PRODUCTION OF BIOFUEL

MINI-PROJECT
PRESENTED FOR THE
DEGREE
OF
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE
IN THE
UNIVERSITY OF SIERRA LEONE
FOURAH BAY COLLEGE
IN THE
FACULTY OF PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE
CHEMISTRY DEPARTMENT
BY
MALIKE SHAMEL
I.D: 35863
JULY 2021
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I give thanks and praise to Allah for providing me guidance, good health,
and strength during this work.

I would like to give a special thanks to my family and friends, particularly

Fatima Kayat, a pharmaceutical student at Weifanguniversity china.
List of abbreviations

CO2 -------- Carbon dioxide

CO -------- Carbon monoxide

FFA ------ Free Fatty Acid

R ------- Alkyl group

SASO ----- Sugar Apple Seed Oil

SN ---- Saponification Number

IV ----- Iodine number

CN --- cetane number

Table of contents

Acknowledgment

Abstract

List of abbreviations

1. Introduction ..........................................................................................................1-3

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................

2.1 PRODUCTION OF BIODIESEL ........................................................................................4

2.2 DIRECT USE AND BLENDING......................................................................................... 4
2.3 MICRO-EMULSIONS PROCESS......................................................................................... 4
2.4 THERMAL CRACKING (PYROLYSIS) ............................................................................... 4-5
3.0 Materials and Method........................................................................................5
3.1 Oil Extractions............................................................................................... .................5
3.2. Fatty Acid Composition of Sugar Apple Seed Oil............................................. ..............6
3.3 TRANSESTERIFICATION PROCESS..................................................... ...............................6-7
3.4. Analytical and Test Methods. ........................................................................................ 7
4. Result and discussion...................................................................... ....................7
4.1. Oil Content of Sugar Apple Seeds................................................................................... 7
4.2. Fatty Acid Composition Analysis..................................................................................... 7
4.3. Physicochemical Properties of SASO and SABD............................................................. 8
4.3. Physicochemical Properties of SASO and SABD............................................................. 9
4.4. Effect of Catalyst Concentration on Biodiesel Production............................................ 9 ,
4.5. Effect of Reaction Time on Biodiesel Production......................................................... 9 ,
4.6. Effect of Reaction Temperature on Biodiesel Production.............................................9-10
5. Conclusions......................................................... ....................................................10-11
6.0 REFERENCE ...........................................................................................................11-13
Abstract

Biodiesel has become a key source as a substitution fuel and is making its place as a key future
renewable energy source. As another method of making fuel for diesel engines, it is becoming
increasingly important due to diminishing petroleum reserves and the environmental consequences
of exhaust gases from petroleum-fuelled engines. To lessen the bio-fuel cost, in recent day’s waste
cooking oil was used as feedstock. The used cooking oils are used as raw material, adoption of
continuous transesterification process and recovery of high-quality glycerol from biodiesel
by-product (glycerol) are primary options to be considered to lower the cost of biodiesel. There are
four primary ways to make biodiesel: direct use and blending, micro-emulsions, thermal cracking
(pyrolysis), and transesterification. The utilization of liquid fuels such as biodiesel produced from
used cooking oil by the transesterification process represents one of the most promising options for
the use of conventional fossil fuels. However, as biodiesel is produced from vegetable oils and animal
fats, there are concerns that biodiesel feedstock may compete with food supply in the long term.
Currently, the higher GHG emissions from fossil fuels have convinced policymakers, investors, and
researchers to think more of the substitution of fossil fuels to save the planet. In this review, the
processes of biodiesel production by transesterification and factors affecting biodiesel production are
also addressed. The exhaustible fossil-based fuel and its negative impact on the environment, when
used in diesel engines has stimulated to search for an alternative source of energy. In this regard,
bio-fuel seems a quite viable solution, as it is renewable and environmentally benign. From the last
three decades, scientists and researchers all over the world have contributed methods to utilize
efficiently bio-origin resources. Experimental investigation on the use of biodiesel prepared from
vegetable oil in diesel engines also seemed successful and encouraging. Several kinds of the
literature suggest a 20% blending of biodiesel in high-speed diesel could be used in diesel engines.
Most of the studies reveal the use of biodiesel reduces CO, HC, and CO2 and increases NOx emission.
Performance parameters such as; brake thermal efficiency decrease with an increase in biodiesel
blend as a result of the lower heat content of biodiesel fuel compared to petro-diesel.
1. Introduction

