ELECTRONIC PETROL INJECTION SYSTEMS

What is covered:-
a. Introduction to electronic petrol injection systems
b. Petrol injection system examples (multi-point injection)
c. Single-point (throttle body) petrol injection
d. Direct petrol injection
e. Emissions and emission control (petrol engines)
f. Engine management (the conclusion)
g. Engine system self-diagnosis (on-board diagnostics) and EOBD

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC PETROL INJECTION SYSTEMS

Fuel system developments
The diesel engines used a mechanical injection system until recently, petrol engines relied on carburettor
systems because of cost, simplicity and the fact that there was no need for high pressure delivery of petrol.
A number of cars did use petrol injection, but these were generally racing cars. So, although fuel injection
was not widely used, Mercedes and a number of vehicle and racing engine manufacturers continued to
develop the use of fuel injection for petrol engines. The introduction of European emissions regulations
that effectively forced the use of fuel injection systems on almost all petrol engines by the early 1990s. By
this time, electronic control was becoming less expensive and it was therefore inevitable that any
mechanical systems would be replaced by electronic injection systems. Almost all modern petrol engines
for light cars are equipped with engine management systems, which control the fuel injection, the ignition
and many other functions. The engine management system is therefore effectively a number of different
systems controlled by a single ECU.
Advantages of electronic petrol injection
Improved efficiency and control
Compared with the carburettor, there are numerous benefits provided by a fuel injection system.
 An electronic fuel injection system provides an overall efficiency of fuel delivery and control of
fuel quantity that could not be achieved with a carburetor.
 Improved combustion efficiency, improved engine performance (power), improved economy and
reduced emissions.
 Even when compared with later types of mechanical injection systems, electronic control provides a
superior capacity to control fuel quantity and to embrace any changes in fuelling needed to suit
changing conditions.

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  However, a fully electronic fuel injection system also provides the facility for integration and
communication with other vehicle systems, such as the ignition and emission control systems.
Some specific advantages of electronic fuel injection are;-
a. Controlled pressure difference:
A carburettor operates by using ‘pressure difference’. In basic terms, fuel in the carburettor float chamber
is exposed to atmospheric pressure. When air flows through the carburettor body, this creates a low
pressure area around the venturi. Therefore, the fuel in the chamber, which is at a higher pressure, flows to
the lower pressure area. The airflow through to the engine then carries the fuel with it thus resulting in a
mixing of air and fuel in the combustion chambers. In effect, a pressure difference is created by the air
flow, so varying quantities of petrol can be drawn into the engine, depending on the;-
i. Speed of airflow
ii. Size of the holes or jets through which the petrol flows
iii. Throttle opening (the angle of opening of the throttle butterfly).
A fuel injector works on a similar principle of pressure difference, but the fuel at the injector is at a higher
pressure than that of the atmosphere and therefore much higher than in the intake manifold or in the
cylinder on the induction stroke. The fuel pressure is created using a pump controlled by regulator, so it is
always at a controlled pressure. There is, therefore, no need to create a low pressure by using a venturi,
because the fuel pressure is always higher than that of the intake system or cylinder at the time when the
fuel is delivered. Even on a turbocharged or supercharged engine, where the intake system pressure can be
higher than atmospheric pressure, the fuel pressure will always be higher by a ‘controlled’ pressure
difference. Fuel flows into the intake system or into the cylinder in a controlled way due to this pressure
difference.
Electronic petrol injection system pressures vary, but typically they are in the region of 2.5 to 3 bar. This
pressure, forcing the petrol through the injector nozzle, then assists in creating good atomization of the
petrol: mixing of air and petrol is therefore much more effective. Figure 1 shows a simple carburettor and a
fuel injector, both of which rely on pressure difference as a means of delivering fuel.

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 Figure 1a: Pressure difference causing a flow of fuel in a carburettor

Figure 1b: Pressure difference causing a flow of fuel in a fuel injection system

b. Intermittent injection to individual cylinders:

With the use of mechanical injection systems (Bosch K and KE-Jetronic) the injector is in the intake port
just ahead of the intake valve, so petrol is delivered directly to each individual intake port. However, the
flow of petrol from the injectors on the K and KE systems is continuous all the time that the engine is
running, so most of the petrol is being injected whilst the inlet valve is closed. The petrol flowing from the
injector is atomized sufficiently for it to mix with the air in the port.
One advantage of electronic injection is that the petrol injectors are opened and closed at specific times,
which reduces the waiting time before the petrol is drawn into the cylinder. Note that some modern systems
inject petrol direct into the cylinder during the intake stroke. The injection on fully electronic systems is not
continuous, since the injectors open and close intermittently at predetermined times, so it is sometimes
referred to as ‘intermittent injection’.

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Figure 2: Injector located just ahead of the inlet valve

c. Precise fuel control

The ECU is therefore able to deliver the correct fuel quantity at the correct time, and change that quantity
as the operating conditions change. The injection system ECU can also communicate with other electronic
systems, such as the ignition, ABS and transmission, air conditioning and emissions systems. This level of
communication enables the fuel injection ECU to assess many aspects of a vehicle’s operation, thus
helping to improve the accuracy and efficiency of the engine. The engine management system ECU
controls virtually all engine functions.

Figure 3: Layout of a simple electronic fuel injection system

2.0 Main components and layout of a multi-point, port type electronic system
Note: This section deals with the main components required for a simple multi-point injection system.
a. Two sub-systems
An electronic petrol injection system effectively consists of two sub-systems: an electrical/ electronic
system and a fuel delivery system. This section deals with the subsystems for multi-point injection systems,
where an individual injector is used to deliver fuel to each cylinder. The main components of both sub-
systems are listed below and are also illustrated in Figure 3.4.
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 b. Electrical/electronic system
i. Injectors – electrically operated fuel valves that, when open, allow petrol to flow into the engine.
ii. ECU – the computer that calculates the required amount of petrol and then opens the injectors for
the appropriate amount of time.
iii. Sensors – provide the necessary information to the ECU to enable it to calculate the fuel required
for different operating conditions.
c. Fuel system
i. Fuel pump – moves the fuel from the fuel tank to the injectors; the pump provides an excess of
fuel, which results in pressure being developed in the fuel system.
ii. Fuel filter – filters the fuel to remove dirt particles that could damage the system components or
block the injectors.
iii. Fuel pressure regulator and fuel rail – the regulator controls the pressure of the fuel; the fuel rail
acts as the distribution pipe to pass fuel to the injectors.
Note that, in addition to the main sub-systems, an idle speed control system forms part of many injection
systems.

