approximate error in temperature

0.0997 − 0.1
= × 800 = −3.4o °C
0.1

(c) change in resistance with a temperature increase of 10o °C is

= 50 × 0.00426 × 10

= 2.13Ω

current in the circuit with increase in resistance of the coil

33.3 × 10−3
= = 0.09936mA
50 + 2.13 + 271 + 12

therefore approximate error in temperature

0.09936 − 0.1
= × 800
0.1

= −5.12o °C

b) Resistance Varying Devices

i. Resistance Temperature Devices

Resistance thermometers, which are alternatively known as resistance temperature devices (or
RTDs), rely on the principle that the resistance of a metal varies with temperature according to the
relationship:
R = R0 (1 + a1 T )

This equation is approximately true over a limited temperature range for some metals, notably
platinum, copper and nickel, whose characteristics are summarized in Figure 12. Platinum has the
most linear resistance-temperature characteristic, and it also has good chemical inertness, making
it the preferred type of resistance thermometer in most applications. Its resistance-temperature
relationship is linear within ±0.4% over the temperature range between −200o C and +40o C

Besides having a less linear characteristic, both nickel and copper are inferior to platinum in terms
of their greater susceptibility to oxidation and corrosion. This seriously limits their accuracy and
longevity. However, because platinum is very expensive compared with nickel and copper, the latter
are used in resistance thermometers when cost is important. Another metal, tungsten, is also used
in resistance thermometers in some circumstances, particularly for high temperature measurements.

The working range of each of these four types of resistance thermometer is as shown below:
Platinum-−270o C to +1000o C

18
 Copper: −200o C to +260o C
Nickel: −200o C to +430o C
Tungsten: −270o C to +1100o C
The characteristics of these resistance thermometers are as shown in Figure 12

Figure 12: Typical resistance-temperature characteristics of metals

ii. Thermistors Thermistors are manufactured from beads of semiconductor material prepared from
oxides of the iron group of metals such as chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese and nickel. Normally,
thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient, i.e. the resistance decreases as the temperature
increases, according to:  
1 1
β −
R = R0 e T T0

This relationship is illustrated in Figure 13

However, alternative forms of heavily doped thermistors are now available (at greater cost) that
have a positive temperature coefficient. The form of equation (14.8) is such that it is not possible
to make a linear approximation to the curve over even a small temperature range, and hence the
thermistor is very definitely a non-linear sensor. However, the major advantages of thermistors are
their relatively low cost and their small size. This size advantage means that the time constant
of thermistors operated in sheaths is small, although the size reduction also decreases its heat
dissipation capability and so makes the self heating effect greater. In consequence, thermistors have
to be operated at generally

2.4.3 Force and Weight Transducers

a) Electronic load cell

19
 Figure 13: Typical resistance-temperature characteristics of thermistor materials

In an electronic load cell, the gravitational force on the body being measured is applied to an elastic
element. The electronic load cell uses the physical principle that a force applied to an elastic element
produces a measurable deflection. The elastic elements used are specially shaped and designed, some
examples of which are shown in Figure 14
The design aims are to obtain a linear output relationship between the applied force and the measured
deflection and to make the instrument insensitive forces that are not applied directly along the sensing
axis. Load cells exist in both compression and tension forms. In the compression type, the mea-
sured mass is placed on top of a platform resting on the load cell, which therefore compresses the cell.
In the alternative tension type, the mass is hung from the load cell, thereby putting the cell into tension.

Electronic load cells have significant advantages over most other forms of mass-measuring instrument
in terms of their relatively low cost, wide measurement range, tolerance of dusty and corrosive environ-
ments, remote measurement capability, tolerance of shock loading and ease of installation.

One problem that can affect the performance of load cells is the phenomenon of creep. Creep describes
the permanent deformation that an elastic element undergoes after it has been under load for a period
of time. This can lead to significant measurement errors in the form of a bias on all readings if the
instrument is not recalibrated from time to time. However, careful design and choice of materials can
largely eliminate the problem.

b) Resistance Strain Gauge

This works on the principle that a resistance of a wire of a semiconductor is changed by elongation
or compression due to externally applied stress. It is commonly used in the measurement of force ,
torque and displacement. Consider the block of Figure 15 below (load cell) which is a short column
with resistance wire strain gauge bonded to it.