Energy is the critical input factor for the socio-economic development and welfare of human beings
of any country. Fossil fuels are the major source of energy demand since their exploration [Moser
BR]. Due to limited reserves of fossil fuels, environmental degradation, and volatility in fuel prices,
there is a growing need for energy security and the protection of the environment. Countries like
India; the united state of America e.t.c. with an agricultural background has a vast wasteland, which
can be utilized for growing plants/crops, which produce non-edible oil in appreciable quantity [C. P.
Reddy]. Thus indigenously produced bio-diesel, which is defined as the mono-alkyl esters of
vegetable oils or animal fats, obtained by transesterified oil or fat with alcohol, is considered one of
the options to substitute the petroleum fuels [G. Knothe]. Biodiesel is nothing but, chemically
treated triglycerides which is an alternative to petroleum diesel. The chemical process is called
transesterification. However, due to the high free fatty acid content of the cheaper non-edible
feedstock conventional alkali-catalyzed transesterification is not possible for biodiesel production [H.
J. Berchmans et. al]. Many researchers have produced biodiesel from non-edible oil, which includes
Jatropha (Jatropha Curcas)oil [H. J. Berchmans et. al, H. C. Ong, et. al] karanja or Honge (pongamia
pinnata/glabra) seed oil [S. R. Kalbande et. al, L.C.Meher et. al, M.N.Nabi et. al], polanga
(calophyllum inophyllum) seed oil, rubber (Hevea Brasiliensis)seed oil, mahua(Madhuca indica) oil,
tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) seed oil, bitter almond (Prunus dulcis) oil, castor (Ricinus communis)
seed oil, okra (Hibiscus esculentus) seed oil, Kusum (Schleichera trijuga) oil, Simarouba (Simarouba
glauca), milo (Thespesia populnea) seed oil milk thistle (Silybum marianum) seed oil, and wild
safflower (CarthamusoxyacanthaBieb)seed oil. In the production process of biodiesel, the effects of
process parameters such as alcohol to oil molar ratio, catalyst concentration, reaction time, and
reaction temperature have been studied and optimized. The fuel properties of produced biodiesel
have been investigated and compared with the standard specifications for assessing their feasibility
to substitute petroleum fuels. However, there are many other non-edible oils for which process
parameters are not being optimized. One among them is sugar apple (Annona squamosa) seed oil.
Annona squamosa, the sugar apple, sweetsop, or sugar-pineapple, is a species in the Annonaceae
family. Sugar apple is grown in lowland tropical climates worldwide, including southern Mexico, the
Antilles, and Central and South America, Tropical Africa, Australia, Indonesia, Polynesia, and the USA,
Hawaii, Sierra Leone, and Florida. Sugar apple tree ranges from 3 to 6m in height with an open crown
of irregular branches and somewhat zigzag twigs. Deciduous leaves, alternately arranged on short,
hairy petioles, are lanceolate or oblong, blunt-tipped, 5 to 15cm long, and 2 to 5cm wide with
dull-green on the upper side, and pale, with a bloom on the lower side. The leaves are slightly hairy
when young and aromatic when crushed. Along with the branch tips, opposite the leaves, the
fragrant flowers are borne singly or in groups of 2 to 4. They are oblong, 2.5 to 3.8cm long, never
fully open with 2.5cm long, drooping stalks and 3 fleshy outer petals, yellow-green on the outside,
and pale-yellow from the inside with a purple or dark-red spot at the base. The 3 inner petals are
merely tiny scales. The compound fruit is nearly round, ovoid, or conical and it is 6 to 10cm long. The
fruit is thick rind composed of knobby segments, pale-green, gray-green, bluish-green, or, in one
form, dull, deep-pink externally (nearly always with a bloom), separating when the fruit is ripe and
revealing the mass of conically segmented, creamy-white, glistening, delightfully fragrant, juicy,
sweet, and delicious flesh. Many of the segments enclose a single oblong-cylindrical, black, or
dark-brown seed about 1.25cm long. There may be a total of 20 to 38, or perhaps more, seeds in the
average fruit [P. Nakpong et. al]. The sugar apple, fruits, and seeds are shown in Figure 1.
Table 1: Fatty acid composition of sugar apple seed oil.