1. Fuel tank, 2. Electric fuel pump, 3. Fuel filter, 4. Control unit, 5. Lambda sensor, 6. Injection valve,
7. Intake manifold, 8. Fuel pressure regulator, 9. Throttle valve switch, 10. Airflow sensor, 15. Relay.
11. Engine temperature sensor, 12. Auxiliary air device, 13. Battery, 14. Ignition and starting switch,
Figure 3.4 Simple electronic fuel injection showing fuel and electrical/electronic sub-systems
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2.1 Electrical/electronic system
a. Injector solenoid valves
Petrol injectors used on electronic injection systems are fuel valves that open and close to control fuel
delivery. The injectors are solenoids with a needle valve attached to the solenoid armature, so that, when
current flows in the solenoid winding, the magnetic field moves the armature, which in turn moves the
needle valve off its seating and allows the fuel to flow through the nozzle. An example of an injector with a
needle valve is shown in Figure 5a, and a different type of injector, with a disc rather than a needle is
shown in Figure 5b. Note that a fine mesh filter is used to filter out the very small particles that can damage
the injector nozzle seating. The injector solenoid valve is connected to a fuel supply rail (Figure 3.6), or in
some cases is located within the fuel rail. The fuel within the rail is regulated at a predetermined pressure,
which is altered to suit operating conditions. However, the quantity of fuel delivered is largely controlled
by opening the injectors for differing lengths of time.

Figure 5: Fuel injectors a) with a needle valve and b) with a disc valve

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Figure 6: Injectors connected to the fuel rail

Fuel Injectors
Fuel injectors are electro-mechanical devices that meter and atomize fuel so it can be sprayed into the
intake manifold. Fuel injectors resemble a spark plug in size and shape. O-rings are used to seal injector at
intake manifold, throttle body, and/or fuel rail mounting positions. These O-rings provide thermal
insulation to prevent formation of vapor bubbles and promote good hot start characteristics. They also
dampen potentially damaging vibration. When injector is electrically energized, a fine mist of fuel sprays
from injector tip. Most injectors consist of a solenoid, a needle valve, and a nozzle. The solenoid is
attached to the nozzle valve. When solenoid winding is energized, it creates a magnetic field that draws the
armature back and pulls the needle valve from its seat. Fuel then sprays out of the nozzle. When solenoid is
de-energized, the magnetic field collapses and a helical spring forces the needle valve back on its seat,
shutting off fuel flow.
Another injector design uses a ball valve and valve seat. In this case, the magnetic field created by solenoid
coil pulls a plunger upward, lifting the ball valve from its seat. A spring is used to return the valve to its
seated or closed position. Each fuel injector has a two-wire connector. One wire supplies voltage to the
injector. In some systems, a resistor under hood is used to reduce the 12-volt battery supply to 3 volts or
less. The second wire is a ground wire. The amount of fuel released by an injector depends on fuel pressure
and length of time the injector is energized. Fuel pressure is mainly controlled by a pressure regulator, and
injector’s pulse width. Typical pulse widths range from 1 to 10 milliseconds at full load. The primary
inputs are related to engine load and engine coolant temperature. Cold starting requires longest pulse width.
Different engines require different injectors. Injectors are designed to pass a specified amount of fuel when
opened. In addition, the number of holes at the tip of the injector varies with engines models.
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ECU switching the injectors
The ECU contains the ‘power stages’ or power transistors that are used to switch the injector electrical
circuits on and off. The ECU forms part of the earth circuit for injectors, so switching on and off the earth
path. The injectors receive a battery voltage supply via a relay. Having made the necessary calculations, the
low current and low voltage microchips within the ECU will provide an appropriate signal to the power
stage, causing it complete the earth circuit to the injectors, thus switching them on and allowing fuel to be
delivered.

Fig. 4: Fuel injector used in multiport systems. Fig. 6: Cold start fuel injector

b. Creating an atomized fuel spray

Fuel is fed to the injector under pressure (typically around 3 bar); because the fuel is under pressure, when
it flows out through the injector nozzle a spray of finely atomized fuel is formed that is able to mix easily
with the air. To further assist with creating a spray of atomized fuel, the injector needle and needle seating
are designed so that the fuel is forced to exit the injector in a particular spray pattern. In general, the fuel
exiting the injector nozzle is directed so that it sprays against the back of the inlet valve. There are now
many different designs of nozzle used to create a spray pattern for the fuel as it flows through and exits the
nozzle. Depending on the location of the injector in the inlet port, spray pattern requirements will differ:
wide and narrow angle spray patterns are used to suit the different engine applications. Some injectors
provide a dual spray pattern, designed to suit engines with two inlet valves per cylinder; each of the fuel

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sprays is directed to the back of each of the inlet valves. Many petrol injection systems now inject petrol
directly into the cylinder rather than into the intake port.
c. Speed of operation and opening time
With most systems, the injectors will open either once or twice for each operating cycle of a cylinder (see
injector timing in the following paragraphs). Therefore, if an engine is operating at 6000 rev/min, each
cylinder will complete 3000 cycles in one minute or 50 cycles in one second. An injector might therefore
open and close as many as 50 times a second (once a cycle) or 100 times a second (twice a cycle). An
injector needs to open for sufficient time to allow the required amount of fuel to enter the intake port (or
enter the cylinder with some types). Depending on the amount of fuel required (for example, low load and
engine speed or high load), the injectors will typically be open for durations of 1.5 ms to as much as 15 ms.
d. Electronic control unit (ECU)
The fuel injection electronic control unit (ECU) is the ‘brain’ of the system. The ECU controls the fuel
injectors in response to the information received from the sensors. An ECU contains a programmed
memory, which in an injection contains data on how much fuel should be injected under different operating
conditions. When information is received from the sensors, the ECU refers to the programmed data and
switches on the fuel injectors so that they deliver the required amount of petrol. Intake air quantity per unit
of time and engine speed are the basic measured variables to which corrections are applied.

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Figure 7: ECU processes in an injection system.

Fig. 23: Electronic fuel injection centrifugal governor

Figure 23: Signals and controlled variables at the ECU

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Fuel map and basic fuel program
A ‘map’ is used to provide ignition timing values on modern ignition systems. The same process is used for
ECU controlled fuel injection systems: a three-dimensional map provides the ECU with necessary
references for the required quantity of fuel. The fuelling references are air/fuel ratios, expressed as lambda
(λ) values. The fuel map provides the ECU with references for fuel quantities for different operating
conditions. The amount of fuel injected is matched to the mass of air injected so that the stoichiometric
air/fuel ratio is provided (stoichiometric ratio is the ideal ratio of air and fuel to provide complete
combustion). However, minor variations in air/fuel ratio are necessary for different operating conditions, so
the ECU controls the injector opening time to suit the following conditions:
i. Light load conditions – The injection duration is long enough to provide the quantity of fuel needed to
give the theoretical stoichiometric ratio. Minor increases or decreases in air mass drawn into the engine
will result in minor changes in injection duration.
ii. Acceleration and high load – The ECU will increase the injection duration so that the fuel quantity
increases to match the increase in air mass. However, under heavy load and acceleration, a slight excess
of petrol is usually required (a rich mixture), so the injection duration increases to slightly more than
would be required to achieve ideal stoichiometric ratio.
iii. Cold running – When engine is cold, the cold surfaces of the intake port and combustion chamber can
cause slight condensation of fuel and prevent complete mixing of fuel vapour and air. The injection
duration is therefore increased slightly to provide a rich mixture, thus ensuring that sufficient fuel is
available to mix with air.
iv. Idle – When the engine is idling, the air/fuel ratio on modern engines is controlled at around
stoichiometric or lambda. In older engines a slightly rich mixture was provided to help engine to
develop sufficient power and run smoothly.
v. Deceleration – During deceleration, no power is required from the engine so fuel injection can be cut
off completely. Depending on engine speed and throttle partially or completely closed, fuel injectors
can be switched off, or injection duration reduced, so that very little fuel is injected. Careful
programming of ECU map is necessary because, when throttle is reopened, there can be a tendency for
the engine to hesitate. Progressive cut-off and reapplication of fuel injection are necessary to ensure a
smooth transition from deceleration to acceleration.

