3 Signal Processing

Signal processing is concerned with improving the quality of the reading or signal at the output of a measure-
ment system, and one particular aim is to attenuate any noise in the measurement signal that has not been
eliminated by careful design of the measurement system as discussed above. However, signal processing per-
forms many other functions apart from dealing with noise, and the exact procedures that are applied depend
on the nature of the raw output signal from a measurement transducer. Procedures of signal filtering, signal
amplification, signal attenuation, signal linearization and bias removal are applied according to the form of
correction required in the raw signal.
Traditionally, signal processing has been carried out by analogue techniques in the past, using various types
of electronic circuit. However, the ready availability of digital computers in recent years has meant that
signal processing has increasingly been carried out digitally, using software modules to condition the input
measurement data.

Digital signal processing is inherently more accurate than analogue techniques, but this advantage is greatly
reduced in the case of measurements coming from analogue sensors and transducers, because an analogue-
to-digital conversion stage is necessary before the digital processing can be applied, thereby introducing
conversion errors. Also, analogue processing remains the faster of the two alternatives in spite of recent
advances in the speed of digital signal processing.

3.1 Analogue Signal Processing

3.1.1 Analogue Filtering

Signal filtering consists of processing a signal to remove a certain band of frequencies within it. The band of
frequencies removed can be either at the low-frequency end of the frequency spectrum, at the high-frequency
end, at both ends, or in the middle of the spectrum. Filters to perform each of these operations are known
respectively as low-pass filters, high-pass filters, band-pass filters and band-stop filters.
Analogue filters exist in two forms, passive and active form. The very simplest passive filters are circuits that
consist only of resistors and capacitors.

The term active filters comes from the active (amplifying) circuit elements that can generate signal energy.
Active filters are implemented using the operational amplifier.

The most simple low pass filter is the RC low pass network shown below.

40
 1
V2 RC
H (s) = =
Vin s + RC

1
H (jω) = RC
1
jω +
RC

1
H (jω) = s RC ω=0, H (jω) = 1
1 2
 
2
ω +
RC

1 1
ω= , H (jω) = √
RC 2

ω=∞, H (jω) → 0

Low pass active filter

1
R2 ∗ R2
Zα = sC =
1 sR2 C + 1
R2 +
sC

41
 R2
V0 R1
=−
Vin sR2 C + 1

R2
C
R1 R2
=−
1
s+
R2 C

1
C
R1
=−
1
s+
R2 C
Highpass passive filter

V0 R sRC
= =
Vin 1 sRC + 1
+R
sC
s
H (s) =
1
s+
RC

jω
H (jω) =
1
jω +
RC
ω
H (jω) = s
1 2
 
ω2 +
RC

when
ω=0, H (jω) = 0

1 1
ω= , H (jω) = √
RC 2

ω→0, H (jω) → 1
High pass active filter
First order inverting High pass filter

42
 Vin V
=− 0
1 R2
R1 +
sC
V2 −sR2 C
=
V1 sR1 C + 1

R
−s 2
R1
=
1
s+
R1 C

3.1.2 Amplification

Signal amplification is carried out when the typical signal output level of a measurement transducer is
considered to be too low. Amplification by analogue means is carried out by an operational amplifier.

R
Vo = − 2 Vi
R1

The amount of signal amplification is therefore defined by the relative values of R2 and and R1 . This ratio
between R2 and R1 is known as the amplifier gain. The sign of the processed signal is inverted. This can be
corrected for if necessary by feeding the signal through a further amplifier set up for unity gain (R1 = R2 ).
This inverts the signal again and returns it to its original sign.

43
 Figure 27: Signal amplifier

Instrumentation amplifier
For some applications requiring the amplification of very low level signals, a special type of amplifier known
as an instrumentation amplifier is used. This consists of a circuit containing three standard operational
amplifiers,

Figure 28: Instrumentation amplifier

The advantage of the instrumentation amplifier compared with a standard operational amplifier is that its
differential input impedance is much higher. In consequence, its common mode rejection capability is much
better.