Fatty acid composition Weight %

Lauric acid (C12:0) 0.08
Palmitic acid (C16:0) 17.79
Stearic acid (C18:0) 4.29
Oleic acid (C18:1) 39.72
Linoleic acid (C18:2 29.13
Linolenic acid (C18:3) 1.37
Arachidonic acid (C20:4) 1.06
Behenic acid (C22:0) 2.01
[13]

Figure 1: Sugar apple (Annona squamosa) fruits and seeds.

The emphasis of the present work is to produce biodiesel from Annona squamosa seed oil by
transesterification process using methanol and Potassium hydroxide (KOH) as the catalyst and to
study the effect of process parameters such as alcohol to oil, molar ratio, reaction time, and reaction
temperature on the yield of biodiesel. Further, the physic-chemical properties of produced biodiesel
are investigated and compared with diesel and standard specifications of biodiesel to assess its
feasibility to replace the petroleum fuel.

Transesterification reaction mechanisms (R1, R2, and R3 are long-chain hydrocarbons, sometimes
called fatty acid chains).
 Biodiesel has a relatively high flash point, which makes it less volatile and safer to transport or
handle than petroleum diesel. Engine wear and longer engine life are advantages that can be
provided by biodiesel as it does have lubricating properties. Therefore, the use of biodiesel has
grown vividly during the last few years.

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 PRODUCTION OF BIODIESEL different processes can be applied to synthesize biodiesel such as
direct use and blending, microemulsion process, thermal cracking process, and the most convenient
way is the transesterification process. This is because this method is relatively easy, carried out at
normal conditions, and gives the best conversion efficiency and quality of the converted fuel [H.
Shahid, E.M. et. al]

2.2 DIRECT USE AND BLENDING The direct use of vegetable oils in diesel engines is not favorable
and problematic because it has many inherent failings. Even though vegetable oils have familiar
properties as biodiesel fuel, it requires some chemical modification before it can be used in the
engine. It has only been researched extensively for the past couple of decades but has been
experimented with for almost a hundred years. Although some diesel engines can run pure vegetable
oils, turbocharged direct injection engines such as trucks are prone to many problems. Energy
consumption with the use of pure vegetable oils was found to be similar to that of diesel fuel. For
short-term use, a ratio of 1:10 to 2:10 oil to diesel is successful [ H. Shahid et. al].

2.3 MICRO-EMULSION PROCESS The problem of the high viscosity of vegetable oils was solved by
micro-emulsions with solvents such as methanol, ethanol, and 1-butanol [Ghaly, A.E et. al]. A
microemulsion is defined as the colloidal equilibrium dispersion of optically isotropic fluid
microstructures with dimensions generally in the range of 1–150 nm formed spontaneously from two
normally immiscible liquids and one or more ionic or non-ionic [Arifin, S.F, and Raghavendra
Prasada]. The components of a biodiesel micro- emulsion include diesel fuel, vegetable oil, alcohol,
and surfactant, and cetane improver in suitable proportions. Alcohols such as methanol and ethanol
are used as viscosity lowering additives, higher alcohols are used as surfactants and alkyl nitrates are
used as cetane improvers. Microemulsions can improve spray properties by explosive vaporization of
the low boiling constituents in the micelles. Micro-emulsion results in a reduction in viscosity,
increase in cetane number, and good spray characteristics in the biodiesel. However, continuous use
of micro-emulsified diesel in engines causes problems like injector needle sticking, carbon deposit
formation, and incomplete combustion [ Parawira, W].

2.4 THERMAL CRACKING (PYROLYSIS) Pyrolysis is defined as the conversion of one substance into
another using heat or heating with the aid of a catalyst. Pyrolysis involves heating in the absence of
air or oxygen and cleavage of chemical bonds to yield small molecules. The pyrolysis of vegetable oil
to produce biofuels has been studied and found to produce alkanes, alkenes, alkadienes, aromatics,
and carboxylic acids in various proportions. The equipment for thermal cracking and pyrolysis is
expensive for modest biodiesel production, particularly in developing countries. Furthermore, the
removal of oxygen during the thermal processing also removes any environmental benefits of using
an oxygenated fuel. Another disadvantage of pyrolysis is the need for separate distillation equipment
for the separation of the various fractions. Also, the product obtained is similar to gasoline containing
sulfur which makes it less eco-friendly [ Parawira, W].