BOSCH JETRONIC FUEL INJECTION

K-JETRONIC SYSTEM
The K-Jetronic stands for spray continuously, rather than intermittently. The regulation of fuel delivery to
the injectors takes place in mixture control unit, comprising of two parts: an air-meter and a fuel

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distributor. The purpose of air meter provides a suitable air/fuel ratio, the rate of fuel delivery appropriate
for the prevailing conditions depends and measure that airflow. The output from the air meter, acts on fuel
distributor to modify the amount of fuel fed to the injectors. All operations with K-Jetronic are purely
mechanical.

Fig 10: Schematic diagram of the K-Jetronic system with lambda (oxygen sensor) control.

Air Meter: The K-systems uses a moveable vane or flap within a housing through which all the engine’s
intake air is drawn. The flap amounts to a circular plate on the end of a lever and is positioned across a
conical opening-like a funnel at entrance to the housing. According to rate of airflow through funnel, the
flap is deflected to a greater or lesser degree, so the position of plate is a measure of the airflow. The
weight of plate and lever is balanced by either a counterweight or, a light spring, so very little force is
required to lift the plate. As increasing airflow raises the plate, it takes up a new position within the funnel,
so the size of the gap around the perimeter of the plate the space through which the intake airflows-depends
on the details of the multi-angled taper of the walls of the funnel. If funnel had a simple, constant angle
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taper, the quantity of fuel delivered would also be directly proportional to the rate of airflow, and mixture
strength would thus be the same at all rates of airflow. The rate of fuel flow depends directly on vane
position, this provides slight enrichment needed for idling. As the rate of airflow speeds up to a point that
corresponds to normal, light load driving, vane moves into wider angled portion of funnel. At maximum
flow rates, the vane is pulled into the mouth of tunnel where the taper diminishes again, increasing in-flow
area for a given travel less of the vane, forcing it to move further to provide enough flow area, and so
richening the mixture for large loads and high speeds.
Acceleration Enrichment: A sudden increase in airflow as occurs when the driver rapidly opens throttle
causing the metering vane to quickly lift upward, and assume new position. The inertia of vane and lever
assembly, assures initially ‘overshoot’ of final position. The rate of fuel delivery depends on position of the
vane, there will be a momentary enrichment to meet the needs of accelerating engine. To prevent damaging
the metering vane in event of a backfire, airflow is allowed to push the vane past its rest position, to widen
the funnel to provide enough flow area. The final limit of travel in this backwards direction is established
when the metering vane contacts a rubber bumper.
Control Pressure and its Regulation
The control pressure acting on the plunger top produces a downward force that counteracts two upward
acting forces; a minor one is atmospheric pressure acting on the exposed lower end of the plunger; the
major one is the force on the plunger exerted by the metering vane, via its lever. The position of the
plunger in its barrel is thus the result of a sort of hydraulic balancing act between the force of incoming air
acting on metering vane and control pressure acting on the plunger. An increase in the control pressure will
increases force acting on the top of the plunger, which opposes movement of the air metering vane. The
vane will not move as far as it otherwise might, the control plunger will not rise as high, and so less of the
metering slits will be uncovered. Conversely, a reduction in control pressure will allow vane and plunger to
rise higher, uncovering more of the slits. Thus, a higher control pressure will lean the mixture; a lower one
will richen it.

1. Valve diaphragm 2. Return 3. Control pressure from mixture control unit 4. Valve spring

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5. Bi-metallic spring 6. Electrical heating
Figure 23: Control pressure regulator; a) with the engine cold and b) with the engine warm.
Fuel Distributor: The regulation of fuel quantity takes place in the fuel distributor. The key component
here is the control plunger, which slides in a bore within the cast iron housing of the fuel distributor. The
bottom of this plunger contacts the metering vane lever, and is pushed upward by the lever in proportion to
the extent the air metering vane is deflected by the intake airflow. As the airflow vane lever pushes the
plunger upward, the control edge of the plunger- the sharp shoulder at the meeting of the large and small
diameters-progressively uncovers an ever greater length of these slits. With the plunger pushed all the way
up, corresponding to maximum lift of the metering vane and thus full power operation, the metering slits
are fully exposed. The position of the control plunger relative to the extremely narrow slits in metering
barrel controls the rate of fuel flow in the K-Jetronic system.
Fuel Flow: Fuel enters the fuel distributor through a set of ports located so they are always exposed by the
reduced diameter central section of the plunger. Raising the plunger thus allows fuel to flow out through
the metering slits and on to the injectors in a quantity that is proportional to the height of the plunger. The
arrangement is all what is needed to provide accurate fuel metering- the area of slit exposed is linearly
proportional to control plunger lift, which is linearly proportional to metering vane lift, which in turn, is
proportional to airflow rate, with mixture strength corrections for different operating regimes provided by
the varying taper of the air intake funnel. Alas, it is not that simple.

Fig. 8: closed-loop lambda oxygen sensor control for K-Jetronic system.

Pumps and Plumbing

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The K-Jetronic uses the same basic design of roller cell electric fuel pump as the intermittent systems, but
regulated at a much higher pressure typically 75 psi, vs the 35 psi of the intermittent systems. Because
these pumps push much better than they pull, the pump is mounted low down, often within the tank itself.
If the pump is not within the tank, a second lift pump called ‘pre-pump,’ or ‘transfer pump’ may be used to
supply the main pump from the tank.
Shut-Off Valve: The pump is energized, via a relay, when ignition is on. If a fuel line ruptures, due to the
vehicle involved in an accident, it can result to a severe fire hazard; the fuel pump might continue pumping
fuel into a blaze. To reduce this risk, a safety shut-off is incorporated. If the fuel supply to engine is cut off
because of a severed line, the engine will stop, airflow cease and vane will drop to its rest position. This
opens the safety switch, which opens the circuit to the relay, interrupting current to the pump. Pulses from
the primary circuit of the ignition coil are fed to the relay, where a simple internal circuit evaluates them. If
the ignition ceases to provide regular electrical pulses, the pump relay shuts off, stopping the pump. The
rollers fit loosely in their lands; centrifugal force pushes them against the contoured interior of the pump
body.

Figure 5: The roller cell fuel pump.