3.1.3 Signal attenuation

One method of attenuating signals by analogue means is to use a potentiometer connected in a voltage-
dividing circuit.
For the potentiometer slider positioned a distance of x along the resistance element of total length L, the

44
 Figure 29: Signal attenuator

voltage level of the processed signal Vo is related to the voltage level of the raw signal Vi by the expression

x
Vo = V
L i

The amplifier network of figure 27 can also be used with R2 being smaller than R1

3.1.4 Differential amplification

The amplifier configuration that is used to amplify the small difference that may exist between two voltage
signals VA and VB
The output voltage Vo is given by
R3

Vo = VB − VA
R1
With all the resistors in the circuit equal, the output becomes

Vo = VB − VA

which is the difference between the two inputs

3.1.5 Signal addition

The most common mechanism for summing two or more input signals is the use of an operational amplifier
connected in signal-inversion mode, as shown in Figure 31. For input signal voltages V1 , V2 and V3 the
output voltage Vo is given by:
Vo = −(V1 + V2 + V3 )

45
 Figure 30: Differencing amplifier

Figure 31: Summing amplifier

3.1.6 Signal integration

Connected in the configuration shown in Figure 32, an operational amplifier is able to integrate the input
signal Vi such that the output signal V0 is given by:
Z
1
V0 = − Vi dt
RC

3.1.7 Signal differentiation

Signal differentiation is achieved by interchanging the resistor and capacitor in the integrator network of
Figure 32. The output becomes
d
Vo = −RC V
dt i

46
 Figure 32: Integrator

3.1.8 Signal linearisation

Several types of transducer used in measuring instruments have an output that is a non-linear function of the
measured quantity input. In many cases, this non-linear signal can be converted to a linear one by special
operational amplifier configurations that have an equal and opposite non-linear relationship between the
amplifier input and output terminals. For example, light intensity transducers typically have an exponential
relationship between the output signal and the input light intensity, i.e.:

V0 = Ke−αQ

where Q is the light intensity, V0 is the voltage level of the output signal, and K and α are constants. If a
diode is placed in the feedback path between the input and output terminals of the amplifier as shown in
Figure 33, the relationship between the amplifier output voltage V0 and input voltage V1 is given by:

V0 = C loge (V1 )

Figure 33: Operational amplifier connected for signal linearisation

If the output of the light transducer is conditioned by an amplifier of characteristic given by equation above,

47
the voltage level of the processed signal is given by

V0 = C loge (K) − αCQ

This shows that the output signal now varies linearly with light intensity Q but with an offset of C loge (K).
This offset would normally be removed by further signal conditioning, as described below.

3.1.9 Bias (zero drift) removal

Sometimes, either because of the nature of the measurement transducer itself, or as a result of other signal
conditioning operations, a bias (zero drift) exists in the output signal. This can be expressed mathematically
for a physical quantity x and measurement signal y as:

y = Kx + C

where C represents a bias in the output signal that needs to be removed by signal processing. The bias
removal circuit shown in Figure 34 is a differential amplifier in which a potentiometer is used to produce
a variable voltage Vp equal to the bias on the input voltage Vi . The differential amplification action thus
removes the bias.

Figure 34: Bias removal circuit

Referring to the circuit, for R1 = R2 and R3 = R4 the output V0 is given by:

R3

V0 = Vp − Vi
R1

where Vi is the unprocessed signal y equal to (Kx − C) and Vp is the output voltage from a potentiometer
supplied by a known reference voltage Vref that is set such that Vp = C. Now, substituting these values for
Vi and Vp into the above equation and referring the quantities back into equation original equation gives:

0
y=K x

0 0 R
where K is related to K by K = − 3 K. It is clear that a straight line relationship now exists between
R1

48
the measurement signal y and the measured quantity x. Thus, the unwanted bias has been removed.

3.1.10 Voltage follower

The voltage follower, also known as a pre-amplifier, is a unity gain amplifier circuit with a short circuit in
the feedback path, as shown in Figure 35, such that:

V0 = Vi

Figure 35: Voltage follower circuit

It has a very high input impedance and its main application is to reduce the load on the measured system.
It also has a very low output impedance that is very useful in some impedance-matching applications.