Pyrolytic chemistry is difficult to characterize because of the variety of reaction paths and the variety
of reaction products that may be obtained from the reaction. The pyrolyzed material can be
vegetable oils, animal fats, natural fatty acids, overnight,d methyl esters of fatty acids. The first
pyrolysis of vegetable oil was conducted in an attempt to synthesize petroleum from vegetable

Transesterification The most common way to produce biodiesel is the transesterification method,
which refers to a catalyzed chemical reaction involving vegetable oil and alcohol to yield fatty acid
alkyl esters (biodiesel) and glycerol. The reaction requires a catalyst, usually, a strong base, such as
sodium and potassium hydroxide or sodium methylate [ Demirbas, A. and Piloto-Rodríguez, R. et. al]
and/or sulphuric acid-based transesterification processes. Acid catalysts are too slow to be practical
for converting triglycerides to biodiesel; however, acid catalysts are quite effective at converting FFAs
to biodiesel. Therefore, an acid-catalyzed pre-treatment step to convert the FFAs to esters, followed
by an alkali-catalyzed step to convert the triglycerides should provide an efficient method to convert
high FFAs to biodiesel [Antony Raja]. Transesterification process helps reduce the viscosity of the oil
[Piloto-Rodríguez, R.].

A catalyst is usually used to improve the reaction rate and the yield. Since the reaction is reversible,
excess alcohol is used to shift the equilibrium to the product side. Methanol is used as alcohol
because of its low cost and its physical and chemical advantages. Methanol can quickly react with
vegetable oil and NaOH can easily dissolve in it [Demirbas, A. and Antony Raja, S. et. al]. The
stoichiometric reaction requires 1 mol of triglyceride and 3 mol of alcohol. However, an excess of the
alcohol is used to increase the yields of the alkyl esters and to allow its phase separation from the
glycerol formed [Antony Raja, S, et. al]. The triglycerides are reacted with suitable alcohol (Methyl,
Ethyl, or others) in the presence of a catalyst under a controlled temperature for a given length of
time. The chemical reaction of the triglyceride with alcohol is shown below. With higher alcohols, the
chemical equation would change correspondingly,

3. Materials and Method

3.1. Oil Extraction. The seeds were collected from the different households as one discards the seeds
after consuming the fruit. The collected seeds were dried and crushed in a mechanical expeller. For
complete extraction of oil the seeds were passed four times through the expeller. The neat oil is
allowed to settle for 48 hours and after that oil is stored in an airtight container to avoid oxidation [L.
C. Meher, et. al].

3.2. Fatty Acid Composition of Sugar Apple Seed Oil. The vegetable oil extracted from a plant is
composed of triglyceride, which is an ester derived from three fatty acids and one glycerol—the fatty
acid composition of sugar apple seed oil (SASO) [H. Sadia, M. et, al] is given in Table 1.

3.3 TRANSESTERIFICATION PROCESS

The transesterification process is a reversible reaction and is carried out by mixing the reactants –
fatty acids, alcohol, and catalyst. A strong base or a strong acid can be used as a catalyst. At the
industrial scale, mostly sodium or potassium methanolate is used. The end products of the
transesterification process are raw biodiesel and raw glycerol. In a further process, (sometimes these
raw products undergo a cleaning step. In the case of using methanol as alcohol FAME (fatty acid
methyl ester) biodiesel is produced [H. Sadia, M et. al]. The purified glycerol can be used in the food
and cosmetic industries, as well as in the oleochemical industry. The glycerol can also be
used as a substrate for anaerobic digestion.
The transesterification reaction was carried out in a laboratory-scale batch reactor
equipped with a thermometer and condenser; the heating and stirring were done with a hot
plate magnetic stirrer system. In each set of experiments, 50g of oil was heated to the
predefined temperature and after attainment of predefined temperature the mixture of
catalyst and methanol was transferred to the reactor and all the predefined sets of
transesterification reaction conditions were measured from this point for each set of
experiments. The transesterification reaction mechanism is shown in Figure 2.
Stoichiometrically 3:1 molar ratio of alcohol to oil is needed for the completion of
transesterification reaction, but many researchers reported that biodiesel yield is maximum
with an excess molar ratio of alcohol to oil. Hence in the present investigation, in each set of
experiments, a 6:1 molar ratio of alcohol to oil and constant stirrer speed were maintained.
After the completion of a predefined set of transesterification reaction conditions, the
action mixture was transferred into a separating funnel left for 60 minutes to separate into
biodiesel and glycerol. The lower layer of glycerol was removed and the upper layer of crude
biodiesel is washed several times with hot water at 50∘C to remove the impurities, Such as
residual catalyst, methanol, soap, and glycerol. The removal of impurities was confirmed by
measuring the pH of the water. The biodiesel was dried by heating it to a temperature of 110∘C and
allowed over night for evaporation and cooling. The final product was weighed to determine the
biodiesel yield.
Table 2: ASTM standard test methods used for determination of fuel properties.