D- JETRONIC
The D-Jetronic stands pressure-because calculation of quantity of fuel to be injected was based on manifold
pressure. It was simply identified by Bosch as Electronically Controlled Gasoline Injection (ECGI).
Mechanical Components: The mechanical parts of the system include the fuel pump, filter, pressure
regulator, fuel lines and injectors. An electrically driven roller-type rotary pump draws fuel, through a
filter, from the fuel tank and delivers it to a ‘common rail’ fuel line supplying the injectors. Pressure in fuel
rail is maintained at a constant 28-32 psi by a regulator which functions by bleeding off excess fuel and
allowing it to flow back to the tank via an essentially unpressurized return line. The regulator is thus
located, schematically at least, at the opposite end of the fuel rail from the pump. The system controls fuel
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quantity by varying the "on time," or "pulse time" of the injectors, but the rate of fuel flow through an
injector that is "on" is a direct function of the supply pressure. Each injector is installed near the intake
valve it serves. Each electromagnetic injector consists of a valve assembly with a needle valve that opens a
single orifice nozzle. The opposite end of needle valve is attached to the core of the solenoid. When no
current is supplied, the needle is pressed onto its seat by a spring. When current is supplied, the needle is
pulled inward very slightly and fuel flows out through the calibrated nozzle opening, past a protruding tip
at the point of the needle that aids atomization of the fuel.
Electrical Components: The electronic components of the system include a pair of contact points, a
manifold pressure sensor, air temperature sensor and an engine temperature sensor. All these components
feed signals to electronic control unit (ECU), which contains a couple of hundred discreet transistors,
diodes, and capacitors (condensors) mounted on a circuit board. ECU components once triggered, will turn
on an electric current for a certain length of time. The actual duration of that time interval depends on the
value of the components in the circuit. The very earliest versions of D-Jetronic achieved mixture
enrichment needed for cold starting simply by providing, in response to information from engine
temperature sensor, a longer duration pulse for injectors. The cold start kit had an extra injector, fitted onto
and feeding into the intake manifold that opened and stayed open continuously while the engine was being
cranked. This so-called ‘fifth injector’ subsequently became an integral part of the system.
Drawbacks/ disad
 The mechanical device operating in conjunction with any electronic device often proves to be a
weak spot, but because the triggering contacts carried a tiny current, arcing of these points was a
problem.
 The problem of wear of the rubbing block on the moveable contact.
 D-Jetronic exhibited another occasional source of complaint of very brief hesitation on sudden
throttle opening at low rpm.
 The manifold pressure sensing principle was also a shortcoming. Manifold absolute pressure
(MAP) appears to be a valid measure of engine load, and thus of fuel quantity requirements, and
one having inherent correction for variations in air temperature and atmospheric pressure.
 When multiple intake pipes are joined together in a common manifold, the pressure fluctuations
within those individual pipes are likely to cause oscillations in the manifold pressure, especially on
four cylinder engines.
 Apart from these design considerations, time revealed that the D-Jetronic was very sensitive to
engine condition.
 An aging engine with poorly sealing valves could confound the calculations of the ECU.

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L-JETRONIC
Many of the shortcomings of the D-Jetronic system were answered in the L-Jetronic. The L-Jetronic
established the principle of calculating the fuel quantity required and thus the pulse time of the injectors on
the basis of airflow, rather than manifold pressure as on the D-Jetronic.
Airflow Sensor: The airflow sensor is a box through which all of the intake air has to pass. Within the box
is a spring-loaded vane or flap, hinged at the top, which is deflected from the down position by the
momentum of the air passing through the sensor. Attached to the vane's hinge is a potentiometer, a variable
resistor, like a radio volume control. Movement of the vane causes an electrical contact in the
potentiometer to wipe around a ring-shaped surface that is wound with a resistance wire, so that the total
resistance of the potentiometer depends on the position of the wiper, and thus of the vane. By measuring
this resistance value, the ECU is thus able to "know" the position of the vane and thus the rate of airflow
through the meter. The internal "floor" of the box is shaped so that, in combination with the weight of the
vane and the calibration of its return spring, the angle of the vane is proportional to the logarithm of the
airflow rate. That is, a doubling of the flap angle corresponds to a tenfold increase in airflow. The
sensitivity of the airflow meter is thus greatest at small values of airflow, when the greatest metering
precision is needed.

Figure 9: Airflow sensor in the intake system.

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Fig. 19: Vane-type air meter of L-Jetronic (a) Fig. 19: Vane-type air meter of L-Jetronic (b)
Idle Air Bypass: To permit a degree of manual adjustment of idle mixture strength, a small amount of air
is allowed to bypass around the measuring section of the airflow meter through a separate small
passageway. This extra idle air is thus unmetered; the ECU is "unaware" of it. The amount of air that is
bypassed in this way can be adjusted by a small needle valve arranged at the end of the bypass passage
nearest the engine. Turning this screw in makes the opening smaller, reducing bypass airflow and so
richening the mixture.
Acceleration Enrichment: Apart from the micro-switch that signals full throttle, there appears to be no
provision for acceleration enrichment on many versions of L-Jetronic. The same signal from the vane
position sensor that provides the basic information about air quantity is also analyzed for rate of change of
vane’s position, so a rapidly moving vane provide more enrichment than would a more slowly opening one.
In either case, the acceleration enrichment whenever the micros-witch that signals full throttle is closed.
The multiplier stage processes information from the lambda sensor, increasing the pulse time when oxygen
level detected by the sensor is high, reducing the pulse time when oxygen level drops. This coupling
between the lambda sensor and the closed-loop control information, which are detected by the sensor then
provides a different signal to the ECU, and adapts it.
Cold Starting: The two temperature sensors on L-Jetronic systems - one for intake air, the other for engine
temperature - are both based on what is called a "negative temperature coefficient" (NTC) resistor. This
refers to the fact that, unlike many resistors whose resistance value increases positively with temperature,
the NTC has the opposite characteristic; when the NTC is cold, it has a high resistance, when hot the
resistance falls. NTC I, is the air temperature sensor; NTC II senses engine temperature. The L-Jetronics
using increased fuel delivery through standard injectors for cold starting, a high resistance value of 3000
Ohms or more detected at NTC II will influence ECU to increase the pulse time. In these systems, the
required fuel flow for a "cold start may require the ECU to "double-up" the firing of the injectors as long as
the starter is cranking, to provide two injection cycles per crank revolution, instead of the usual one cycle.
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The ECU makes this decision based on both the temperature reported by NTC II and by the cranking rpm.
The ECU also keeps track of the time elapsed during cold cranking, and will reduce the quantity of fuel
injected under circumstances that seem likely to lead to flooding.

Fig. 23: Thermo-time switch Fig. 23: Cold start injector (cold start valve)

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Fig 9: Schematic diagram of an L-Jetronic system with lambda (oxygen sensor) control.

LH -Jetronic
To produce a light, compact, simple, all electronic sensor with no moving parts that directly measures air
mass, with no need for calculations relating volume flow, temperature, density, and the hot-wire sensor.
Other advantages of this form of airflow sensor are its more rapid response, and an even further reduction
of near trivial resistance to airflow of vane type sensor. The adoption of hot-wire sensor gave rise to
intermittent EFI called LH-Jetronic the ‘H’ stands for hot. Other than the nature of the sensor itself, many
of the operating principles and a few of the components of L-Jetronic and LH-Jetronic are held in common.
The mechanical components-fuel pump, regulator and injectors-differ only in detail, if at all, and the
computation underlying the fuel quantity/ pulse time calculation is logically identical to that of the L-
Jetronic. Note that early versions of L-Jetronic used analog electronics, all LH-Jetronic systems are purely
digital and all LH-Jetronic systems include lambda feedback control.

