Evanescent-absorption coefficient

for diffuse source illumination:

uniform- and tapered-fiber sensors

B. D. Gupta and C. D. Singh

A comparative study of evanescent-wave fiber-optic absorption sensors based on uniform and tapered
fibers has been carried out. The expressions for an effective evanescent-absorption coefficienthave been
derived for diffused or Lambertian source illumination. It has been shown that the sensitivity of sensors
depends on the numerical aperture of the fiber, the taper ratio, and the refractive index of the absorbing
fluid. The higher the sensitivity the smaller the range of functional refractive indices of the fluid. In
the case of taper, which fiber (with a low or high numerical aperture) has maximum sensitivity depends on
the refractive index of the fluid.
Key words: Evanescent wave, absorption, optical fiber, taper, sensor.

1. Introduction the penetration depth increases as the angle 0 ap-

Evanescent-wave absorption spectroscopy is a power- proaches the critical angle O,(= sin-' n 21 ).
ful technique for studying the absorption spectra of Recently optical fibers have been used in place of
liquid and solid samples.1- 3 It can also be used to thin slab-shaped crystal waveguides.-' 0 The advan-
monitor, in real time and in situ, concentrations of tages of optical fiber is that one can have a large
reactants in chemical transformations of liquids and number of reflections at the interface in the sensing
pastes. The technique utilizes evanescent-wave pen- region. The number of ray reflections per unit length
etration at the boundary between two dielectric me- of the fiber of core radius p is given by
dia in conditions of attenuated total internal reflec-
tions (ATR's). One of the media, a thin slab-shaped
nonabsorbing crystal, is called the waveguide, while N= cot 0 . (2)
the other medium is the absorbing sample being
studied, and it has a lower refractive index. The Thus the smaller the diameter the larger the number
penetration depth of the evanescent field in this of reflections. In addition optical fiber can be used in
medium is given by remote and distributed sensing. Much of the re-
search with optical fibers to date has used plastic-clad
A
silica fiber. The silicone cladding is removed from
dp 2 n(sin 2
0 - n21 2 )1/2 the middle portion of the fiber, and an absorbing fluid
is placed there. The presence of the fluid is detected
where Xis the wavelength of light in free space, nj is by evanescent-wave absorption of the light launched
the refractive index of the first medium (i.e., the into the fiber. If P0 is the power transmitted by the
waveguide), 0 is the incident angle (with respect to the fiber in the absence of an absorbing fluid in the unclad
normal to the interface), n2 l = n 2 /n,, and n2 is the
refractive index of the second (absorbing) medium. region, the transmitted power in the presence of an
One can see from Eq. (1) that for a given waveguide absorbing fluid is given by
P = Po exp(-,yL), (3)

The authors are with the Department of Physics, Indian Insti-

tute of Technology, New Delhi 110016, India.
where L is the length of the unclad portion of the fiber
Received 29 March 1993; revised manuscript received 23 July and y is the evanescent-absorption coefficient of the
1993. fluid, which can be written as
0003-6935/94/132737-06$06.00/0.
c 1994 Optical Society of America. y = NT, (4)