3.4. Analytical and Test Methods. The mean molecular weight, saponification number (SN), iodine
value (IV), and cetane number (CN) were determined from the fatty acid composition of oil using (1),
(2), (3), and(4); respectively [19, 23]

MW(oil) =3×∑ (MW𝑖 × 𝑥𝑖) + 38 ------------(1)

where MW(oil) stands for molecular weight of SASO and MW𝑖 and 𝑥𝑖 ,stand for molecular weight
and mass fraction of 𝑖th fatty acid; respectively,

SN = ∑ (560 ×𝐴𝑖/ MW𝑖), ---------------- (2)

IV = ∑ (254 × 𝐷 ×𝐴𝑖/ MW𝑖), --------------- (3)

CN = 46.3 +5458 SN− 0.225 × IV, ---------------- (4)

Where 𝐴𝑖 is the percentage, 𝐷 is the number of double bonds, and MW𝑖 is the molecular mass of
each component. The fuel properties of sugar apple seed oil (SASO) and sugar apple biodiesel (SABD)
were determined as per the ASTM standards as given in Table 2. In this paper the biodiesel yield was
calculated using

Biodiesel yield = (biodiesel)/ 𝑚 (oil)× 100 ------------- (5)

Where (biodiesel) is the weight of SABD after purification and 𝑚 oil is the weight of SAS

4. Result and discussion

4.1. Oil Content of Sugar Apple Seeds. The oil extracted from the mechanical expeller was weighed
after filtering; it was found that the sugar apple seeds contain a moderate quantity of oil, 24.5w/w %
oil, and thus it can be a suitable feedstock for the production of biodiesel [ L. C.Meher, S].

4.2. Fatty Acid Composition Analysis. Generally, three main types of fatty acids are present in
triglyceride and they are saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated. The quality of biodiesel
will be affected by the fatty acid composition of oil, preferably the vegetable oil should have low
saturated and low polyunsaturated fatty acid composition, and the composition of monounsaturated
fatty acid should be high. Table 1 shows the fatty acid composition of SASO and it contains a
predominant amount of monounsaturated fatty acid composition, that is, 39.72%, followed by
31.56% of polyunsaturated fatty acid and 24.07% of saturated fatty acids. The SASO were oleic
acid,39.72%, linoleic acid, 29.13%, palmitic acid, 17.79%, and stearic acid, 4.29%. Thus the SASO can
be classified as oleic-linoleic oil [ L. C.Meher, S].

4.3. Physicochemical Properties of SASO and SABD. The physical and chemical properties of SASO
and SABD were determined as per the ASTM standard test procedures and tabulated in Table 3. The
iodine value of SASO is 118mgI2/g, as the iodine value is higher, which indicates the un-saturation of
SASO. The heating of these higher fatty acids results in the polymerization of glycerides, which
necessitates the limitation of unsaturated fatty acids; otherwise, it leads to the formation of deposits
and deterioration of lubricating oil. The saponification of SASO was 192, which indicates that the
SASO is a normal triglyceride and useful in the production of soaps. The FFA (free fatty acid) content
of the oil is 0.965%, as it is less than the biodiesel that can be produced using a single-stage
transesterification process, that is, by base-catalyzed transesterification process. The flashpoints of
SASO, SABD, and diesel were 235, 161, and 54 degrees Celsius, respectively. The flashpoints of SASO
and SABD are found to be much higher in comparison with diesel, which helps in safe storage and
transportation. The densities of SASO and SABD were higher than that of diesel, which may be due to
the presence of higher molecular weight triglycerides. The kinematic viscosity of SASO was found to
be 42.63mm2/s, which is much higher than that of diesel; hence the direct use of SASO may lead to
poor combustion, untimely wear of fuel pumps, and injector. The viscosity of SASO was reduced by
converting it to biodiesel and it was found to be 5.90mm2/s, which is within the limits of standard
specification for biodiesel fuel. Calorific values of SASO, SABD, and diesel were found to be 37.95,
40.48, and 43.00MJ/kg, respectively. The calorific values of studied oil and biodiesel are found to be
lower than that of diesel, which may be due to the difference in chemical composition or the
presence of oxygen molecules in the molecular structure of the oil. The other parameters, that is,
cetane number, calculated cetane index, sulfated ash, carbon residue, copper strip corrosion, and
distillation temperature, were found to be within the limits of standard specifications for biodiesel
fuel [ L. C.Meher, S].
Table 3: Physicochemical properties of SASO and SBD in comparison with commercially available
diesel and AS TM standard specifications for biodiesel fuel.

