Approaches Revision Notes

simplypsychology.org/a-level-approaches.html

by Elisabeth Brookes, published 2016

Learning approach: Behaviorism

Assumptions (AO1)
All behaviors are learnt from our environment.
Focus on observable behavior (behavior that can be seen).
Animals and humans learn in the same ways so behaviorists carry out experiments
on animals and extrapolate the results to humans.
Psychology should be scientific and objective therefore behaviorists use mainly
laboratory experiments to achieve this.

Classical conditioning: learning by association (AO1)

Classical conditioning is learning through association and was first
demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov showed that dogs could be
conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell if that sound was repeatedly
presented at the same time that they were given food.

First the dogs were presented with the food, they salivated. The food was the
unconditioned stimulus and salivation was an unconditioned (innate) response.

Then Pavlov sounded the bell (neutral stimulus) before giving the food. After a few
pairings the dogs salivated when they heard the bell even when no food was given. The
bell had become the conditioned stimulus and salivation had become the conditioned
response.

The dogs had learnt to associate the bell with the food and the sound of the bell and
salivation was triggered by the sound of the bell.

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Operant conditioning: learning by consequences (AO1)
Skinner argued that learning is an active process. When humans and animals act on and in
their environment consequences follow these behaviors. If the consequences are pleasant
they repeat the behavior but if the consequences are unpleasant they do not repeat the
behavior.

Positive reinforcement: is receiving a reward.

Negative reinforcement: occurs when performing an action stops something
unpleasant happening. For example in one of Skinner’s experiment a rat had to press
a lever to stop receiving an electric shock.
Punishment: this is an unpleasant consequence. For example being grounded for
not doing your psychology homework.

The Skinner Box (1953) (AO1)

A hungry rat was placed in a cage. Every time he activated the lever a
food pellet fell in the food dispenser (positive reinforcement). The rats
quickly learnt to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in
the box

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This suggests that positive reinforcement increases the likelihood of the behavior being
repeated.

In another experiment, a rat was placed in a cage in which they were subjected to an
uncomfortable electrical current (see diagram above) as he moved around the cage the rat
hit the lever, this immediately switched off the electrical current (negative reinforcement).
The rats quickly learnt to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box.

This suggests that negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of the behavior being
repeated.

Applications AO3

Evaluation AO3
Behaviorism has experimental support: Pavlov showed that classical conditioning
leads to learning by association. Watson and Rayner showed that phobias can be
learnt through classical conditioning in the “little Albert” experiment.

It introduced the scientific methods to psychology. Laboratory experiments were

used with high control of extraneous variables. These experiments were replicable
and the data obtained was objective (not influenced by an individual’s judgement or
opinion) and measurable. This gave psychology more credibility.

Many of the experiments carried out were done on animals; we are different
cognitively and physiologically, humans have different social norms and moral values
these mediate the effects of the environment therefore we might behave differently
from animals so the laws and principles derived from these experiments might apply
more to animals than to humans.

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 It has practical applications for example systematic desensitisation based on
classical conditioning is used in the treatment of phobias. Classical and operant
conditioning have also been used to explain attachment.

It does not explain important aspects of human behavior such as memory and
problem solving as these are internal mental events which cannot be observed.

It does not take into account biological factors such as the role of neurotransmitters,
for example a low level of serotonin can give rise to depression or high level of
dopamine is involved in OCD.

It sees people as passive in their learning with little conscious thoughts influencing
their behavior; other approaches recognise the importance of mental events in the
learning process.

It neglects the influence of free will as it argues that our behavior is the result of
previous conditioning. Skinner argues that free will is an illusion.

Learning approach: Social Learning Theory (AO1)

Bandura agreed with the behaviorists that behavior is learnt through experience however
he proposed a different mechanism than conditioning. He argued that we learn through
observation and imitation of others’ behavior.

This theory focuses not only on the behavior itself but also on the mental processes
involved in learning so it is not a pure behaviorist theory.

Stages of the Social Learning Theory (AO1)

Attention: The individual needs to pay attention to the behavior and its
consequences and form a mental representation of the behavior.
Retention: Storing the observed behavior in LTM where it can stay for a long period
of time. Imitation is not always immediate.
Reproduction: The individual must be able (have the ability and skills) to reproduce
the observed behavior.
Motivation: Individuals must expect to receive the same positive reinforcements
(vicarious reinforcement) for imitating the observed behavior that they have seen the
model receiving.

Imitation is more likely to occur if the model (the person who performs the behavior) is
positively reinforced. This is called vicarious reinforcement.

Imitation is also more likely if we identify with the model. We see them as sharing some
characteristics with us i.e. similar age, gender, social status as we identify with them.

The Bobo doll study - Bandura et al. (1961) AO1

Method:

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 It was a lab experiment. Sample: American children, 36 boys and 36 girls
aged between 3-6 years old .