20
 Figure 14: Elastic elements used in load cell

Figure 15: Resistance Strain Gauge

In this case the measurand is a force and is applied in a column therefore producing strain. The force
is first detected by the first column and is converted into strain which is a mechanical displacement.
This strain changes the resistance of the strain gauge. Hence we have an output which is a change in
the value of resistance.The measurement of force is a 2-stage process i.e first conversion of force into
strain and second conversion of strain into a change in electrical resistance.
NB: It is common phenomena that when a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance
changes on account of the fact that both length and diameter of the conductor change. Also there

21
 is a change in the value of resistivity of the conductor when it is strained and this property is called
piezo-resistive effect.
Hence resistance strain gauges are also known as piezo resistive gauges. Apart from load cells, other
meters or gauges which employ strain gauges are torque meters, diaphragm type pressure gauges,
temperature sensors, accelerometer and flow-meters may employ strain gauges as secondary transducers.
Consider a strain gauge made up of a circular wire. The dimensions are length L ,area A and diameter
D by being strained. Let wire resistivity be ρ and the resistance of the strain wire be R. Therefore

ρL
R= (1)
A
Let a tensile stress S be applied to the wire as shown in Figure 16 below

Figure 16: Tensile stress

Let ∆L , ∆D and ∆R be the changes in length , area , and resistance respectively. Given equation 3
that

ρL dR ρ δL ρL δA L δρ
R= ⇒ = − + (2)
A dS A δS A2 δS A δS
Dividing equation 4 by equation 3 we have

1 dR 1 δL 1 δA 1 δρ
= − + (3)
R dS L δS A δS ρ δS

From equation 5 the per unit change in resistance is due to

(a) per unit change in length ∆L

L
∆ρ
(b) per unit change in resistivity ρ

(c) per unit change in area ∆A

A

πD2
A=
4
It follows that

22
 δA 2πD δD
=
δS 4 δS
Hence 
2π D
1 dA 4 δD 2 δD
=  = (4)
A dS π D2 δS D δS
4

Hence equation 5 can be rewritten as

1 dR 1 δL 2 δD 1 δρ
= − + (5)
R dS L δS D δS ρ δS

Introducing Poisson ratio

−δD
Lateral strain
v= = D (6)
Longitudinal strain δL
L
Equation 7 for small variation can be written as

∆R ∆L ∆L ∆ρ
= + 2v + (7)
R L L ρ

The gauge factor is defined as the ratio of per unit change in resistance to per unit change in length.
Gauge factor (Gf )
∆R
Gf = R (8)
∆L
L
OR
∆R ∆L
= Gf = Gf 
R L
Where
∆L
 = strain =
L
The Gf can be written as
∆ρ
ρ
Gf = 1 + 2v +


∆ρ
ρ
= 1 + 2v + (9)
∆L
L
Note that if the change in the value of resistivity of a material due to strain is neglected the gauge
factor is
Gf = 1 + 2v

The Poisson ratio for the metal is between 0 to 0.5. This gives a gauge factor of approximately 2. The
most common value of Poisson ratio for wires is 0.3. This gives a value of 1.6 for wire wound strain
gauges.

23
 EXAMPLE
A strain gauge is bonded to a beam 0.1m long and has a cross section area 4cm2 . Young modulus
for steel is 207GN/m2 . The strain gauge has unstrained resistance of 240Ω and a gauge factor of 2.2.
When a load is applied the resistance of the gauge changes by 0.013Ω. Calculate the change in length
of the steel beam and the amount of force applied to the beam.
SOLUTION

∆R ∆R
Gf = R ⇒ ∆L = R L
∆L Gf
L
0.013
= 240 × 0.1
2.2

= 2.46 × 10−6 m

207 × 109 × 2.46 × 10−6

stress S = E =
0.1

= 5.092 × 106 N/m2

F = SA = 5.092 × 106 × 4.0 × 10−4

= 2.037 × 103 N

The resistance change in strain gauges is small and requires the use of a bridge circuit for measurement,
as shown in Figure 17. The strain gauge elements are mounted in two arms of the bridge, and two
resistors, R1 and R2 , form the other two arms. The output signal from the bridge is amplified and
impedance matched.

c) Piezo Electric Transducers

These transducers use the principle that an emf is generated when an external force is applied to certain
crystalline material such as quartz.
A piezo - electric material is one in which an electric potential appears across certain surfaces of a
crystal if the dimensions of the crystal are changed by application of a mechanical force.
This potential is produced by the displacement of charge (electric charge). This effect is reversible i.e
if a varying potential is applied to the proper axis of the crystal, it will change the dimensions of the
crystal thereby deforming it.
This effect is known as piezo-electric effect
Common piezo electric materials include;