3.2 Digital Signal Processing

Digital techniques achieve much greater levels of accuracy in signal processing than equivalent analogue
methods. Whilst digital signal processing elements in a measurement system can exist as separate units, it is
more usual to find them as an integral part of an intelligent instrument. However, the construction and mode
of operation of such processing elements are the same irrespective of whether they are part of an intelligent
instrument of not. The hardware aspect of a digital signal-processing element consists of a digital computer
and analogue interface boards.

3.2.1 Sampling

A sampler is basically a switch that closes every T seconds as shown in Figure 36

Figure 36: Sampler

When a continuous signal r(t) is sampled at regular intervals T, the resulting discrete signal is as shown in
Figure 37 (b) where q is the amount of time that the switch is closed.
The switch closure time q is much smaller than the sampling time T and can be neglected.
A sample and hold circuit is normally an essential element at the interface between an analogue sensor
or transducer and an analogue-to-digital converter. It holds the input signal at a constant level whilst

49
 Figure 37: Sampled signal

the analogue-to-digital conversion process is taking place. This prevents the conversion errors that would
probably result if variations in the measured signal were allowed to pass through to the converter. The
operational amplifier circuit shown in Figure 38 provides this sample and hold function.

Figure 38: Operational amplifier as a sample and hold circuit

The input signal is applied to the circuit for a very short time duration with switch S1 closed and S2 open,
after which S1 is opened and the signal level is then held until, when the next sample is required, the circuit
is reset by closing S2

3.2.2 Analog to digital conversion

Important factors in the design of an analogue-to-digital converter are the speed of conversion and the number
of digital bits used to represent the analogue signal level. The minimum number of bits used in analogue-
to-digital converters is eight. The use of eight bits means that the analogue signal can be represented to
a resolution of 1 part in 256 if the input signal is carefully scaled to make full use of the converter range.
However, it is more common to use either 10 bit or 12 bit analogue-to-digital converters, which give resolutions
respectively of 1 part in 1024 and 1 part in 4096. Several types of analogue-to-digital converter exist. These
differ in the technique used to effect signal conversion, in operational speed, and in cost.

50
3.2.3 Digital to analog conversion

Digital-to-analogue conversion is much simpler to achieve than analogue-to-digital conversion and the cost
of building the necessary hardware circuit is considerably less. It is required wherever a digitally processed
signal has to be presented to an analogue control actuator or an analogue signal display device.

3.2.4 Digital filtering

Digital signal processing can perform all of the filtering functions mentioned earlier in respect of analogue
filters, i.e. low pass, high pass, band pass and band stop. However, the detailed design of digital filters
requires a level of theoretical knowledge, including the use of z-transform theory, which is outside the scope
of this course.

3.2.5 Autocorrelation

Autocorrelation is a special digital signal processing technique that has the ability to extract a measurement
signal when it is completely swamped by noise, i.e. when the noise amplitude is larger than the signal
amplitude. Unfortunately, phase information in the measurement signal is lost during the autocorrelation
process, but the amplitude and frequency can be extracted accurately.

3.3 Bridge circuits

Bridge circuits are used very commonly as a variable conversion element in measurement systems and produce
an output in the form of a voltage level that changes as the measured physical quantity changes. They
provide an accurate method of measuring resistance, inductance and capacitance values, and enable the
detection of very small changes in these quantities about a nominal value. They are of immense importance
in measurement system technology because so many transducers measuring physical quantities have an output
that is expressed as a change in resistance, inductance or capacitance. The displacement-measuring strain
gauge, which has a varying resistance

3.3.1 Null type (DC) bridges

A null-type bridge with d.c. excitation, commonly known as a Wheatstone bridge, has the form shown in
Figure 39. The four arms of the bridge consist of the unknown resistance Ru , two equal value resistors R2
and R3 and a variable resistor Rv (usually a decade resistance box). A d.c. voltage V is applied across the
points AC and the resistance Ri is varied until the voltage measured across points BD is zero. This null
point is usually measured with a high sensitivity galvanometer.

