Nuclear and Particle Physics

Topic: Shell Model

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CHAPTER 2: NUCLEAR MODELS – SHELL MODEL
We will discuss the evidences and the principles of shell model and how the magic numbers are
obtained. We will also describe how to write down the spin-parity assignments for nuclei and
whether this model can be used to describe the nuclear electromagnetic moments.

Text Books:
1. Kenneth Krane – Chapter 5
2. D C Tayal – Chapter 9

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 Nuclear Models
So far we have the semi-empirical mass formula to describe the nucleus.
( )
M (Z , A) = Zm 1 H + Nm (n ) − B(Z , A) / c 2

B (Z , A ) = a1 A − a2 A2 / 3
( A − 2Z )2 +
− a3 Z (Z − 1)A−1/ 3 − a4 
  
droplet or liquid drop model Coulomb  A
 pairing
Fermi gas
Points to note
1. The individual terms do not indicate a coherent theoretical model. That is they do not
come from the same model.
2. This formula does not include spin and angular momentum.
3. It cannot predict certain features of the nuclear spectra.
• Namely the “shells” of the nucleus
• From experiments, it is suggested that nucleus may have “shell” structures analogous
to Bohr’s atom. 3
Atomic Shell Model

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Proton Neutron 5
Atomic Shell Model
Magic numbers

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Atomic Shell Model Spin and parity
assignments

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Experimental verified properties of nuclear spin
1. Z-even N-even, I = 0
• This is evidence of nuclear pairing force.

2. A-odd (Z-odd N-even or Z-even N-odd) have “small” total angular momentum, I < 9/2
• Nuclear spin is generally due to the extra n or p alone.

3. Z-odd N-odd have total angular momentum determine by the coupling of the odd p and
odd n. I = jn + jp < 6
• Must be integer because we are coupling 2 fermions

Nuclear spin is mainly determined by the 1 or 2 “extra” proton/neutron

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 Shell Model
Two “problems” to address if we want to apply shell model to the nucleus
1. In atoms, the potential in which electrons “orbit” is established by the nucleus (external
agent).
***However, for the nucleus, the potential in which the nucleons “move” in, is produced by
the nucleons themselves.***

2. In atoms, the electrons “move” in spatial orbit relatively free of collision with other
electrons.
***However, the nucleons are relatively large in the small nucleus. Thus the nucleons cannot
move freely in the nucleus.***

The fundamental assumption of the shell model:

The motion of a single nucleon is governed by a potential caused by all of the other nucleons.
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 Basic Assumptions of the Shell Model

• Nucleons in a nucleus move independently in a common (mean) potential

determined by the average motion of all the other nucleons.

• Protons and neutrons separately fill levels in the nucleus.

• Most of the nucleons are paired and a pair of nucleons contributes zero spin

and zero magnetic moment. The paired nucleons thus form an inert core.

• The properties of odd A nuclei are characterized by the unpaired nucleon

and odd–odd nuclei by the unpaired proton and neutron.

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 Evidence of shell model (Magic Numbers)
With these “problems”, why do we still wish to have a shell model?
The following are some evidences for a nuclear shell model.
1. Two-neutron separation energy, S2n
• Sudden changes in S2n at certain numbers of N.

measured two neutron separation energies, plotted as

deviations from the predictions from the semi
empirical mass formula
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2. Nuclear charge radius
• Sudden “spikes” at certain number of N

R
=
( ) (
R A+Z2 X N + 2 − R ZA X N )
Rstd R0 [( A + 2) − A1/ 3 ]
1/ 3

Change in nuclear charge radius R for  N=2 exhibits sudden jumps at 20, 28, 50, 82 and 126
To emphasize the shell effects, the radius difference  R has been divided by the standard  R expected from
the A1/3 dependence.

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3. Stable isotope count
• Number of stable isotopes are
large at certain N and Z.

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4. Binding energy
• To eliminate pairing effects, all data points represents either odd-even nuclei or
average nearby nuclei with even A.
• Certain spikes in the data at certain N and Z.

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From these experiments, the sudden or discontinuous behaviour occurs at the same Z or N
number

• Z or N = 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 and 126.

• These are called the magic numbers.

• The shell model we are going to introduce must reproduce these magic numbers.

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 Evidences for magic numbers
• Nuclei with magic numbers are more abundant
• 2He4 and 8O16 are stable and BE/A Vs A shows the stability
• Above Z = 28 only 88Sr (N=50) 138Ba(N=82) 140Ce(N=82) have isotopic abundance
60%
• N=50 (Sn) has 10 stable isotopes
• Z=20 (Ca) has 6 stable isotopes
• N=50 and N=82 has 6 stable isotones (no other nuclei show in nature)
• Z=20 and 126 are more than usually stable
• BE of next neutron or proton after a magic number is very small
• If Z and N both are magic numbers (doubly magic) have exceptionally tightly bound
nucleons 16
 Two major assumptions for shell model
The two major assumptions are to overcome the two problems (evidences) listed earlier.

1. A single nucleon is governed by a potential created by the other nucleons. The nucleons
are so “closed” together such that the potential they create is roughly constant.
• The nucleons move in the potential well created by the other nucleons.
• The combined potential is uniform.
2. Collision between nucleons that would result in energy state increase for one of them
cannot happen if the final energy state is already occupied by another nucleon.
• E.g. 2 nucleons (in some particular states) collide. After collision, they will be in
some final states. However, if the final state is already occupied by another nucleon,
the collision cannot take place.
• Nucleons are reasonably free to move unimpeded in orbits inside the nucleus.
• Consistent with shell model.
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1s1/2 1p3/2 1p1/2 1d5/2 2s1/2 1d3/2 1f7/2 2p3/2 1f5/2 2p1/2 1g9/2 1g7/2

2d5/2 2d3/2 3s1/2 1h11/2 1h9/2 2f7/2 2f5/2 3p3/2 3p1/2 1i13/2 2g9/2 3d5/2

1i11/2 2g7/2 4s1/2 3d3/2 1j15/2

2 4 2 6 2 4 8 4 6 2 10 8
6 4 2 12 10 8 6 4 2 14 10 6
12 8 2 4 16
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