Fig 11: Schematic diagram of the LH-Jetronic system with lambda (oxygen sensor) control.

Hot-Wire Sensor: The sensing element is a very fine wire of platinum alloy, just 0.7 millimeters (less than
0.003 inches) in diameter, strung across the interior of a housing through which all the incoming air stream
has to pass. The wire is heated by an electric current, but cooled by the passing air stream. An electrical
circuit adjusts the current passing through the wire so as to maintain it at a temperature that is consistently
180° F above that of the entering air. Thus, if the air temperature is 80° F, the wire will be run ning at 260°
F; if the air is at 30° F, the wire temperature will be at 210°. The current required to maintain this
20
equilibrium is a measure of the mass of air passing the wire, and is used as the principal signal to the ECU
as to air quantity. You many wonder how the electronics "know" that the wire is 180° hotter than the
incoming air. The electrical circuit referred to above is a "Wheatstone bridge," an elegantly simple form of
electrical circuit, and while we will not delve into the actual electronics, the principles are not particularly
hard to understand, even for the "electronically challenged." First, note that the electrical resistance of
platinum varies very strongly with its temperature (it is sometimes used as a temperature
detecting/controlling device, just for this reason). Second, note that, like the L-Jetronic, the LH is equipped
with an intake air temperature sensor, which is itself a temperature-sensitive resistor a thermistor but one
whose resistance varies much less with temperature than the platinum wire. If an electrical path is divided
into two parallel branches, and each branch contains a resistor, the voltage difference between the two
branches, measured after the resistors, will depend on the relative values of the two resistors. Because one
of those resistors the wire- has a resistance that varies strongly with temperature, the voltage difference
between the two branches will similarly depend strongly on the temperature of the wire. If the current
through both resistors is changed, the wire will either heat up or cool down. At some level of current- that
is, at some temperature of the wire-the two resistors will have equal values, so the voltage between them
will be zero. So, by introducing a detector and amplifier that constantly adjusts the current so as to maintain
the voltage between the two branches of the circuit at zero, we can be sure that the wire is some fixed
temperature (in this case 180 degrees) higher than the temperature at the other resistor - the air temperature
sensor. In this case, the current flowing through the circuit will be in direct proportion to the heat lost by
the hot wire, which is proportional to the mass flow of air. The ECU, which supplies the current, thus
"knows" what mass of air per minute is passing through the air mass sensor.

21
Fig 12: Schematic diagram of the L3-Jetronic system with lambda (oxygen sensor) control.

Injection duration
The ECU uses the information from the sensors to calculate the operating conditions for the engine and
thus enable the correct volume of fuel to be injected. In theory, the mass of air entering the engine is the
main item of information required by the ECU to enable the correct quantity of fuel to be calculated. The
air mass can be measured with an air mass sensor but further information is used to assist the ECU in the
calculation process. This additional information, supplied by other sensors, is covered in the following
sections. When the ECU has calculated the quantity of fuel to be delivered (effectively by noting the
information from the sensors and then referring to the programmed fuel map within the memory), it will
then switch on the injectors for an appropriate length of time (the injection duration). The duration will
vary with the system’s design and operating conditions, such as engine load, engine speed, temperature,
etc., but typical values are between 1.5 ms and 15 ms.
Injectors are produced with differing nozzle sizes, so different injectors will allow different quantities of
fuel to flow through the nozzle for a given opening duration. The different nozzle sizes are produced to suit
22
larger and smaller engine cylinders, which will require correspondingly larger or smaller quantities of fuel
to be delivered. A large nozzle injector used in a large cylinder will have a similar opening duration to a
small nozzle injector used in a small cylinder.
Control signal
The ECU functions as the switch in the injector earth circuit. The power stage within the ECU is the
switching component, and when the ECU calculates that the injector should be switched on for a specific
length of time, the power stage will complete the injector earth circuit for the appropriate time period. As
with any switch that is located in the earth circuit, when the switch is ‘closed’ there is a complete circuit,
which means that the earth circuit voltage should be 0 volts. When the switch on the earth circuit is open,
current does not pass to earth and there is an ‘open circuit voltage’ available at the negative terminal of the
injector and at the input terminal of the earth circuit switch.
On an injector circuit, therefore, assuming that a 12 volt power supply is connected to the injector, the input
voltage to the injector positive terminal will be 12 volts. When the earth switch is closed (completing the
circuit through to earth), then the voltage at the negative terminal of the injector and at the input terminal of
the power stage or switch will be 0 volts. The switching action of the power stage therefore results in the
voltage on the earth path (negative terminal of the solenoid) switching between 0 and 12 volts. In effect,
this on/off switching action is the control signal produced by the ECU: this control signal is a simple on/off
digital signal. The length of the on pulse of the control signal will dictate the duration of the opening of the
injector. Two examples of control signals are shown in Figure 3.12. These signals are typical of control
signals when observed with an oscilloscope. The example in Figure 3.12a shows a signal produced when
the power stage switches on and off the earth circuit. The spike at point C on the signal is produced when
the circuit is switched off, which causes a ‘back EMF’ to be produced in the solenoid winding, i.e. the
rapidly collapsing magnetic field causes a voltage to be induced in the winding. The duration of injection is
dictated by the pulse width B. Therefore points A, B and C on the pulse can be described as follows:
A = injector earth circuit switched off. The open circuit voltage can be measured at the injector negative
terminal.
B = injector earth circuit switched on. The ECU completes the earth circuit so the voltage in this circuit is 0
volts. The width of this section of the signal (pulse width) dictates the opening time or duration of opening
of the injector.
C = injector earth circuit switched off. At the end of duration B, the ECU switches off the earth circuit and
back EMF is induced within the solenoid. The EMF can reach figures in the region of 40 to 60 volts on
some systems, as indicated at point C.
The example in Figure 3.12b is typical of systems where current control is used by the ECU in a two stage
control process. Stage 1 is where full current is allowed to flow through the injector earth circuit (B2),
23
which allows rapid opening of the injector; the duration of this full current period can be very short, e.g.
0.5 ms. Stage 2 is where current limiting is implemented by the ECU so that the current flow through the
earth circuit is limited (B3); however, sufficient current will still flow to keep the injector open for the
required period. The injector duration is varied by altering the width of the injector control signal pulse in
stage 2 (B3).
A = Injector earth circuit switched off. The open circuit voltage can be measured at the injector negative
terminal.
B1 = Total duration of control signal (made up of B2 + B3).
B2 = Injector circuit is switched on. At this point, the ECU allows full current to flow through the earth
circuit, thus rapidly opening the injector. At the end of period B2, the current is limited by the ECU, which
would in theory cause the injector to close.
B3 = When the current has been limited at the end of B2, the ECU allows a reduced current to flow which
is sufficient to keep the injector open. The width of the pulse at B3 alters, which controls the duration of
opening for the injector.
C = Injector earth circuit switched off. At the end of duration B, the ECU switches off the earth circuit and
back EMF is produced within the solenoid. The EMF can reach 40 to 60 volts on some systems, as
indicated at point C.
Sensors
The main objective of any petrol delivery system is to provide the correct mixture of air and petrol so that
the combustion process is efficient and produces maximum power from the mixture. To achieve this, the
fuel injection system must provide the correct quantity of petrol to suit the mass of air being drawn in by
the engine, i.e. the ratio of petrol to air must be correct. If we therefore assume that, at all times, the air/fuel
ratio is stoichiometric (as discussed in Book 1), then the mixture delivered should be in the ratio of
approximately 14.7 parts of air to 1 part of petrol by weight. This is the ratio that, in theory, will provide
complete combustion of the mixture.
However, there are numerous situations that influence the air/fuel ratio: this means that the mixture can
vary above or below the stoichiometric value, i.e. the mixture can have a slight excess of fuel or an excess
of air (rich or weak) to suit the conditions and requirements. A simple example is with cold starting and
running, where a slightly rich mixture is required. In other situations, a slightly weak mixture might be
provided for better fuel economy. In reality, with modern engines, emissions regulations force the use of a
stoichiometric air/fuel ratio for a high percentage of engine operating conditions. However, the same rule
applies with modern and older engines: the injection system ECU must initially calculate the fuel
requirement based on the mass of air flowing into the engine.