1 May 1994 / Vol. 33, No. 13 / APPLIED OPTICS 2737

where T is the Fresnel transmission coefficient of the ing medium. We illuminate the fiber with a diffuse
light at the interface of a lossless core and lossy or Lambertian source that approximates the output
cladding. If n 2 - ik is the refractive index of the of a light-emitting diode. We assume that the source
lossy cladding, T can be shown to be given byll1 2 is placed against the fiber endface and its surface
covers at least the core cross section. In such a
a\n 2 cos0 (5) situation only the portion of the source within the
'rr(n12 - n 2 2 )(sin 2 0 - n 21 2 )1/2 ' core cross section can excite bound rays; therefore we
ignore any effects from the source outside this region.
where a = (47rk)/X is the bulk absorption coefficient Thus the power dP at the endface of the fiber between
of the fluid at wavelength Xof the light source used. angles 00 and 00 + dOo is proportional to sin 00
The substitution of Eqs. (2) and (5) into Eq. (4) gives cos 00d00 , where 00 is the angle of the ray with the
axial direction of the fiber.' 4 For bound rays its
ao\n2 cos 2 0 maximum value is equal to sin-'(n1 2 - n,12)'/ 2. If O0
i = * 6)
27rp(n 2
- n 2 2 )sin 0(sin2 0 - n 21 2 )'/ 2 (' is the angle of the same ray with the axial direction
and inside the core,
Recently Gupta et al.13 have shown that, if the
refractive index of the absorbing fluid (placed in the dPcx n1 2 sin 0 cos 0 dO,
unclad region of the fiber) does not vary significantly
with the concentration c of the fluid within the where 0 = 900 - O is the angle of the ray with the
required concentration range, the sensitivity normal to the core-cladding interface. Thus the
effective evanescent-absorption coefficientfor the rays
1 dP launched into the sensing region for angles (with
Pd respect to the normal at the interface) in the (01,02)
range is given by
of an evanescent-wave fiber-optic absorption sensor is 02
proportional to Ly/x. Thus, for a given L, y/a and
sin 0 cos Oy(O)dO
hence the sensitivity depends on the launching condi-
tion of the ray 0 and the radius of the fiber core p. 'Yeff(61, 02) = (7)
The smaller the core radius the larger the value of
,y/a. Similarly, if 0 approaches 0,, y/a increases. sin 0 cos de
In the case of a uniform core fiber the angle of the ray
launched at the input end of the sensing region To obtain an explicit expression for

-
zyeff, we consider
remains constant throughout the sensing region. the following two cases:
Therefore the minimum value of 0 that one can have
in the sensing region is equal to the critical angle of (1) The uniform core fiber (p = constant): In this
the fiber (= sin-' ncl/nj); nj is the refractive index of case 'eff (01, 02), after we substitute y(O)from Eq. (6)
the fiber cladding. In practice nc > n2, and hence 0
cannot approach O in the case of a uniform core fiber. into Eq. (7), becomes
However, 0 00, can be achieved if the fiber is tapered oxXnl f(02) ,)
in the sensing region.5 9"10 First, in the tapered fiber eff (01, 02) = (8)
2 2 2
the radius of the core decreases along the direction of lTp(n - n 2 ) (sin 02 - sin 2 01)
propagation, thereby the number of reflections in-
creases. Second, as the ray propagates through the where
taper its angle with the normal to the interface
decreases, and thus 0 draws closer to O. Thus the 3
f(0) 2 {(2nl22 - 1)ln[2(q 2
- 1)1/2 + 2q]
evanescent-absorption coefficient can be increased by 2n12
the use of tapered fiber.
In this paper we determine theoretically the value - q(q2 - 1)1/2},
of y/a for uniform-core- and tapered-fiber evanescent-
wave-absorption sensors for the diffused or Lamber- q = n 12 sin 0,
tian source illumination. The calculations were car-
ried out for two different numerical apertures of the n12 = nl/n 2 -
fibers. It has been shown that the numerical aper-
If all the bound rays in the fiber are permitted to
ture and the extent of tapering play an important role
in the sensitivity and the range of functional refrac- propagate in the sensing region, 01= sin-'(ni/nl) and
tive indices of the fluid. 02 = 900- Obviously the index of the absorbing liquid
should be smaller than that of the fiber cladding
2. Theoretical Approach (n2 < n). Otherwise there is loss of intensity even
Let us consider a step-index multimode optical fiber if there is no absorption and the ATR condition is not
whose cladding has been replaced locallyby an absorb- fulfilled.

