Introduction to Renewable Energy Systems

(RE-501)

Solar Radiation and its Measurement

by
Dr. Kunwar Pal, Scientist-C
SSS-NIBE, Kapurthala-144603
Topics to be covered
In this Chapter We are going to study:
• Solar Radiations
• Types of Solar Radiations
• Geometry for Solar Radiations
• Sunrise, Sunset and Day Length
• Empirical Equations
• Radiation Measuring Instruments
• Indian Scenario
Solar Radiations

• Energy radiated from the sun is basically

Electromagnetic waves.

• The waves reaches earth in mainly three

spectral regions.
• Ultra Voilet Region 6.4% (λ <0.38 μm)
• Visible Region 48% (0.38 μm < λ < 0.78 μm)
• Infra Red Region 45.6 % (λ > 0.78 μm)
Solar Constant

• Solar Constant Isc is the energy from the sun

received per unit area perpendicular to the solar
rays at mean distance from the sun outside the
atmosphere.
• Solar irradiance is solar power per unit area
• Based on Experimental calculations,
Its standards values is
• Isc = 1367 W/m2 Or
• Isc = 4.921 MJ/m2/h
Spectral Distribution of Radiation
• The wavelength distribution of extraterrestrial solar radiation forms a spectral
signature unique to the sun.
Terminology
• The amount of radiation reaching the earth is less than what entered the top of
the atmosphere. We classify it in two categories:

Direct Radiation (Or Beam Radiation) Ib: radiation from the sun that reaches
the earth without scattering

Diffuse Radiation Id : radiation that is scattered by the atmosphere and clouds

• The sum of Beam radiation and Diffused radiation is referred to as Total

radiation (IT = Ib + Id)

• When measured at horizontal surface, it is called global radiation Ig

Terrestrial solar radiation
Terminology
• Zenith Angle (θz): It is the vertical angle between the sun’s rays and the line
perpendicular to the horizontal plane through the point.
• Sun at Zenith: It is the position of the sun directly overhead.
Air Mass
• It represents how much atmosphere the solar radiation has to pass through
before reaching the Earth’s surface
• Air Mass (AM) equals 1.0 when the sun is directly overhead at sea level.
• AM = 1/ Cos θz
Cont…

• Irradiance (W/m2): It is the rate of incident energy per unit area of a surface.

• Albedo: The earth reflects back nearly 30% of the total solar radiant energy
to the space by reflection of the clouds, by scattering and by reflection at the
earth’s surface. This is called albedo of the earth’s atmosphere system.
Analemma
• An analemma shows how sun position, at the same time of day, changes
throughout the year.
• A plot or graph in the shape of a figure eight that shows the position of the sun in
the sky at a given time of day (such as noon) at one specific locale measured
throughout the year.
 Solar Radiation Geometry

• Latitude (φ): The latitude of the place is the angle subtended by the
radial line joining the place to the center of the earth, with the
projection of the line on the equatorial plane.
• Declination (δ): It is the angle subtended by a line joining the centers
of the earth and the sun with its projection on the earth’s equatorial
plane.
• It occurs as the axis of the earth is inclined to the plane of its orbit at
an angle of 66½°
Declination Angle

• According to Cooper (1969) the angle of declination may be calculated as:

 284 + n 
 = 23.45sin  360 
 365 
• Where n = total no of days counted from Jan 1

• The declination angle changes from +23.45° on June 21 to -23.45° on Dec 22. It
is zero at two equinox (March 22 and Sept 22)
Solar Declination
Change in Solar declination
Variation of Declination Angle
Solar Equinox
Solar Equinox
Terminology
• Hour Angle (w) : The angular displacement of the sun east or west of
the local meridian due to the rotation of the earth.
• 15 per hour – noon is zero, so morning negative, afternoon positive
• It Depends on Apparent Solar Time