24
The main information required by the ECU is therefore a measurement of the mass of air. Other sensors
are, however, required to enable the ECU to ‘fine tune’ the air/fuel mixture. As noted previously, there are
a number of factors that affect the air/fuel ratio, such as:
i. temperature
ii. emissions control
iii. engine load
iv. driver intentions
v. engine design
Other factors also slightly influence the mixture finally delivered to the engine. Therefore many additional
sensors are used to give the ECU sufficient information to enable it to finely adjust the fuel quantity
delivered by the injectors. The following list highlights only those sensors that might be used on a basic
electronic injection system.
Airflow and mass airflow measurement
Airflow sensors (discussed later in this chapter) can be used to measure and transmit a signal to the ECU
relating to either the volume or the mass of air that is flowing through the intake system at a given time.
However, the ECU must calculate what mass of air is flowing to each cylinder at any given time, so it also
requires engine speed information. Some examples of airflow and mass airflow sensors are shown in
Figure 3.13.
Air mass and engine speed are the fundamental items of information required by the ECU. Although some
systems use an air ‘mass’ sensor, others use different sensors such as manifold absolute pressure sensors
(MAP sensors), which measure the manifold depression; in this case, the ECU uses the MAP sensor
information along with engine speed, air temperature and other information to establish the basic fuel
requirements.
Coolant temperature (Figure 3.14a)
The engine coolant temperature information enables the ECU to alter the fuel quantity (thus altering the
Air/fuel ratio) so that, when the engine is cold, an excess of fuel (a rich mixture) can be provided. The ECU
can slightly alter the fuel quantity and mixture over the whole range of operating temperatures, thus
allowing ‘fine tuning’ of the mixture.
Air temperature (Figure 3.14b)
The air temperature sensor information helps in calculating the air mass, because air density changes with
temperature. Many air temperature sensors are incorporated within the airflow sensors. Since a high air
temperature can cause ‘pinking’ or pre-ignition, the ignition timing might be altered by the ignition ECU to
correct this, but it is also possible that the injection ECU might slightly alter the fuel quantity if necessary.
Throttle position
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On early basic electronic injection systems, a simple ‘throttle switch’ was used to indicate when the throttle
was in the closed position (idle). The switch also indicated when the throttle was around 60% open, which
was a sign that the engine was under load. The most widely used type of throttle switch on earlier systems
contained two sets of contacts, which closed and opened at the relevant time as the throttle was opened and
closed. For both idle and load positions, the ECU provided a slight enrichment of the mixture, which
helped stabilize the engine at idle and allowed additional power to be developed under load. Note that later
engines, with improved emission control, operate with weaker mixtures at idle and under load conditions;
the programming of the ECU and the information required are altered to suit these requirements.
Later throttle position sensors use a potentiometer or variable resistor instead of switches. With a
potentiometer based sensor, it is possible to send a varying voltage analogue signal to the ECU; the signal
indicates all throttle opening angles and the ECU can also calculate the rate at which the throttle is being
opened and closed. The ECU is therefore able to alter the fuelling to suit the minor and major changes in
throttle position (load changes). The ECU can also assess the driver’s intentions, such as the intention to
rapidly accelerate, by detecting the speed or rate at which the throttle is being opened. Figure 3.15 shows
an example of a throttle switch and a throttle position potentiometer.

26
Figure 3.13 Airflow sensors a) Flap type airflow meter b) Hot wire air mass meter c) MAP sensor

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3.0 SINGLE-POINT PETROL INJECTION
Simplified injection system
Compromise between a Single-point injection and multipoint injection
Single-point injection systems have a cost advantage over multi-point injections systems. Multi-point
injection systems have many features that allow them to provide much better fuel delivery and mixture
control than Single-point injection.
Limitations with single-point systems
A single-point injection system is in many ways similar to a carburettor, because the fuel enters the engine
intake system from a single point in the throttle body. However, whereas a cagxrburetor relies on the
creation of a lower pressure area within the venturi to draw in fuel from a reservoir, single-point injection
makes use of a single injector that injects fuel (under pressure) directly above the throttle butterfly (throttle
valve or plate). Although the fuel pressure for a single-point system is not as high as for multi-point
systems, the pressure is higher than that in the intake system. Typical injection pressures for single-point
systems are around 1 bar or slightly less. With single-point injection, all cylinders receive fuel from the
single injector. However, because the injector is controlled by an ECU in the same way as on a multipoint
injection system, it is possible to use sensors to provide information to the ECU; this therefore provides
better control of fuel quantity than a carburettor, but with reduced cost compared with a multi-point
injection system.