R3
Ru = × Rv
R2
Thus, if R2 = R3 ,then Ru = Rv . As Rv is an accurately known value because it is derived from a variable
decade resistance box, this means that Ru is also accurately known.

51
 Figure 39: Null bridge

3.3.2 Deflection type DC bridge

A deflection-type bridge with d.c. excitation is shown in Figure 40. This differs from the Wheatstone bridge
mainly in that the variable resistance Rv is replaced by a fixed resistance R1 of the same value as the nominal
value of the unknown resistance Ru . As the resistance Ru changes, so the output voltage V0 varies, and this
relationship between V0 and Ru must be calculated.

Figure 40: Deflection type bridge

52
  
Ru R1
V0 = − Vi
Ru + R3 R1 + R2

3.3.3 AC bridges

AC bridges are used for not only measurement of resistances but also for measurement of capacitance and
inductance.

Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge

Figure 41: Inductance Comparison Bridge

By this bridge,(Figure 41), unknown inductance Lx and its internal resistance Rx can be determined as
follows
R R
Rx = 2 3
R1
R2 L3
Lx =
R1

Maxwell’s Inductance Capacitance Bridge

Using the bridge of Figure 42, we can measure inductance by comparing with a variable standard capacitor

R2 R3
Rx =
R1

Lx = R2 R3 C1

Anderson’s Bridge
It is a modified Maxwell’s bridge in which also the value of self inductance is obtained by comparing it with
a standard capacitor. It is basically used for precise measurement of inductance over a wide range of value.
The bridge is shown in Figure 43
To find balance equations, we transform the star formed by R2 , R4 and r into its equivalent delta as shown
in Figure 44

53
 Figure 42: Maxwell’s Inductance Capacitance Bridge

Figure 43: Anderson’s Bridge

The elements in the delta equivalent are given by

R2 r + R4 r + R2 R4
R5 =
R4

R2 r + R4 r + R2 R4
R6 =
R2
R2 r + R4 r + R2 R4
R7 =
r
R7 shunts the source and therefore does not affect the balance equation. The values of R1 and Lx are
obtained as
Lx = CR3 R5
R
R1 = R3 5
R6

54
 Figure 44: Transformed Anderson’s Bridge

Substituting for values of R5 and R6 yields

CR3
Lx = [R2 r + R4 r + R2 R4 ]
R4

R2 R3
R1 =
R4

Hay Bridge
Hay bridge is similar to the Maxwell’s inductance capacitance bridge only that C1 is in series with R1 . The
bridge is shown in Figure 45

Figure 45: Hay Bridge

At balance condition, the values of Rx and Lx are obtained as

ω 2 C12 R1 R2 R3
Rx =
1 + ω 2 C12 R12

55
 R2 R3 C1
Lx =
1 + ω 2 C12 R12

De Sauty Bridge
It is used measure unknown capacitance by comparing it with a known capacitance. The bridge is shown in
Figure 46

Figure 46: De Sauty Bridge

At balance condition, the values of Rx and Cx are obtained as

R2 R3
Rx =
R1

R
Cx = C3 1
R2

Schering Bridge
It is used extensively for measurement of capacitance. The bridge is shown in Figure 47

Figure 47: Schering Bridge

56
At balance condition, the values of Rx and Cx are obtained as

C
Rx = R2 1
C3

R
Cx = C3 1
R2

Wien Bridge
Used to measure the frequency of a voltage source using series RC network in one arm and parallel RC in
the adjoining arm. The bridge is shown in Figure 48

Figure 48: Wien Bridge

At balance condition, the frequency is obtained as

1
f= p
2π C1 C3 R1 R3

In most cases R1 = R3 and C1 = C3 . The frequency is given by

1
f=
2πRC

57
4 Noise in Instrumentation and Measurement Systems
Errors are often created in measurement systems when electrical signals from measurement sensors and trans-
ducers are corrupted by induced noise. This induced noise arises both within the measurement circuit itself
and also during the transmission of measurement signals to remote points. The aim when designing measure-
ment systems is always to reduce such induced noise voltage levels as far as possible. However, it is usually not
possible to eliminate all such noise, and signal processing has to be applied to deal with any noise that remains.