24
 Figure 17: Strain gauge bridge circuit

Rochelle salt, Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate, Lithium sulphate, Quartz, Ceramic dipotassium tar-
tarate and potassium dihydrogen phosphate. Except quartz and ceramics the rest are man made
crystals.
The ceramic materials are polycrystalline in nature and basically are made of barium titanate.
Materials exhibit significant and useful piezo electric effect are divided into two categories

(a) Natural group e.g quartz and Rochelle salt

(b) Synthetic group e.g Lithium phosphate and ethylene diamine tartarate

Figure 18: Piezoelectric crystal measuring acceleration

A piezo electric element used for converting mechanical motion to electrical signals may be thought
of as a charge generator and a capacitor. Mechanical deformation generates a charge and the charge
appears as a voltage across the electrodes. The voltage is given by

ϕ
Eo =
C

The piezo electric effect is direction sensitive.

A tensile force produces a voltage of one polarity while a compressive force produces a voltage of
opposite polarity.

25
The magnitude and polarity of the induced surface charges are proportional to the magnitude and
direction of the applied force F . The polarity of the induced charge depends upon the direction of the
applied force

ϕ = d ∗ F coulombs (10)

where d=charge sensitivity of the crystal in coulombs/newton and is constant for a given crystal
F = applied force in Newtons
The force F causes a change in thickness of the crystal and

AE
F = ∆t N (11)
t

Where
A = Area of crystal in m2
t = thickness of the crystal in m
E = young modulus of elasticity in N/m2
Therefore  
Stress F 1
E= = ×
Strain A ∆t
t

Ft
E= N/m2 (12)
A∆t
but A = wl Where w is the width of the crystal in meters and l is the length of the crystal in meters
 
∆t
ϕ = dEA (13)
t
The charge at the electrode give rise to an output voltage

ϕ
Eo = (14)
Cp

where Cp is the capacitance between the electrodes in Farads

A
C p = 0 r (15)
t

ϕ dF dt F
Eo = = = (16)
Cp A
0 r t 0 r A

BUT FA = p pressure or stress in N/m

2

Thus
d
Eo = tp = gtp (17)
0 r
where
d
g= (18)
0 r

26
g is the voltage sensitivity of the crystal. This is a constant for a given crystal circuit. Its units are
V − m/N
Now
Eo
Eo
g= = t (19)
tp p

But Eto = Electric field strength in V /m

Electric f ield E
g= = (20)
stress p

d = 0 r g C/N (21)

EXAMPLE 1
A quartz piezo electric crystal has a thickness of 2mm and a voltage sensitivity of 0.055V − m/N . It
is subjected to a pressure of 1.5M N/m2 . Calculate the voltage output.
If the permittivity of quartz is 40.6 × 10−12 F/m , calculate the charge sensitivity
SOLUTION

Eo = gtp

= 0.055 × 2 × 10−3 × 1.5 × 106

= 165V

charge sensitivity d
d == 0 r g

= 40.6 × 10−12 × 0.055

= 2.23 × 10−12 C/N

EXAMPLE 2
A Barium titanic pick up has the dimensions of 5 mm by 5 mm by 1.25 mm. The force acting on it
is 5 N , its charge sensitivity is 150 pC/N and its permittivity is 12.5 × 10−9 F/m . If the modulus of
elasticity of Barium titanic is 12 × 106 N/m2 , calculate the strain , the charge and the capacitance
SOLUTION
Area of plate A
A = 5 × 5 × 10−6 = 25 × 10−6

27
Pressure p
5
p= = 0.2 × 106 N/m2
25 × 10−6
Voltage sensitivity g
d 150 × 10−12
g= =
0 r 12.5 × 10−9

= 12 × 10−3 V m/N

Voltage generated Eo
Eo = gtp = 12 × 10−3 × 1.25 × 10−3 × 0.2 × 106

= 3V

Strain 
∆t stress
= =
t young modulus

0.2 × 106
= = 0.0167
12 × 106
charge ϕ
ϕ = dF = 150 × 10−12 × 5

= 750pC

Capacitance Cp
ϕ 750 × 10−12
Cp = =
Eo 3

= 250pF

Charge produced q = kq xi coulombs

kq = Sensitivity c/m
xi = displacement m
RP = leakage resistance of transducer Ω
Cp = capacitance of transducer F
Cc = capacitance of cable F
CA = capacitance of amplifier F
RA = resistance of amplifier Ω
The charge generator in second figure is converted into a constant current generator as in the third
figure