2738 APPLIED OPTICS / Vol. 33, No. 13 / 1 May 1994

 (2) Nonuniform core or tapered fiber in the sensing where
region: Consider the propagation of a guided ray
launched in the fiber through the taper as shown in d)J(Z)= cos-,[pi Cos 01 /p(z)] -Q

Fig. 1. If Oirepresents the angle that this ray makes

with the axis of the fiber, it is transformed to an angle +2(Z)= COS
COS-'[Pi 02 /(z) -Q
0Oa(z) inside the taper through the following equa- Substituting Eq. (6)into Eq. (13), we obtain
tion' 5 :
p(z)sin Oa(z) = pi sin Oi, (9)
YT(01, 02, Pa) = (n2-n22)

where p(z)is the taper radius at a distance z from the

input end of the taper, pi and p0 being the radii of the I f[+2(Z) - f[+()]) p(z)
taper at the input and output ends, respectively.
If the angles are defined with respect to the normal at x
the interface, Eq. (9) takes the following form: [sin 2 ( 2 (Z) - sin2 k1(z)]dz
+(z) = cos-'[pi cos 0/p(z)] -Q (10) (14)
where 0 (= 90° - i) is the angle between the ray and where f(0) is defined as in Eq. (8). The integrals in
the normal to the interface in fiber 1, +1(z)is the Eq. (14) cannot be evaluated analytically. We have
corresponding angle between the ray and the normal evaluated them numerically to obtain the value of YT.
to the interface at a distance z from the input end of We can see from Eq. (10) that +1(z)depends on p(z)
the taper (z = 0), for a given value of 0. As p(z) decreases, +1(z)also
decreases. Therefore for all the rays launched at the
Q = tan-(' PO) (11) input end of the taper to continue to be totally
internally reflected throughout the length of the
taper, the following condition must be satisfied:
is the taper angle, L is the length of the taper, and
+1(z)2 sin-1(n 2/nj), 0 •z <L. (15)
P(Z) = Pi - L (Pi - PO). (12) Thus for given values of n 2, L, and 01there is a lower
limit for the value of po. If the taper angle is so small
For the (01,02) range of the incident angles of the rays that it can be neglected,16 to fulfill the ATR condition
launched at the input end of the taper, the evanescent- we must have
absorption coefficientfor the diffused source illumina- (Cos 0,
tion in the case of taper is given by -O 2 kcos cJ (16)
2
fL f4 +(z)
iz I Sif I 0 cos Oy(O, z)dO where 0, and O are as defined above. We have 02 =

O 21(Z)
90° in the case of tapered fiber, which is similar to
YT(01, 02, Po) = rL 412(z)
(13) uniform core fiber.
| dz| sin 0 cos OdO
3. Numerical Results and Discussion
J1 z)
As mentioned in Section 1 the sensitivity of an
evanescent-wave-absorption sensor is directly propor-
tional to the ratio -y/a. Therefore we evaluate this
x ratio for uniform-core- and tapered-fiber sensors.
The calculations are carried out for two different
numerical apertures (NA's) of the fiber.
l I
I
A. NA = 0.2
I ~~I We choose a plastic-clad silica fiber with nj = 1.457
and p = 300 [um, which gives n~i = 1.443 and the
t I- I
critical angle of the fiber equal to 820. Thus the fiber
n} 2P;: 2Po can support all the rays with angles between 820 and
I I 900. Therefore for calculation we take 01 = 820 and
02 = 90°. Furthermore we choose X = 664 nm, the
L FIBER2
FIBER1 I TAPER i
wavelength that corresponds to the peak evanescent
INPUT OUTPUT
absorbance of methylene blue, which has generally
END END been used in the literature. 5 8 The calculations for
Fig.1. Geometry of a taper. y/u are carried out for the following two cases:

1 May 1994 / Vol. 33, No. 13 / APPLIED OPTICS 2739

Case 1: Uniform CoreFiber B. NA = 0.4
In this case we calculate -yeff/a from Eq. (8) for If we choose plastic-clad silica optical fiber with NA =
different refractive-index values of the absorbing 0.4, nj = 1.401 and the critical angle of the fiber is
fluid n2 . The results are shown in Fig. 2 (by the equal to 740. Thus 01 = 740,and 02 remains equal to
dashed curve). The figure shows that as the value of 90°. Again we consider the following two cases:
n2 increases the value of Yeff/aLalso increases. For
n2 = 1.335 its value is equal to 3.303 x 10-5. The Case 1: Uniform-Core Fiber
sensor based on the uniform core fiber in which NA = The values of Yeff/! calculated from Eq. (8) for
0.2 can be used only for n2 < 1.443. Beyond this different values of n2 are shown in Fig. 3 (by the
value the ATR condition is not fulfilled. dashed curve). The variation is similar to that shown
in Fig. 2, but the values of 'Yeff/a have increased
Case 2: Tapered Fiber significantly compared with those obtained for NA =
As mentioned above the angle of the ray launched at 0.2. The value for n 2 = 1.335 is 1.64 x 10-4 which is
the input end of the taper decreases as the ray 4.96 times that obtained for NA = 0.2. Although the
propagates through it [see Eq. (10)]. For the ray to sensitivity has increased, the maximum allowed value
remain confined within the taper the angle of the ray of n 2 has dropped to 1.401 compared with 1.443 in the
at any point alongthe taper must be greater than the case in which NA = 0.2, which implies that the
critical angle [Eq. (15)], which sets a lower limit for increase in the NA of the fiber increases the sensitiv-
the value of p0 [Eq. (16)]. For n2 = 1.335 the lowest ity of the sensor but reduces the maximum permis-
value that can have is 104.3 pm. For these values sible value of n2 -
we obtain from Eq. (14) YT/cI = 4.7 x 10-4, which is
14.23 times the value obtained in the case of the Case 2: Tapered Fiber
uniform core fiber. Thus, by having maximum taper- As for NA = 0.2 the minimum value of p0 for NA = 0.4
ing of the core in the sensing region, the sensitivity and n 2 = 1.335 is 206.5 ,im. For p < 206.5 ,umthe
has increased by a factor of 14.23, but note that the condition of ATR spectroscopy is not fulfilled, and
sensor can be used only for those fluids that have hence we cannot use a taper with p < 206.5 m for
n2 < 1.335, which means that the range of functional an evanescent-wave-absorption sensor. For p =
refractive indices decreases as the sensitivity increases. 206.5 m and n2 = 1.335 we obtain from Eq. (14)
One can increase the range by decreasing the amount 'YT/a = 4.192 x 10-4, which is 2.56 times that
of tapering, which decreases the value of YT/cI and obtained in case 1. Again the sensitivity has in-
hence the sensitivity of the sensor. Shriver-Lake et creased, but the range of n2 is limited to only those
al.9 reported a tenfold increase in the sensitivity of fluids that have refractive indices that are less than or
the optical biosensor if a continuously tapered sens- equal to 1.335. To increase the range, the tapering
ing region were used in place of a nontapered sensing should be decreased. In Fig. 3 is plotted the refrac-
region. This experimental finding supports our theo- tive-index dependence of YT/aT for different values of
retical results. Figure 2 shows the variation in YT/cx p0 . As p increases, YT/ax decreases for a fixed value
with n2 for different values of p. As in case 1, YT/a of n2.
increases as n 2 increases.

NA 0 4
TAPER
N A *0.2
TAPER

150 f. 260p,
ro - J
270,
2.

1.345 1.355 1.365 1.375 1.

Fig. 2. Variation of y/a as a function of n 2 for a sensor based on

fiber with NA = 0.2. The dashed curve corresponds to the `2
uniform core fiber, and the solid curves correspond to tapered fiber Fig. 3. Same as Fig. 2 except that in this case the fiber is of NA =
with a different p. 0.4.