• Altitude Angle (α): It is the vertical angle between the direction of the
sun’s rays and its projection on the horizontal plane.
• Zenith angle (Φ): It is the vertical angle between the sun’s rays and
the line perpendicular to the horizontal plane through the point. It is
the complimentary angle of the sun’s altitude angle. Thus,
• Φ +α = π/2
Tilted Surface
• Solar Window is the area of sky between sun paths at summer solstice and
winter solstice for a particular location
 Cont…
• Incidence Angle is the angle between the direction of direct radiation and a line
exactly perpendicular to the array angle
Contd…
• Tilt angle or Slope (β): It is the vertical angle between the horizontal and the
array surface
Cont…
• Surface Azimuth angle (γ): It is an angle subtended in the horizontal plane of the
normal to the surface on the horizontal plane.
Tilted Surface conventions
• Slope (β): It is an angle made by the plane surface with the horizontal surface.
The angle is taken as positive for a surface sloping towards south and negative
for a surface sloping north.

• Surface Azimuth angle (γ) is positive if normal is west of south and is negative
when east of south in Northern hemisphere.

• Solar Azimuth Angle (γs): It is an angle in the horizontal plane between the line
due south and projection of beam radiation on the horizontal plane.

• It is positive if the projection of the sun is west of south and negative if it’s east of
south in northern hemisphere
Solar Angles on a collector

Zenith

z

W
N
s 

s


E
South
Calculations for beam angle (θ)
• Incident beam energy on earth can be given by

where: Ib is the incident beam flux

• The general equation to find out the incident angle (θ) is given by
Special Cases

• Case 1: For vertical surfaces β = 90°

• Case 2: For horizontal surfaces β = 0°

Cont…

• Case 3: For northern hemisphere the sun during the winter is towards south so
for south facing γ = 0°

• Case 4 : For vertical surface facing south due north β = 90° and γ = 0°
Sunrise, Sunset and Day length
• The time of Sunrise and sunset and the duration of the day length depend upon the
location and the month of the year

• At sunset and sunrise the sunlight is parallel to the ground surface with zenith angle
of 90°

• The hour angle (ωs) pertaining to sunrise and sunset is give by

Cos ωs = −𝑡𝑎𝑛δ 𝑡𝑎𝑛Φ

Or
_1
ωs = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (−𝑡𝑎𝑛δ 𝑡𝑎𝑛Φ)
Cont…
• The value of the hour angle corresponding to sunrise is positive and negative for
sunset. The total angle between sunrise and sunset is given by
_
2ωs = 2𝐶𝑜𝑠 1(−𝑡𝑎𝑛δ 𝑡𝑎𝑛Φ)

• Since 15° of hour angle corresponds to 1 hour, so the day length (Td) in hours is given
by

2
Day length = cos−1 ( − tan  tan  )
15
 Local Apparent Time (LAT)
• The time used for calculating the hour angle ω is the “local apparent time” which is not the
same as the “local clock time”.
• Local Apparent Time (LAT) = Standard time ± 4(Standard time longitude – Longitude of
location) + (Time correction)
• The positive sign is for the western hemisphere while the negative sign is applicable for the
eastern hemisphere.
Example
• For western hemisphere first correction is positive and vice versa.
• Example: Local Apparent time for Current time (10:00 IST)
• Indian Standard Longitude = 82° 30’ E
• Longitude of Kapurthala = 75° 27’ E

• Date: 8th Sept 2023 ( 252 day since Jan 1)

• From the graph Correction time for 8 Sept is + 4.57 min
• LAT = 10.00 h – 4[82.50 – 75.45] min + (4.57) min
• Hence LAT = 10:00 hr – 00:15:38 = 09:44:22
 Availability of Solar Radiation
• The measurement of solar radiation at every location is not feasible, so to estimate the
availability of Solar radiation Angstrom in 1924 gives the empirical relation as:

• It utilized the meteorological date like the number of sunshine hours, the days-length
and the number of clear days.