Group 1: 12 girls and 12 boys were shown a model hitting the doll with a hammer and
shouting at the doll.
Group 2: 12 girls and 12 boys were shown a model shown a non-aggressive model.
Group 3: 12 girls and 12 boys (control group) were not shown a model.

Then the children were taken to a room with some attractive toys but were told not to play
with the toys (aggression arousal).

Then the children were taken individually in a room containing a bobo doll, non-aggressive
toys like pencils and plastic farm animals and aggressive toys like a hammer and a pistol.

Results:

The children who had observed the aggressive model (group 1) were more aggressive than
the children from the other two groups. Group 1 imitated specific aggressive acts that were
displayed by the model. Boys imitated more physically aggressive acts than girls. There
was no difference in the verbal aggression between boys and girls.

Conclusion:

This supports SLT as it shows that children imitate behavior of role model even if the
behavior is aggressive.

Bandura and Walters (1963) (AO1)

The bobo doll experiment was repeated, but this time the three groups
were exposed to an aggressive model and saw different consequences
for the model:

Group 1: the model was praised

Group 2: the model was punished (told off)
Group 3: no consequences for the aggressive behavior

Results:

When left on their own to play the children in group 1 showed the most aggression followed
by group 3. Group 2 was the least aggressive.

Conclusion:

This shows that imitation is more likely to occur when the model is positively reinforced,
demonstrating the importance of vicarious reinforcement.

Applications (AO1)
This theory is used to explain the influence of the media on behavior. This has been used
in court in the case of Jamie Bulger’s murder(1990).

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The perpetrators, who were themselves children, claimed that they had been influenced by
the film Child Play 3. However these children came from a disturbed family where they
might have witness real life violence and social deprivation.

Evaluation AO3
Social learning theory is supported by research Bandura at al. (1961) and Badura
and Walters (1963) however these were laboratory experiments and the task did not
reflect the way the participants behave in their normal life.

At this young age parents would guide their understanding of the situation and
moderate their behavior this was not the case in the studies as the children were on
their own. The children were aggressive towards a doll which they know does not feel
pain and cannot retaliate; their behavior might be different towards another child.

Furthermore the children were in an unfamiliar environment they might have thought
that they were expected to behave like the model (demand characteristics).

The participants were young children, older children and adults might not have
imitated the aggressive behavior as they have more developed moral values.

The theory does not explain why the boys imitated the physical aggressive behavior
more than the girls. Other factors must be involved such as biological factors like
testosterone.

SLT can explain the difference of behavior between different cultures as if a behavior
is not displayed it cannot be imitated, this can explain why groups such as the Amish
are non-violent.

SLT can be used to explain the influence of media on aggressive behavior.

It is a more complete explanation of human behavior than conditioning as it takes into

account cognitive factors in learning. However it does not take into account free will
and moral values.

Issues and debates (behaviorism) AO3

Free will Vs determinism

Strong determinism of the behavioral approach as all behavior is learnt from our
environment through classical and operant conditioning. We are the sum total of our
previous conditioning.

Softer determinism of the social learning approach theory as it recognises an element of

choice as to whether we imitate a behavior or not.

Nature Vs nurture
Behaviorism is very much on the nurture side of the debate as it argues that our behavior is
learnt from the environment.

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The social learning theory is also on the nurture side because it argues that we learn our
behavior from role models in our environment.

The behaviorist approach proposes that apart from a few innate reflexes and the capacity
for learning, all complex behavior is learned from the environment.

Holism Vs reductionism
The behaviorist approach and social learning are reductionist; they isolate parts of complex
behaviors to study.

The behaviorists take the view that all behavior, no matter how complex, can be broken
down into the fundamental processes of conditioning.

Idiographic Vs nomothetic
It is a nomothetic approach as it views all behavior governed by the same laws of
conditioning.

However, it does account for individual differences and explain them in terms of difference
of history of conditioning.

Are the research methods used scientific?

The behaviorist approach uses lab. experiments which are highly controlled therefore they
are replicable. Furthermore, it measures observable behaviors, therefore no interpretations
is required therefore the data is objective.

However the behaviorists use animal experiments as it assumes that humans learn in the
same way than animals.

Cognitive Approach
Cognitive psychology has been influenced by developments in computer science and
analogies are often made between how a computer works and how we process
information.

Based on this computer analogy, cognitive psychology is interested in how the brain inputs,
stores and retrieves information.

This has lead to models which shows information flowing through the cognitive system such
as the multi-store model of memory.

Assumptions (AO1)
The main assumption of the cognitive approach is that information received from our
senses is processed by the brain and that this processing directs how we behave.

These internal mental processes cannot be observed directly but we can infer what a
person is thinking based on how they act.
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The role of schemas (AO1)
A schema is a “packet of information” or cognitive framework that helps us organise and
interpret information. They are based on our previous experience.

Schemas help us to interpret incoming information quickly and effectively, this prevents us
from being overwhelmed by the vast amount of information we perceive in our
environment.