28
 Figure 19: Piezoelectric transducer set-up

Figure 20: Piezoelectric transducer equivalent circuit

Figure 21: Reduced equivalent circuit

The total capacitance across the current generator C is given by

C = Cp + Cc + CA (22)

RA Rp
R= (23)
RA + Rp

29
Since the leakage resistance of the transducer is very large of the order 1 × 1011 Ω ,

R ' RA

Converting this charge generator into a constant current generator we have

dq
iCR =
dt

dxi
= kq (24)
dt
where iCR is the current of constant current generator

iCR = iC + iR


output voltage at the load eL
Z Z
1 1

eL = eC = iC dt = iCR − iR dt
C C

OR
deL 1

= iCR − iR
dt C
OR
deL dx e
= iCR − iR = kq i − L


C
dt dt R

deL dx
RC + eL = kq R i (25)
dt dt
But RC = τ
deL dx
τ + eL = kτ i (26)
dt dt
kq
where k = sensitivity constant = C V /m
Taking Laplace transform of equation 29 we have

(τ s + 1) EL (s) = kτ sXi (s) (27)

Transfer function
EL (s) kτ s
= (28)
Xi (s) τs + 1

For sinusoid function the transfer function is

EL (jω) jωkτ
=
Xi (jω) 1 + jωτ

The amplitude ratio is

EL ωτ
m= (jω) = q
Xi
1 + (ωτ )2

30
 1
=r (29)
1+ 1 2
(ωτ )

The phase shift

π
φ= − tan−1 ωτ rad (30)
2
At very high frequencies ω  1 , m = 1 and φ = 0
Hence high frequency sensitivity
e
k= L (31)
xi

From equation 33 it is evident that the steady state response of a piezoelectric transducer to a con-
stant displacement xi is zero. Therefore piezoelectric transducers cannot be used to measure static
displacement.
EXAMPLE
A piezoelectric transducer has a capacitance of 1000pF and a charge sensitivity of 40 × 10−3 C/m. The
connecting cable has a capacitance of 300pF , while the ocr used for read out has a resistance of 1M Ω
with a parallel capacitance of 50pF .

(a) What is the sensitivity in V/m of the transducer alone?

(b) What is the high frequency sensitivity in V/m of the entire measuring system?

(c) What is the lowest frequency that can be measured with 5% amplitude error by the entire system?

(d) What is the value of an external shunt capacitance that can be connected in order to extend the
range of 5% error down to 10Hz

(e) With external capacitance calculated in (b) above connected in the circuit what is the system high
frequency sensitivity?

SOLUTION

(a)
kq = 40 × 10−3 C/m

Cp = 1000 × 10−12 F

kq 40 × 10−3
k= =
Cp 1000 × 10−12

= 40 × 106 V /m

31
(b)
C = Cp + Cc + CA

= 1000 + 300 + 50 = 1350pF

kq 40 × 10−3
k= =
C 1350 × 10−12

= 29.63 × 106 V /m

(c)
τ = RC = 1 × 106 × 1350 × 10−12 = 1.35ms

m = 0.95

1
0.95 = r
1+ 1 2
(ωτ )

ωτ = 3.04

3.04
ω= = 2254rad/s
1.35 × 10−3

2πf = 2254

2254
f= = 358.7Hz
2π
(d)
3.04 3.04
τ= = = 48.38ms
ω 2π × 10
Total capacitance
τ 48.38 × 10−3
C= =
R 1 × 106

= 48.380nF

External capacitance
Ce = 48380pF − 1350pF

= 47020pF

32
 (e) High frequency sensitivity with Ce

40 × 10−3
= = 827kV /m
48380 × 10−12

Uses of Piezoelectric Transducers

(a) Used for stabilizing electronic oscillators

(b) Used for the measurement of surface roughness and in accelerometers and vibration pick ups

(c) Used in under water detection systems known as sonar and ultrasonic generation element

(d) Used in measurement of force in rolling miles

Advantages of Piezoelectric Transducers

(a) These transducers need no external power and is therefore self generating (active transducers)

(b) It has a very good high frequency response

Disadvantages of Piezoelectric Transducers

(a) Cannot measure static force or displacement

(b) The output of the transducer is affected by changes in temperature. Hence temperature compen-
sating devices have to be used.

2.4.4 Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Transducers

a) Potentiometer
This works on the principle that positioning of a slider by an external force varies the resistance in a
potentiometer.
It is used to measure electrical pressure or voltage or mechanical displacement. The schematic diagram
of a potentiometer (POT) is as shown in Figure 22 below.