Noise voltages can exist either in serial mode or common mode forms. Serial mode noise voltages act in series
with the output voltage from a measurement sensor or transducer, which can cause very significant errors
in the output measurement signal. The extent to which series mode noise corrupts measurement signals is
measured by a quantity known as the signal-to-noise ratio. This is defined as:

Vs
signal to noise ratio = 20log10
Vn

where Vs is the mean voltage level of the signal and Vn is the mean voltage level of the noise. In the case of
a.c. noise voltages, the root-mean squared value is used as the mean.

Common mode noise voltages are less serious, because they cause the potential of both sides of a signal circuit
to be raised by the same level, and thus the level of the output measurement signal is unchanged.

4.1 Sources of noise

4.1.1 Inductive coupling

The primary mechanism by which external devices such as mains cables and equipment, fluorescent lighting
and circuits operating at audio or radio frequencies generate noise is through inductive coupling. If signal-
carrying cables are close to such external cables or equipment, a significant mutual inductance M can exist
between them, as shown in Figure 49, and this can generate a series mode noise voltage of several millivolts
˙ where I is the rate of change of current in the mains circuit.
given by Vn = M I,

Figure 49: Noise induced by inductive coupling

58
4.1.2 Capacitive coupling

Capacitive coupling, also known as electrostatic coupling, can also occur between the signal wires in a
measurement circuit and a nearby mains-carrying conductor. The magnitude of the capacitance between
each signal wire and the mains conductor is represented by the quantities C1 and C2 in Figure 50. In
addition to these capacitances, a capacitance can also exist between the signal wires and earth, represented
by C3 and C4 in the figure.

Figure 50: Noise induced by capacitive coupling

The series mode noise voltage Vn is zero if the coupling capacitances are perfectly balanced, i.e. if C1 = C2
and C3 = C4 . However, exact balance is unlikely in practice, since the signal wires are not perfectly straight,
causing the distances and thus the capacitances to the mains cable and to earth to vary. Thus, some series
mode noise voltage induced by capacitive coupling usually exists.

4.1.3 Noise due to multiple earths

As far as possible, measurement signal circuits are isolated from earth. However, leakage paths often exist
between measurement circuit signal wires and earth at both the source (sensor) end of the circuit and also
the load (measuring instrument) end. This does not cause a problem as long as the earth potential at both
ends is the same. However, it is common to find that other machinery and equipment carrying large currents
is connected to the same earth plane. This can cause the potential to vary between different points on the
earth plane. This situation, which is known as multiple earths, can cause a series mode noise voltage in the
measurement circuit.

4.1.4 Noise in form of voltage transients

When motors and other electrical equipment (both a.c. and d.c.) are switched on and off, large changes
of power consumption suddenly occur in the electricity supply system. This can cause voltage transients
(’spikes’) in measurement circuits connected to the same power supply. Such noise voltages are of large
magnitude but short time duration. Corona discharge can also cause voltage transients on the mains power
supply. This occurs when the air in the vicinity of high voltage d.c. circuits becomes ionized and discharges
to earth at random times.

59
4.1.5 Thermoelectric potentials

Whenever metals of two different types are connected together, a thermoelectric potential (sometimes called
a thermal e.m.f.) is generated according to the temperature of the joint. This is known as the thermoelectric
effect and is the physical principle on which temperature-measuring thermocouples operate. Such thermo-
electric potentials are only a few millivolts in magnitude and so the effect is only significant when typical
voltage output signals of a measurement system are of a similar low magnitude.

4.1.6 Short noise

Shot noise occurs in transistors, integrated circuits and other semiconductor devices. It consists of random
fluctuations in the rate of transfer of carriers across junctions within such devices.

4.1.7 Electrochemical potentials

These are potentials that arise within measurement systems due to electrochemical action. Poorly soldered
joints are a common source.

4.2 Techniques for reducing measurement noise

Prevention is always better than cure, and much can be done to reduce the level of measurement noise by
taking appropriate steps when designing the measurement system.