Figure 3: Effect of catalyst concentration on biodiesel yield (molar ratio of 6:1, reaction temperature
of 60 ∘ C, and reaction time of 60 minutes).

4.4. Effect of Catalyst Concentration on Biodiesel Production. The catalyst concentration is one of
the most significant parameters which affect biodiesel yield. Figure 3 shows the effect of NaOH
catalyst concentration on the yield of bio-diesel; during the process, the other parameters are kept
constant. It is observed that the biodiesel yield increases when catalyst concentration is increased
from 0.25w/w % to 0.50w/w % and decreases when increased from 0.50w/w % to 0.75w/w %. The
decrease in yield at 0.25w/w % of catalyst concentration may be due to incomplete reaction and at
0.75w/w % of catalyst concentration may be because the higher amount of catalyst concentration
favors the saponification reaction; thus further increase in catalyst concentration was not studied.
From the present investigation, the optimum amount of catalyst concentration was found to be
0.50w/w % with 90.69% biodiesel yield. [ Antony Raja, S. et. al]

4.5. Effect of Reaction Time on Biodiesel Production. To study the effect of reaction time on the
production of biodiesel, the transesterification reaction was carried out by varying the reaction time
as 45, 60, 75, and 90 minutes and by keeping other process parameters constant. Figure 4 shows the
effect of reaction time on the yield of biodiesel. Varying the reaction time from 45 to 60minutes and
60 to 75minutes, the percentage yield of biodiesel is increased. The percentage yield of biodiesel is
decreased with a further increase in reaction time from 75 to 90 minutes; this may be due to the
formation of more soap. The highest percentage yield of biodiesel was noticed when the reaction
time was 75 minutes and it is found to be 95.15%.

4.6. Effect of Reaction Temperature on Biodiesel Production. Further experiments were conducted
by keeping the reaction temperature at 40, 50, 60, and 75 ∘ C to study the effect of reaction
temperature. The catalyst concentration of 0.5w/w % and reaction time of 75 minutes was
maintained. Figure 5 shows the effect of reaction temperature on biodiesel yield. As the methanol
boils at 65 ∘C, varying the reaction temperature from 40 to 60 ∘C the biodiesel yield is increased and
biodiesel yield asdecreasedattemperatureof70 ∘ C; this may be attributed to the occurrence of
saponification reaction higher temperature. The highest biodiesel yield is found to be 95.15% at
60∘C.

Figure 4: Effect of reaction time on biodiesel yield (molar ratio of 6:1, reaction temperature of 60 ∘ C,
and catalyst concentration of 0.5w/w %).

Figure 5: Effect of reaction temperature on biodiesel yield (molar ratio of 6:1, reaction time of 75
minutes, and catalyst concentration of 0.5w/w %).
5.0 Conclusions

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the sugar apple seed oil as a potential raw material
for the production of biodiesel and to assess its feasibility for the replacement of petroleum fuel. The
sugar apple seed oil was converted into biodiesel successfully by the transesterification process and
the following conclusions were drawn.

(1) The sugar apple oil was converted to biodiesel by a single-stage base-catalyzed transesterification
process without any pre-treatment as the FFA content is found to be less than 1%.

(2) The optimized process parameters are catalyst concentration of 0.5w/w %, the reaction time of
75 minutes and reaction temperature of 60 ∘ C with alcohol to oil molar ratio of 6:1, and constant
stirrer speed. The biodiesel yield was found to be 95.15% at the optimized process parameters.

(3) The physical and chemical properties of biodiesel produced were found to be close to those of
diesel fuel and also they meet the ASTM standard specifications for biodiesel.