Figure 22: Potentiometer

33
 Let L be the total length of the potentiometer and Rt be its total resistance. The input displacement
is xi . The output voltage eo is given by

x
eo = i ei (1)
L
and
eo
xi = L (2)
ei

b) Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

This is the most widely used inductive transducer to translate the linear motion electrical signals.
LVDT works on the transformer principle that an emf is induced in a coil whenever the magnetic force
linking that coil changes. It is used to measure pressure , force and displacement (position)

Figure 23: Normal circuit of LVDT

Figure 24: Differential circuit of LVDT

A transformer consists of a single primary winding (p) and two secondary windings s1 and s2 wound
on a cylindrical former. The secondary windings have equal number of turns and are identically placed

34
at either side of the primary winding. The primary winding is connected to an ac source. A movable
soft iron core is placed inside the transformer. The displacement to be measured is applied to the arm
attached to the soft iron core. In practice the core is made up of high permeability nickel iron which is
annealed. This means low harmonics, low null voltage and a high sensitivity. The assembly is placed
in a stainless steel housing and the end lids provide electrostatic and electromagnetic shielding. The
frequency of ac provided to the primary winding maybe between 50Hz - 20kHz. Since the primary
winding is exited by an alternating current source it provides alternating magnetic field which in turn
induces alternating current in the two secondary windings. The output voltage of s1 is Es1 and that of
s2 is Es2 .In order to convert the outputs from s1 and s2 into a single voltage signal, the two secondary
are connected in series opposition.
Then the output of the transducer is the difference between the two voltages
The differential output voltage
Eo = Es1 − Es2 (3)

When the core is at its normal position (null position) the flux linking both the secondary winding is
equal and hence equal emfs are induced in them.Thus at Null position

Es1 = Es2

Now if the core is moved to the left of the null position, more flux links with the winding s1 and less
with the winding s2
Accordingly output voltage Es1 is more than Es2 . This magnitude of output voltage is thus

Eo = Es1 − Es2

and the output is in phase with say, the primary voltage.

Similarly if the core is moved to the right of the null position, the flux linking the winding s2 becomes
larger than that linking s1 . These results in Es2 becoming larger than Es1 . The output voltage in
these case is Eo = Es1 − Es2 and is 180° out of phase with the primary voltage.
The two secondary voltages are πrad out of phase with each other. This amount of voltage change in
either secondary winding is proportional to the amount of movement of the core. Hence we have the
indication of the amount of linear motion.
By noting which output voltage is increasing or decreasing, we can determine the direction of motion .
In other words any physical displacement in the position of the core causes the voltage of one secondary
winding to increase while simultaneously reducing the voltage in the other secondary winding.
The difference of the voltages appear across the output terminals of the transducer and gives a measure
of the physical position of the core and hence the displacement. The amount of output voltage may
be measured to determine the displacement. The output signal may also be applied to a recorder or a
controller that can restore the moving system to its normal position.
Advantages of LVDTs

(a) Have high range for measurement of displacement . This can be used to measure displacement of
the order 1.25mm - 250mm

35
 (b) It is a frictionless device and hence no mechanical wear. LVDT has infinite mechanical life. This
feature is vital in high reliability mechanisms and systems found in aircraft , missile and space
vehicles and critical industrial equipment

(c) Have high sensitivity which is typically above 40V/mm

(d) Ruggedness i.e LVDT can tolerate high degree of shock and vibrations especially when the core is
spring induced without any adverse effects.

(e) It has low hysterisis and hence repeatability is excellent under all operating conditions

(f) It is light in weight , stable, easy to align and maintain

(g) It has low power consumption of less than 1W

Disadvantages of LVDTs

(a) Relatively large displacement is required for appreciable differential output

(b) LVDTs are sensitive to stray magnetic field but shielding is possible

(c) They are affected by strong mechanical vibrations

(d) They can only operate on ac signal no dc equivalent

(e) The dynamic response of these transducers is limited mechanically by the mass of the core and
electrically by the frequency of the applied voltage

(f) Temperature affects the performance of the transducer and hence temperature compensating schemes
need to be employed

c) Electrical Tachometer (Tachogenerator)

This uses the principle that motion of a coil in a magnetic field generates a voltage. This is accomplished
through the use of electromagnetic induction.There are two types of electromagnetic tachometers