4.2.1 Location and design of wires

Both the mutual inductance and capacitance between signal wires and other cables are inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between the wires and the cable. Thus, noise due to inductive and capacitive
coupling can be minimized by ensuring that signal wires are positioned as far away as possible from such
noise sources. A minimum separation of 0.3 m is essential, and a separation of at least 1 m is preferable.

Noise due to inductive coupling is also substantially reduced if each pair of signal wires is twisted together
along its length. This design is known as a twisted pair.

4.2.2 Earthing

Noise due to multiple earths can be avoided by good earthing practices. In partic- ular, this means keeping
earths for signal wires and earths for high-current equipment entirely separate. Recommended practice is to
install four completely isolated earth circuits as follows:

• Power earth: provides a path for fault currents due to power faults.

• Logic earth: provides a common line for all logic circuit potentials.

• Analogue earth (ground): provides a common reference for all analogue signals.

• Safety earth: connected to all metal parts of equipment to protect personnel should power lines come
into contact with metal enclosures.

60
4.2.3 Shielding

Shielding consists of enclosing the signal wires in an earthed, metal shield that is itself isolated electrically
from the signal wires. The shield should be earthed at only one point, preferably the signal source end. A
shield consisting of braided metal eliminates 85% of noise due to capacitive coupling whilst a lapped metal
foil shield eliminates noise almost entirely. The wires inside such a shield are normally formed as a twisted
pair so that protection is also provided against induced noise due to nearby electromagnetic fields. Metal
conduit is also sometimes used to provide shielding from capacitive-coupled noise, but the necessary supports
for the conduit provide multiple earth points and lead to the problem of earth loops.

61
6 Microprocessor application in instrumentation
Microprocessor based systems are suitable for dedicated and complicated measurement systems available in
modern day industries and hospitals. These microprocessors perform complicated signal processing operations
e.g signal conditioning. They can handle thousands of signal conditioning and manipulation operations within
a very short time. They are very small, compact, requires little power and are precise.
The microprocessor cannot take most of the signal input from transducers directly. Conversion of transducer
output signal from analogue to digital in most cases is a must. This is done by an analogue digital converter.
If more than one input quantity (measurand) is to be measured and processed, multiplexers are used. If
an ac voltage is used , sample and hold circuits are used to keep the desired instantaneous voltage constant
during conversion.
The digital output obtained is fed to the microprocessor through an interfacing device.
In a microprocessor based instrumentation system the designer has to select suitable input/output devices
to interface to the microprocessor. If a particular device is not compatible additional electronic circuits have
to be designed through which the device may be interfaced to the cpu. Example of a simple microprocessor
based system for an industry or a hospital is as shown below.

Figure 52: Microprocessor based Instrumentation system

For industrial setup, the first to be measured maybe: position, temperature, pressure, displacement, speed,
force, current, voltage , etc
For hospital setup, the first to measured maybe ; heart beat, blood pressure, room-temperature, body
temperature, blood pH value, breathing rate, etc
All these quantities will be converted to an analogue electrical signal by the transducer. After the conversion
, they will be converted to digital signals then signal conditioned before being fed to the computer through
the interfacing card.
The computer through a specific installed program will perform the required data analysis , storage and
output functions. NB the microprocessor or microcomputer may be a programmable logic controller (PLC)

65
7 Data Storage, Recording and Display Devices
In measurement systems , the last stage is often the data presentation stage. This consist of display devices
and recorders. The display and recording devices are also called the output devices. The significance of these
devices is that they make the result of measurement meaningful through display of instant observation or
stage for observation at a later stage.
The choice between the display devices and recorders is influenced by the expected use of the output and the
information content of the output.

7.1 Display Devices

In electrical measurements, indicating or display instruments are used extensively in measurement of current
, voltage , resistance and power. These instruments can be broadly classified as

1. Analog

2. Digital

The analog instruments display the quantity to be measured in terms of the deflection of a pointer i.e. an
analog displacement or an angle corresponding to the electrical quantity.
On the other hand , the digital instrument indicates the value of the measurand in form of a decimal number.
They work on the principle of quantization.

