, nutrient cycling, and succession. However, communities must first be
measured and summarized in some effective way before these questions can be addressed.
Furthermore, the dependence of humans on forest resources requires an understanding of
the structure of vegetation communities and the potential economic value of their products
(e.g. lumber, rubber, fruits, nuts, etc.)
In an effort to inventory the world’s vegetation, plant ecologists sample vegetation
communities. However, because of limitations in available personnel, time and funding, the
sampling is biased on only a very small proportion of the total vegetation. If the samples are
chosen carefully, investigators feel confidents in extrapolating from their sample data to
estimate the true values of the parameters for the entire community. If their samples are
not chosen carefully, investigators feel confident in extrapolating from their sample data to
estimate the true values of the parameters of the entire community parameters and thus
will be biased.

PARAMETERS OF VEGETATION STRUCTURE

The density of vegetation can be measured as the number of stems per unit area. The
most frequently used unit for area is a hectare (ha), which is a quadrat whose four sides are
each equal to 100m (thus enclosing an area equal to, 10,000 m 2). A tape measure is the only
instrument needed to measure density; several methods are described below.
The width of the tree is usually measured at a height about 1.8 m above the ground; this
measurement is referred to as the “diameter at breast height” (DBH), and is measured in
conjunction with density to calculate basal area, which is the area of woody stems per area
of ground (eg.,m2/ha). Either a tape measure or calliper is needed to measure DBH. If
conference is measured, the following formulas are used to derive to derive the DBH and
basal area: c=2πr; r=c/2π; and d=2r, where c=circumference, r=radius and d=diameter. The
basal area of the each tree = πr2; the basal area of forest (m2/ha) =(x tree) (density).

37
 The height of the tree is another important parameter. Several devices are available for
measuring height. The instrument we will use is a clinometer, which is a simple hand-held
stand (preferably above the base) at a known distance (tape measured) from the tree and
look into the opening through the eye piece at one end. When looking into the instrument
you will see a horizontal line and two scales: the left scale is in degrees, whereas the right
scale is in percent. The percent scale measures the height of the object as the percentage of
the distance from the object. When the horizontal line is aligned with the bottom of the tree
and the percent recorded. If standing below the base of the tree, the difference between
the two percentages is used to determine height.
Another parameter of interest is the percent canopy cover, which represents the
percentage of the overhead area occupied by leaves and stems on the canopy of the forest.
A spherical densitometer, which uses a convex or concave mirror with a gridding system, is
used to measure the canopy over. To measure canopy cover, hold the instrument level at
elbow height. The grid has 24 squares. Imagine that each square is divided into four squares
(quarter-squares) and count the number of spaces not covered by vegetation that are
equivalent to quarter squares. The number is then multiplied by 1.04 and subtracted from
100 to obtain percent canopy cover.
A variety of methods have been developed for measuring vegetation communities. In
this laboratory exercise we will briefly participate in two of three commonly used methods
namely the random quadrat method and point- centered quarter methods as outlined
below.

METHODS FOR MEASURING DENSITY AND BASAL AREA.

1. Random quadrat method
A forest stand is subjectively selected and quadrats (usually 10m by 10m, but for
this exercise 5m by 5m thus 25 m2) are randomly selected, using random
numbers table. The number of stems (usually for each species , but for this
exercise overall number) is counted in each quadrat to ascertain an approximate
density value, the diameter at breast height (DBH) is calculated from CBH
(circumference at breast height) measured from each tree within the quadrat
(use measuring tape and meter rule), and the height of each tree is measured
using clinometers.
2. Bitterlich variable plot method
Random points are selected in the forest, normally along a transect (e.g. a trail).
A special instrument is held at a fixed distance from eye, and the investigator
slowly turns in a complete circle. All stems with a DBH wider than the
instrument are counted, and a basal area factor (BAF) is the number which is
multiplied by the number of tallies to obtain basal area (m 2/ha). This is a
method used by foresters to estimate the amount of lumber in a forest. The
instrument that is used is a cruiser’s crutch, which is transparent plastic device
attached to a metal chain. The slope of the land is estimated to the nearest 5
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 degrees and the appropriate line on the plastic device is selected to viewing
DBH. The chain has five balls attached; the nearest ball is 6 factors, whereas the
farthest ball is 2 factors. One of the balls is selected and held just under the eye
while the plastic device is held at the end of the chain for viewing DBH.
3. Point-centered method.