(a) Dc tachometer

(b) Ac tachometer

Dc tachometer consists of a small armature which is coupled with the machine whose speed is to be
measured. This armature revolves in the field of permanent magnet.The emf generated is proportional
to the product of speed and flux. Since the flux of a permanent magnet is constant, the voltage
generated is proportional to speed.
The polarity of output voltage indicates the direction of resistance. The emf is measured with the help
of a moving coil voltmeter having a uniform scale and calibrated directly in terms of speed.
Ac tachometer have a rotating magnet which may either be permanent or electro magnet. The coil is
wound on the stator and therefore the problems associated with commutators as in dc tachometers are
absent. The rotation of the magnet causes an emf to be induced in the stator coil. The amplitude and
frequency of emf are both proportional to the speed of rotation.
Thus either amplitude or frequency of the induced voltage may be used to measure the rotational speed.
The output voltage of ac tachometer generator is rectified and is measured with a permanent magnet
moving coil instrument (PMMC)

36
2.4.5 Level Measurement

1. Dipstick
Dipsticks offer a simple means of measuring level approximately. The ordinary dipstick is the cheapest
device available. This consists of a metal bar on which a scale is etched. The bar is fixed at a known
position in the liquid-containing vessel. A level measurement is made by removing the instrument from
the vessel and reading of how far up the scale the liquid has wetted. As a human operator is required
to remove and read the dipstick, this method can only be used in relatively small and shallow vessels.

2. Float Systems
Float systems, whereby the position of a float on the surface of a liquid is measured by means of
a suitable transducer, have a typical measurement inaccuracy of ±1%. This method is also simple,
cheap and widely used. The system using a potentiometer is very common, and is well known for its
application to monitoring the level in motor vehicle fuel tanks.

3. Pressure measuring devices(hydrostatic system) The hydrostatic pressure due to a liquid is directly
proportional to its depth and hence to the level of its surface. Several instruments are available that use
this principle, and they are widely used in many industries, particularly in harsh chemical environments.
In the case of open-topped vessels (or covered ones that are vented to the atmosphere), the level can
be measured by inserting a pressure sensor at the bottom of the vessel, as shown in Figure 25

Figure 25: Pressure measuring device

P
The liquid level h is then related to the measured pressure P according to h = ,whereρ is the liquid
ρg
density and g is the acceleration due to gravity. One source of error in this method can be imprecise
knowledge of the liquid density. This can be a particular problem in the case of liquid solutions and
mixtures and in some cases only an estimate of density is available.

Even with single liquids, the density is subject to variation with temperature, and therefore temperature
measurement may be required if very accurate level measurements are needed.

4. Capacitive devices Capacitive devices are widely used for measuring the level of both liquids and solids
in powdered or granular form. They perform well in many applications, but become inaccurate if the
measured substance is prone to contamination by agents that change the dielectric constant. Ingress of
moisture into powders is one such example of this. They are also suitable for use in extreme conditions

37
 measuring liquid metals (high temperatures), liquid gases (low temperatures), corrosive liquids (acids,
e.t.c.) and high pressure processes.

For non-conducting substances two bare-metal capacitor plates in the form of concentric cylinders are
immersed in the substance, as shown in Figure 26

Figure 26: Capacitive level sensor

The substance behaves as a dielectric between the plates according to the depth of the substance. For
concentric cylinder plates of radius a and b (b>a), and total height L, the depth of the substance h is
related to the measured capacitance C by:
 
b
Cloge − 2πεo
a
h=
2πεo (ε − 1)

where ε is the relative permittivity of the measured substance and εo is the permittivity of free space.

5. Ultrasonic level gauge The principle of the ultrasonic level gauge is that energy from an ultrasonic
source above the liquid is reflected back from the liquid surface into an ultrasonic energy detector.
Measurement of the time of flight allows the liquid level to be inferred. In alternative versions, the
ultrasonic source is placed at the bottom of the vessel containing the liquid, and the time of flight
between emission, reflection off the liquid surface and detection back at the bottom of the vessel is
measured.

38
2.5 Classification of transducers

Transducers can be classified as follows

1. on the basis of transduction form used

2. As primary and secondary transducers

3. As active and passive transducers

4. As analogue and digital transducers

5. As transducers and inverse transducers

2.6 Factors influencing the choice of transducers

These factors are

1. Operating principle

2. Sensitivity

3. Operating range

4. Accuracy

5. Cross sensitivity

6. Errors

7. Transient and frequency response

8. Stability and Reliability

9. Insensitivity to unwanted signal

10. Usage and ruggedness

39