Review on biodiesel performance and emission Owing to a better standard of living and an
ever-growing population, global energy consumption is increasing day by day. The net import of
petroleum fuel is increasing very rapidly. In this regard, the use of bio-origin liquid fuel is the best
alternative to ultra-sulfur petroleum fuel, which not only causes huge dependency on other
countries but also causes irreversible damage to our environment. Researchers across the world have
put serious efforts to curb carbon emissions and reduce global warming. Both direct injection and
indirect injection diesel engines were used for performance and emission evaluation and
characterization. 5% palm oil and 5% coconut oil blended with diesel for evaluating the performance
and emission characteristics of an indirect ignition engine. They obtained reductions in brake power
for both blended fuel and increase in exhaust gas temperature for palm and decrease in temperature
for coconut blended fuel. Both CO and HC are reduced by a good amount and NOx emission is
reduced for coconut blend by 1% and increases by 2% for palm blend. They concluded more
unsaturated fatty acid in palm oil causes a comparatively lower emission profile of palm blend fuel.
Indirect ignition engine for performance, emission, and heat release analysis. They found with the
addition of methanol by 10% and advancing injection by 30% could reduce the smoke to a great
extent. Studied the performance, emission, and combustion characteristics of rapeseed biodiesel and
its diesel blends. He observed no noticeable difference between the engine power obtained from the
5% blend and diesel, but a decrease in power for other blends. Exhaust gas temperature, NOx, BSFC
increase with a decrease in CO and smoke opacity. Soybean biodiesel and its 50 % blend on a
passenger car. They observed more specific fuel consumption in the case of biodiesel blends owing
to the lower heat content. An opposite trend has been observed in their investigation as both CO and
HC increase and Nox decreases for biodiesel blends. However, for B100, NOx emission increases by
9%. Performance and emission characteristics of a direct ignition diesel engine fuelled by mahua
biodiesel. They found all the pollutant (HC, CO, smoke number, NOx) emissions decreased as
compared to diesel-run on the same engine. A study was also made, biodiesel made from mahua oil
and its diesel blend in a Ricardo E6 engine. They found a decrease in brake thermal efficiency, smoke,
CO, and an increase in specific fuel consumption and NOx. Sunflower oil, rapeseed oil in a diesel
engine. They observed long-term durability issues with vegetable oil. Effect of iodine value on NOx
emission and observed the NOx emission increases with increase in Iodine values as a result of an
increase in un-saturation. Linseed oil biodiesel and diesel blend in a diesel engine. They observed
B20 blend shows the highest brake thermal efficiency and lowest smoke opacity compared to other
test fuels. Surprisingly all the biodiesel blends showed higher efficiency than diesel fuel. The effect of
injection time on performance and emission characteristics. Long-term durability test with biodiesel
(Linseed oil methyl ester) in a diesel engine and found B20 blend was the optimum blend for diesel
substitute. The brake thermal efficiency with brake means effective pressure plot for B20 blend and
diesel fuel is presented in Fig. 2. They observed lesser carbon deposits on piston top and injector
coking reduced for biodiesel blend. The higher concentration of biodiesel blend reduced exhaust
smoke and gas temperature increased with blend concentration. Turbocharged diesel engine fuelled
with soybean biodiesel to evaluate performance and emission characteristics. They found the neat
biodiesel and blend possessed similar brake power and slightly higher fuel consumption. All exhaust
emissions decreased except for NOx. Emission of a diesel engine fuelled with rapeseed methyl ester
and observed biodiesel and its diesel blend increased carbon dioxide and reduced HC emission.
Jatropha oil for energizing a diesel engine by changing injection timing, injector opening pressure,
injection rate, and air swirl level to investigate performance, emission, and combustion mechanism.
Used high oleic oil soybean in a direct ignition diesel engine. He found a greater reduction of smoke
using high oleic soybean oil than regular soybean oil. However, HC and Smoke emission had not
changed markedly for regular and high oleic soybean biodiesel. Karanja methyl ester in a diesel
engine with a varying blend from B20 to B80 and neat Karanja biodiesel. They observed a surprising
reduction of 80% smoke level, 50 % CO level, and 26% NOx level compared to that of diesel fuel on
the same engine. They concluded B40 is the optimum blend that can be used in a diesel engine
without sacrificing power output.

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