where: Hg = monthly average of daily global irradiation on a horizontal surface at a given location (MJ/m2/day)
Hc = monthly average of daily global irradiation on a horizontal surface at same location on clear sky
(MJ/m2/day)
DL = monthly average measured solar day length (hr)
Dmax = monthly average of the longest solar day length (hr)
a, b = constants (depends upon the location)
 Cont…
• Since it is difficult to define clear sky, hence to simplify Hc is replace by Ho
• Ho = Monthly average of daily extra terrestrial radiation that would fall on horizontal
surface at a given location
• Empirical Formula for Ho is given by:

where Isc = Solar constant = 1367 W/m2

ωs = Sunset hour angle, n = day of the year.
Monthly average daily diffuse radiation
• According to Liu and Jordan, the monthly average daily radiation can be given by

where, Hd = monthly average daily radiation in kJ/m2/day

KT = Hg/Ho = monthly average clearness index

Cont…
• When Indian data was analyzed, two linear equation were finalized.
• According to Kreith and Kreiden

• According to Gupta

• The above equiations provide the similar results, also, these are valid for
Solar radiation on Inclined surface
• The total solar radiation on inclined surface has three components:
➢ Beam Solar Radiation
➢ Diffused Solar Radiation
➢ Reflected Solar Radiation from ground and surroundings
• To obtain maximum solar energy the collectors always face the sun using a sun tracking
instrument.
• Therefore, solar radiation collecting devices are tilted at an angle to the horizontal.
• On the other hand, the measuring instrument generally measure the values of solar radiation
falling on a horizontal surface.
• Thus mathematical analysis is required to convert the values measured on horizontal surface
to the corresponding value obtained on the inclined surface.
Beam Radiation

• Generally, the inclined surface faces south to obtain maximum solar radiation even
during winter, i. e., γ =0°, So

• For horizontal surface, (θ = θz)

• The ratio of bean radiation falling on an inclined surface to that falling on a

horizontal surface is termed as tilt factor for beam radiation (Rb)
Rb = (cos θ)/(cos θz)
Diffused Radiation
• The ratio of diffuse radiation falling on a tilted surface to that falling on a horizontal
surface is know as tilt factor for diffused radiation (Rd)

• Rd for an inclined surface with slop β can be calculated as:

where the quantity on R. H. S is the radiation shape factor for an inclined surface with reference to the
sky.
Reflected Radiation

• (1+cos β)/2 is Radiation shape factor for an inclined surface with reference to the
sky.

• Accepting that the beam and the diffused radiation after reflecting from the ground
is diffused and isotropic and the reflectivity is ρ, the tilt factor for reflected
radiation is given by:
Total Radiation

• The total radiation flux falling on an inclined surface at any instant is expressed as:
IT = IbRb + IdRd +(Ib + Id)Rr

or
.: Ig = Ib + Id

• In terms of monthly average daily radiation

Contd…
• According to Liu and Jordan, for a South facing surface (γ=0°)

where ωsi and ωsh are sunrise and sunset hour angles (in radians) for an inclined and horizontal surface
respectively
Solar Radiation Measurements

Solar Radiation data can be measure by following instruments:

1. Pyranometer
2. Pyrheliometer
3. Sunshine Recorder
Pyranometer
Working Principle
Contd…
Shadow ring on Pyranometer

Needs
adjustments
Pyranometer with Tracking
System
Normal Incidence Pyrheliometer
Pyrheliometer
• Adjustment required once a day
Sunshine Recorder
Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder

Glass sphere

Strip of card
Working Principle

• The duration of sunshine is measured by a Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder.

• The recorder consist of a sphere arranged to focus the sun's image on to a bent strip
of card on which the hours are marked.

• When the sun shines with sufficient intensity, the sphere focuses the light on the
paper, which is burned at that spot.

• At the end of the day, the length of the burnt track on the paper enables the sunshine
duration to be calculated. Interruptions in the track indicate passing clouds.
Solar radiation in India

• Since India lies within the latitude of 7° N to 37° N, the annual intensity of solar
radiation varies from 400 to 700 cal/cm2/day.
• Most parts of India receive 4-7 kWh/m2/day.
• Average sunny day in a year = 250 – 300 days

• Highest radiation intensity areas are:

Rajasthan, Gujarat (Kutch region), TN, J&K (Leh region)