Several random points (about 10) are selected in the forest, normally along a
transect (e.g. a trail) using a random table. The area around each point is divided into
four 90 degree quarters. The distance (m) to nearest tree in each quarter is measured
and recorded, the CBH (circumference at the height used to calculate DBH) is measured
using the clinometers. Density (stems/ha) is calculated as 10,000/(x distance) 2.

EXERCISES

A. On the field trip to Mt. St. Benedict, the two forest systems are going to be
measured and compared for students to gain exposure to methods used for
obtaining forest data. The class will be divided into two groups and for each forest
each group will be directly responsible for using one of the methods to gather the
data. In addition to measuring equipment (meter rules, set squares, tape
measures,clinometers,twine,stakes,chalk,etc, which are supplied by the lab,
students are advised to walk with note pads and pens, headgear and compasses, if
available. The data with the necessary calculations for density (approx or avg.),
(Basal Area, Avg. tree height and average DBH) are to be compiled and submitted
with answers to the following questions.
i. Which method as applied for this exercise do you think is more
accurate?
ii. How might the accuracy of the other method be improved?

B. The following data represent two actual samples taken from Caribbean pine (Pinus
caribaea) plantation (planted in 1972) and a similar-sized adjacent stand of native
lower montane rain forest at Mount Saint Benedict, Trinidad. The data were
obtained in 1996 using the point-centered quarter method as indicated above.
Canopy cover was measured at intervals along the trail with a spherical desiometer.

EXOTIC PINE FOREST NATIVE MONTANE FOREST

DBH HEIGHT CANOPY DBH height Canopy
(m) (m) (%) (m) (m) (%)
0.35 12.1 85 0.05 6.4 98
0.18 14.0 69 0.05 5.1 100
0.27 17.4 95 0.43 22.4 100

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 0.26 21.1 91 1.23 28.3 100
0.21 13.4 81 1.21 41.0 99
0.35 20.1 83 0.35 19.7 100
0.25 12.8 86 0.48 10.5 100
0.19 19.1 82 033 6.8 100
0.24 17.3 81 033 6.8 100
0.29 18.5 85 0.22 13.0 99

Exercise B Report Sheet

Variable Mean Minimum Maximum

Diameter at breast height (m)

Pine Forest
Montane Forest

Tree height (m)

Pine forest
Montane forest

Canopy cover (%)

Pine Forest
Montane Forest

The mean distance between each point and the nearest tree within the quarter was 2.78m
for the exotic pine forest and 2.92m for the native montane forest. Using these statistics and
the data in the table above, calculate density and basal area and fill in the table.

Variable
Density (stems/ha)
Basal area (m2/ha)

Based on the data in the two tables above, your observations on the field trip, please
answer the following questions in the blanks provided. NB. Variation may be evaluated by
comparing the minimum and maximum values.

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Which forest has the wider tree? _______________________
Which forest varies the most in width? _______________________
Which forest has the taller trees? _______________________
Which forest has the greater canopy cover? _______________________
Which forest varies the most in canopy cover? ________________________
Which forest should have the most undergrowth? ________________________
Which forest do you think is more humid? ________________________
Which forest has a greater density? _______________________
Which forest has a greater basal area? _______________________
Which forest do you think has the faster growth rate? ______________________
Which forest do you think has the most lumber at present? ______________________
Which forest do you think has higher biodiversity? ______________________
Which forest varies the most in height? ______________________

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