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Fig. 23: Single Point Fuel Injection
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of a single-point system are in fact not dissimilar to those of a carburettor; for example,
air/fuel separation when the air and fuel mixture flows around corners in the intake system. Additionally,
fuel can still condense against the cold manifold walls during cold running. Single-point injection was quite
widely used on four-cylinder engines but these systems were not suitable on longer engines, such as
straight six-cylinder engines, because the different intake manifold lengths result in uneven distribution of
fuel. This is the same problem that affected many carburettor engines where the length of the intake pipe
from the carburettor or single injector to outer cylinders was much greater than to the central cylinders; this
resulted in the outer cylinders running more weakly than the inner cylinders.
A rich mixture was therefore provided to ensure that all cylinders developed reasonable power and could
run reasonably efficiently. However, the central cylinders then operated with a slightly rich mixture, which
causes high emissions. Single-point injection is therefore suitable for vehicles with smaller engines,
although some V8 engines were fitted with a single-point system; this was possible because the location of
the injector within the centre of the V resulted in similar intake pipe lengths to all cylinders.
One other major disadvantage relates to emissions control and emissions control regulations. It is now
necessary on modern systems to stop delivery of fuel to a cylinder if that cylinder is operating very

29
inefficiently. If the spark at the plug were very inefficient or failed completely, unburned fuel would flow
through the cylinder and into the atmosphere as pollution. Modern multi-point injection systems, can detect
which cylinder is operating inefficiently and switch off the injector to that cylinder. This is not possible on
single-point systems where the injector supplies fuel to all cylinders.
Operation of a single-point injection system
Injector (actuator)
The injector (Figure 3.44) operates in much the same way as an injector for a multi-point system. The
injector is a solenoid that, when energised, causes the needle to lift off the seat (the typical needle lift is
approximately 0.06 mm). A control signal from the ECU opens and closes the injector for a calculated
period of time (typically 1.25 ms to 8 ms, depending on operating conditions). It is usual for the injector to
be opened at every ignition spark; i.e. on a fourcylinder engine, the injector would be opened each time a
spark occurred, which equates to four times for every engine cycle.
Idle speed control (actuator)
As with multi-point injection systems, some form of automated idle speed control is provided. The ECU
controls the stepper motor to either maintain or increase the idle speed for cold running or when load is
applied to the engine at idle. Alternatively, the stepper motor can control a valve, which alters the aperture
in a bypass port. The port allows air to bypass the throttle butterfly; therefore, when the valve allows more
air to flow through the port, the idle speed increases. Pg 122

2.0 PETROL INJECTION SYSTEM EXAMPLES (MULTI-POINT INJECTION)

Simple multi-point injection with airflow sensor
The main injection system components, an auxiliary air valve is used to provide a fast idle speed when the
engine is cold. The air valve is not controlled by the ECU and its operation is explained later in this section.
The LE2 system therefore has several sensors but only one set of actuators: the injectors. Airflow sensor
with combined air temperature sensor. The airflow sensor provides the ECU with an analogue signal that
indicates the volume of air being drawn into the engine. Air density changes with temperature, so an air
temperature sensor is built into the airflow sensor assembly. The ECU therefore receives airflow and air
temperature information.
Airflow sensor operation
The airflow sensor has a flap or vane that is forced to move when the air flows through the sensor body
(Figure 3.25). The flap is connected to a hinge or shaft, so the angle of the flap increases as the airflow
increases. A potentiometer (variable resistor) is fitted to the sensor assembly, and the potentiometer ‘wiper’
or ‘slider’ is connected to the shaft. Therefore, when the flap moves, the potentiometer wiper moves around
the resistance track of the potentiometer. This changes the voltage at the wiper, with the magnitude of this

30
change depending on the flap position. The voltage reading at the wiper is sent to the ECU, which provides
the ECU with an indication of airflow.
Potentiometer
One of the disadvantages of the flap system is the change in angular movement that occurs with increased
airflow. When the airflow is low, the flap is almost at right angles to the airflow and therefore the force
acting on the flap is relatively high; any small change in airflow will cause a relatively large change in the
flap angle. When the flap is almost at right angles to the airflow, the voltage change at the potentiometer
will be quite large for a small change in the airflow. When the flap is almost in line with the airflow,
however, small changes in airflow will result only in very small changes voltage. The potentiometer used
on the airflow meter is therefore more complex than conventional potentiometers. A thick film resistance
track is used, made of several segments, each with a different resistance. The resistance of the segments is
designed to compensate for the reducing angular movement of the flap as the airflow increases: as the
wiper moves across the track, the output voltage is progressive and linear.

31
Figure 25: Cutaway views of vane type airflow sensor a) Air side b) Electrical connection side
Coolant temperature sensor
The coolant temperature sensor is positioned (usually in the cylinder head) so that it can measure the
temperature of the engine coolant. A signal from the sensor is transmitted to the ECU so that the fuel
quantity can be altered for cold running (by enriching the mixture) as well as for other minor variations in
fuelling that are required at different coolant temperatures (to provide fine tuning of the mixture). Figure
3.26 shows a typical coolant temperature sensor. The coolant temperature sensor operates in exactly the
same way as the air temperature sensor described above. The sensor resistance changes with coolant
temperature, resulting in a voltage change in the circuit, which the ECU can then use as an indication of
coolant temperature.
The sensor has a negative temperature coefficient so its resistance reduces as the temperature increases. A
typical resistance for the sensor is around 7000 ohms (7 kΩ) at 0°C, falling to around 250 ohms at 100°C.
The voltage in the sensor circuit also reduces as the temperature increases. A reference voltage is applied to
the sensor circuit, which on the Bosch LE2 system is around 12 volts. However, when the sensor is
connected to the circuit, the resistances in the circuit reduce the voltage to a value that depends on the
resistance of the sensor, which changes with temperature. For normal operation, the voltage in the circuit is
around 9 volts for a very cold engine and around 5 volts for a hot engine.
Throttle position switch
One set closes when the throttle is closed. The second set of contacts closes when the throttle is
approximately 60% open (this value will depend on the application). With the Bosch LE2 system, 12 volts
is applied to the centre terminal of the switch. When a set of contacts closes, the 12 volt signal is
transmitted back to the ECU. The ECU uses this signal as an indication of idle position or load position.

32
The air/fuel ratio is usually enriched slightly to stabilize the idle speed and to enable the engine to produce
full power. Figure 3.27 shows a throttle switch and its construction.

Figure 27: Throttle position switch Figure 26: Coolant temperature sensor

Timing/trigger reference
The Bosch LE2 system relies on a signal from the ignition system for information on engine speed (to
assist in fuelling calculations) and as a reference for triggering the injectors. A signal is taken from the
ignition coil or direct from the ignition module. In effect, every time the ignition module switches off the
ignition coil (spark timing) a signal is transmitted to the LE2 ECU.
Relay operation
The relay receives the full battery voltage supply direct from the battery (possibly fused on some
applications) to terminal 30.
 When the ignition is initially switched on, the battery voltage will be applied to terminal 15 of the
relay (the voltage will be applied to the energizing winding). A timer circuit within the relay will
cause the relay to apply the battery voltage from relay terminal to the fuel pump for a few seconds
(allowing the pump to operate, thus ensuring that the fuel system is under pressure). If the engine is
not cranked or started, the relay will switch off the supply to the pump.
 When the ignition switch is then placed in the cranking position, the voltage will be applied from
the starter circuit to terminal 50 of the relay; this will again cause the energizing winding to close
the contacts and the battery voltage will now be applied to all of the system components (the fuel
pump, injectors and sensors). The engine should now start.