2740 APPLIED OPTICS / Vol. 33, No. 13 / 1 May 1994

 Note that in the case of NA = 0.2 the maximum greater in the case of NA = 0.2 compared with that in
value of YT/(Xis 4.7 x 10-4 for n2 = 1.335, whereas in the case of NA = 0.4 (Fig. 4), because p0 is small in the
the case of NA = 0.4 the corresponding value is case of NA = 0.2. Now, if we increase n 2 , O increases.
4.192 x 10-4. This value predicts that it is not Since 01is small for NA = 0.4, the rate of increase of
advantageous to use an optical fiber with a high NA -'IT/a is greater for this case. Therefore the differ-
for the evanescent-wave-absorption sensor, if it is to ence between the YT/a values for NA = 0.2 and 0.4
be operated at n2 = 1.335 only, provided that one can decreases as n2 is increased. For n2 = 1.3625 the
fabricate the taper with the minimum allowed value YT/a values become equal. When n2 is increased
of p0. For comparison we carried out similar calcula- further, the value of YT/ in the case of NA = 0.4
tions for other values of n2 . For this the maximum exceeds that in the case of NA = 0.2. Thus, if the
value of YT/ first we choose the value of n2 and then tapered-fiber sensor is to be operated for the single
calculate the minimum value of p, from Eq. (16) for refractive index of the fluid, which NA fiber should be
NA = 0.2 and 0.4, respectively. After this calcula- used for high sensitivity depends on the refractive
tion we determine YT/a from Eq. (14) for that value of index. The following conclusions can be drawn on
n2. Now we change n2 and followthe same procedure. the basis of the results above for diffused source
Figure 4 shows the results for NA = 0.2 and 0.4. illumination of the fiber:
We can see that for n2 < 1.3625 the sensor based on
the fiber with NA = 0.2 and the maximum allowed (1) The NA of the fiber affects the sensitivity of the
tapering is more sensitive than that with NA = 0.4. sensor. In the case of a uniform core fiber the
For n2 > 1.3625 the case is reversed. This reversal increase in the NA increases the sensitivity of the
occurs because of the combined effect of the param- sensor. Therefore one should choose a fiber with a
eters 01,O,,and p0. The angle 01depends on the NA high NA for the design of an evanescent-wave-
of the fiber, whereas the angle 0,, which is the critical absorption sensor if the core of the sensing region is
angle in the sensing region, depends only on the uniform in diameter.
refractive index of the fluid. The remaining param- (2) The fiber tapering in the sensing region further
eter p0 depends on both 01and O and hence on NA and increases the sensitivity of the sensor. One can
n2 . The parameters and p increase with an achieve a very high sensitivity in the case of taper by
increase in the value of n2 , but their effects on the choosing a suitable ratio of the diameters of the input
value of YT/a are the opposite. As 0, increases, YT/a and output ends of the taper. The only disadvantage
increases, but the increase in the value of p. decreases with the taper is that it reduces the maximum
its value. Another factor that influences the value of permissible refractive index of the absorbing speci-
'YT/x is the closeness in the values of O and 01. If the men to be used in the sensing region.
closeness increases, YT/a increases. For a fixed value (3) The sensitivity of the sensor depends on the
of 01the net effect of O on YT/ is more than that of p0, refractive index of the absorbing specimen. The
and hence YT/aL increases with an increase in the higher the refractive index the higher the sensitivity
value of n2 (Fig. 4). The rate of increase of _YT/L with is. In the case of taper the maximum achievable
n2 depends on the closeness in the values of O and 01. sensitivity depends on the NA of the optical fiber.
The higher the NA or the lower the value of 01, the Which fiber (with a low or high NA) has maximum
greater is the closeness and hence the higher is the sensitivity depends on the refractive index of the
rate of increase. For n2 = 1.335 the value of YT/ is absorbing fluid.
The authors are grateful to A. K. Ghatak for
constant encouragement. The present research is
partially supported by a collaborative project on fiber
optics supported by the Overseas Development Agency
TAPER (UK) through the British Council Division (India).
C. D. Singh is thankful to the University Grants
Commission (India) for financial support.
N A

A . 0.2
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2742 APPLIED OPTICS / Vol. 33, No. 13 / 1 May 1994