Advantages of digital instruments over Analog

1. The digital instruments indicate the readings directly in decimal numbers and therefore errors on
account of human factors like parallax and approximation are eliminated.

2. The digital readings maybe carried to any number of significant figure by merely positioning the decimal
point.

3. Since the output of digital instruments is in digital form, it may be directly fed into memory devices like
tape recorders , digital printers, floppy disks, hard disks and computers for storage and future analysis

4. The power requirement for digital display instruments are considerably smaller with the advancement
of microprocessor based digital instruments technology. Several factors have to be considered when
choosing either analog or digital display systems. These are

(a) accuracy

(b) environmental compatibility

(c) resolution

(d) power requirements

(e) cost and portability

(f) range

66
Types of Digital display Units

There are several types of digital display units which are classified as

• planar - i.e the entire read out characters are in the same place

• non-planar - where the characters are displayed in different planes

The planar displays include

1. seven segment display which is used for numeric display. It consists of seven segments a,b,c,d,e,f,g

Figure 53: Seven segment display

A segmental display forms the digit to be displayed by illuminating proper segment from the group. By
illuminating the proper combination of these seven segments , number 0-9 can be displayed. Example to
display one only segment b and c are illuminated and to display four segments b,c,f and g are illuminated.

2. 14 segmental display This is used for displaying alphanumeric characters. It works on the same
principle as the seven segmental display

Figure 54: 14 segment display

e.g to display c the segment 1, 6, 5 and 4 are illuminated.

3. Dot matrix utilizing 27 dots Where the dots maybe square or round with 0.4mm size or diameter.
LEDs and LCDs are used for illuminating the dots thus displays only numeric characters

67
4. 5*7 Dot Matrix Used for displaying alphanumeric characters
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
27 dots ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ 5*7 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
The non planar displays include

5. Rear projection displays

6. Nixie tube displays They are rarely used

7. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) Which is a p-n junction device which emits light when a current
passes through it in the forward direction. Charge carriers recombination takes place at the p-n junction as
electrons cross from n-side and recombine with holes at the p-side.
When this happens , the charge carriers give up energy in form of heat and light. If the semiconducting
material is translucent the light is emitted and the junction is a source of light. Materials used for manufacture
of LEDs are Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) and Gallium Arsenide.

8. Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) Used in similar application as LEDs. These application are display
of numeric and alphanumeric characters in dot matrix and segmental displays. LCDs are of two types

1. Dynamic scattering type

2. Field effect type

The construction of a dynamic scattering LCD cell is as shown below

The liquid crystal material maybe one of the several organic compounds which exhibit optical properties of
the crystal though they remain in liquid form. Liquid crystal is layered between glass sheets with transparent
electrode deposited on the inside faces.
When an electric potential is applied across the cell charge carriers flowing through the liquid disrupt the
nuclear alignment and produces turbulence. This causes the light to be scattered in all directions , and the
cell appears to be bright. The phenomena is called dynamic scattering.
NB when the liquid is not disturbed, the crystal is transparent

7.2 Recorders

Are required to keep a permanent record on the state of a phenomena being investigated. A recorder therefore
records electrical and non electrical quantities as a function of time.
The record may be written or printed and later on can be examined and analyzed to obtain a better under-
standing and control of a process. Recording requirement is one of the most important considerations in an
instrument system. There are two types of recording methods

68
 1. Analog recording methods : which are analog recorders. Examples are

• Graphic recorders which are devices which display and store a pen and ink record of the history
of some physical event. Examples are strip chart recorders also known as x-time recorders and
x-y recorders

• oscillographic recorders ; they record information in oscilographs eg ultra violet recorders and
duddel oscillographic recorders

• magnetic tape recorders; they are used to record data which can be retrieved or reproduced
in electrical form. Can be used to record dc to several MHz frequency range signals. The
basic component of a magnet tape are; recording head, magnetic tape, reproducing head, tape
transparent mechanism and conditioning devices

2. Digital recording methods : Uses digital normal recorders. Examples include

• computer hard disk

• flash disk, ROM, RAM etc

They can store thousands of bits of information in a very small space

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