33
  When the engine starts, an ignition speed signal (from the ignition coil or module) is transmitted to
the relay at terminal 1, which indicates that the engine is running. Because the start signal from the
starter circuit will now switch off (the engine is no longer cranking), the speed signal acts as a
replacement so that the relay will continue to provide battery voltage to the injection system.
 If for any reason the engine were to stop, the ignition signal would disappear and the relay would
switch off the power supply to the injection system.
Multi-point system with added functionality
System components and layout
The system is referred to as M1.5 (Figure 3.32), and features a number of improvements and changes, as
well as added functionality and capability. In Bosch terminology, the ‘M’ tends to refer to ‘Motronic’ the
Bosch term that is generally applied to an engine management system. The M1.5 system combines the
ignition and fuel injection functions as well as some other functions, which include control of the idle
speed via an ECU controlled air valve. Although this section does not deal specifically with engine
management, the M1.5 system provides an insight into later fuel system developments as well as into early
engine management systems.
Sensors and sensor reference voltage
One major change to the system is that the reference voltages used for the sensors are generally stabilized
at 5 volts (as opposed to battery voltage). This is because the M1.5 system uses digital electronics to a
much greater extent than previous systems and a 5 volt circuit is more suitable for use with electronic
components. Standard multipoint gasoline injection systems use solenoid type injectors mounted in the
inlet port spraying directly at the back of the inlet valve. The quantity of fuel delivered is a function of
injector opening duration as the pressure differential across the injector is kept constant.
Airflow sensor with combined air temperature sensor
The airflow sensor and the air temperature sensor operate in much the same way as the sensor on the LE2
system (section 3.2.1). However, one major change is in the idle mixture adjustment or CO (carbon
monoxide) adjustment. Although the task remains the same, the adjuster on the M1.5 airflow sensor is a
potentiometer instead of an air bypass adjuster. Since the reference voltage to the sensor is 5 volts, the
output signal voltages during normal operation will typically be between 0.25 and 4.75 volts.

34
Fig. 21: Multi-Point Fuel Injection

Trigger/timing reference (engine speed sensor)

The M1.5 system is a combined injection and ignition system, and a single sensor is used to provide the
ECU with crankshaft speed and angular position information. The crankshaft speed/position sensor is an
inductive or variable reluctance sensor. On the M1.5 system there is a trigger or reluctor disc on the
crankshaft (different positions on the crankshaft are used for different engine applications). The disc has 60
reference points or trigger teeth, although one tooth is missing, which functions as the master reference.
Figure 3.36 shows the sensor and reluctor disc. The sensor is constructed with a permanent magnet and a
winding. It is located next to the reluctor disc and as each tooth passes the sensor, it induces a small current
into the winding. So, when the crankshaft is rotating, the sensor will produce an electrical pulse or signal as
each tooth passes the sensor. The missing tooth will create a slightly different pulse shape, which the ECU
will use as the master reference. Figure 3.37 shows part of the AC analogue signal that would be seen when
the sensor is connected to an oscilloscope.
The ECU uses the master reference signal to establish a master position for the crankshaft, e.g. TDC for
cylinders 1 and 4. This can be used as a trigger reference for operating the injectors and as a master
reference for the ignition timing. The M1.5 system is a simultaneous injection system, i.e. all injectors open
and close together. Also note that the ignition system has a single coil for all cylinders and a rotor
arm/distributor cap (connected to the end of the camshaft) to distribute the HT voltage to the appropriate
spark plugs.

35
Figure 28: Multi-point fuel injection

Figure 3.36 Crankshaft speed/position sensor

Digital signal MAP sensors

A digital MAP sensor operates in a similar way to an analogue sensor, but it produces a digital signal
instead of an analogue signal. The sensor produces a simple on/off signal. However, when the intake
pressure changes, the signal frequency changes, i.e. the number of pulses produced in a second will
increase or decrease. As an example, at idle speed where the manifold pressure is low (high depression),
the frequency could be around 90 Hz, but when the throttle is opened and the intake pressure rises, the
frequency could rise to approximately 150 Hz. The sensor power supply (typically 5 volts) is a stabilised
voltage supplied by the ECU and connected via a terminal on the sensor. Additionally an earth (0 volt)
connection terminal as well as a signal output terminal will be available.
Figure 42: Analogue MAP sensor
36
Operational of GDI
Most direct-injection systems can operate in three distinct modes: lean burn, stoichiometric, and full power.
Each of these modes has different air-fuel ratios, injection timing, and pump pressures. The PCM chooses
the mode based on operating conditions. The lean mode relies on a stratified charge for combustion, and
the stoichiometric and full-power modes rely on a homogeneous mixture, which means that the air and fuel
are well mixed (Figure 30–27).
The PCM also must be able to smoothly transition the move from one to another. The systems also have a
limp-home mode if the PCM detects a problem with the system. During this time, the PCM will use a fuel
strategy that allows the engine to run well enough to drive the vehicle in for service. It is important to note
that not all direct-injection systems have a lean burn mode. These systems use this technology for power
gains and emission reduction, not to minimize fuel consumption.
Lean Burn Mode. Direct-injected engines are able to run at very lean mixtures, with air-fuel ratios as high
as 60:1. This benefit is why GDI engines are capable of drastically reducing fuel consumption. The engines
run in the lean mode when the vehicle is cruising with a very light load. In addition to a reduction in fuel
consumption, exhaust emissions are also lowered. The lean mixtures are possible because the system
allows for a stratified charge. The placement of the injector tip in the combustion chamber is an important
feature of a direct-injection system, especially when it is operating in the lean mode. A small amount of
fuel is sprayed near the spark plug when the piston has nearly completed its compression stroke but before
ignition occurs. There is enough fuel around the spark plug to cause combustion. This local area of
combustion is the stratified charge. The area surrounding that small area has little or no fuel and is mostly
air or recirculated exhaust gas. The air surrounding the stratified charge forms an insulating cushion to keep
fuel away from the cylinder walls.
Stoichiometric Mode During medium-load operation, the system operates in the stoichiometric mode. The
air-fuel ratio is near stoichiometric and the fuel is injected during the intake stroke.
Full-Power Mode The full-power mode is used during heavy loads and hard acceleration. The air-fuel
mixture is slightly richer than stoichiometric and the fuel is again injected during the intake stroke.

Compression Ratios
The ability of a direct injection to change air-fuel ratios and injection timing over a wide range also allows
it to eliminate most conditions that would cause engine knock. This means GDI engines can operate at
higher compression ratios without requiring the use of highoctane gasoline. The benefit of high
compression is simply higher compression extracts more energy from each droplet of fuel. Therefore,
running higher compression ratios provides increased engine horsepower and torque without consuming

37
more fuel. Higher compression ratios are also possible because the small droplets of fuel injected directly
into the cylinder tend to cool the mixture in the cylinder.
This cooling makes the mixture denser, means more power can be produced, and makes the mixture less
likely to detonate. Because regardless of the operational mode the fuel is sprayed around the spark plug, the
mixture burns quickly. This means there is less need for spark advance; this also decreases the chances of
detonation.
PP 916

Figure 23: The component layout for a gasoline direct-injection GDI system

Advantages of gasoline direct-injection GDI

When compared to other injection systems, direct injection has the following advantages:
 Increases fuel efficiency
 Provides higher power output
 Increases the engine’s volumetric efficiency
 Lowers engine thermal losses
 Decreases emissions (NOx may increase if combustion temperatures go too high.)
 Allows the engine to have high compression without the need to use high-octane fuel
 Reduces most of the turbo lag when used with a turbocharger

38