However it can also lead to distortion of this information as we select and interpret
environmental stimuli using schemas which might not be relevant. This could be the cause
of inaccuracies in areas such as eyewitness testimony. It can also explain some errors we
make when perceiving optical illusions.

The emergence of neuroscience (AO1)

Neuroscience aims to find out how the brain structures influence the way we process
information and map mental cognitive functions to specific areas of the brain. This is done
using brain imaging techniques such as fMRI and PET scans.

Examples of brain mapping: Braver et al. (1997) found that when their participants were
performing activities involving the central executive while being scanned the prefrontal
cortex showed greater activity. This suggests that the central executive is situated in the
prefrontal cortex.

Research methods used by the cognitive approach:(AO1)

Laboratory experiments: These are the preferred method of investigation of the cognitive
approach i.e. Loftus and Palmer (1974) - Car Crash Study. In these experiments the
extraneous variables are tightly controlled so they can be replicated, but they lack
ecological validity as they take place in artificial environments and the tasks are also
artificial.

For example, in real life if you were a witness to a car crash you would not be interviewed
by a psychologist but by a policeman/woman and you would know that there would be
consequences to what you say so you might be more careful about the way you answer the
questions. Participants could be influenced by demand characteristics.

Case studies: These are used to study rare conditions which provide an insight on the
working of some mental processes i.e. Clive Wearing, HM.

Although case studies deal with very small sample so the results cannot be generalised to
the wider population as they are influenced by individual characteristics, they allow us to
study cases which could not be produced experimentally because of ethical and practical
reasons.

Brain imaging: fMRI and Pet scans are used to map areas of the brain to cognitive
function because the processing of information by centres in the brain to be seen directly.
Such processing causes the area of the brain involved to increase metabolism and "light
up" on the scan. i.e. Braver et al. (1997).
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Applications (AO3)
The study of memory has lead to the development of cognitive interview which has
decreased the inaccuracy of eyewitness memory; this should lead to a decrease of
wrongful convictions.

It also helped us understand the causes of depression and the approach also
proposes a therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy which has shown to be effective for
a range of mental disorders and unlike drugs has no side effects.

Evaluation (AO3)
The cognitive approach uses a very scientific method; mainly lab. experiments.
These are controlled and replicable so the results are reliable however they lack
ecological validity because of the artificiality of the tasks and environment so it might
not reflect the way people process information in their everyday life.

For example Baddeley (1966) used lists of words to find out the encoding used by
LTM, however these words had no meaning to the participants so the way they used
their memory in this task was probably very different than they would have done if the
words had meaning for them. This is a weakness as the theories might not explain
how memory really works outside the laboratory.

The cognitive approach has a wide range of practical applications. For example
schemas can be used to explain how eyewitness memories of events can be
distorted therefore inaccurate. The study of memory processes such as cue
dependent forgetting has lead to a strategy to improve EWT: cognitive interview.

By highlighting the importance of cognitive processing, the cognitive approach is able

to offer an explanation for mental disorders such as depression where Beck argues
that it is the negative schemas we hold about the self, the world and the future which
lead to depression rather than external events.

However it does not take into account the genetic factors which seem to be involved
in mental disorders such as schizophrenia. Furthermore this approach has lead to
cognitive behavioral therapy which is an effective way to deal with depression and
unlike drugs has not side-effects.

The approach is reductionist as it does not take into account emotions and motivation
which influence the processing of information and memory for example according to
the Yerkes-Dodson law anxiety can influence our memory.

However the cognitive approach is less deterministic than the learning approach as
although it argues that our thinking is limited by the way we process information it
does not deny the influence of moral values and social norms.

Issues and debates (Cognitive) AO3

Free will Vs determinism

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The position of the approach is unclear as it argues on one hand that we the way we
process information is determined by our past experience (schemas).

On the other hand in the therapy derived from the approach (CBT) it argues that we can
change the way we think.

Nature Vs nurture
The cognitive approach takes an interactionist view of the debate as it argues that our
behavior is influenced by learning and experience (nurture), but also by some of our brains’
innate capacities as information processors e.g. language acquisition (nature).

Holism Vs reductionism
The cognitive approach tends to be reductionist as when studying a variable it isolates
processes such as memory from other cognitive processes. However, in our normal life we
would use many cognitive processes simultaneously, so it lacks validity.

Idiographic Vs nomothetic
It is nomothetic approach as it focuses on establishing theories on information processing
that apply to all people.

Are the research methods used scientific?

The cognitive approach uses lab. experiments which are highly controlled therefore they
are replicable. However, it measures non-observable behaviors; therefore it could be
argued that it is not as scientific as the behaviorist approach.

Biological Approach

Assumptions (AO1)
The main assumption of the biological approach is that our thinking and behavior are
strongly determined by biological factors: structure and functioning of the nervous system.
This in turn is influenced by genetic and evolutionary factors.

Genetic factors (AO1)

Genes code for characteristics such as eye colour but also for the structure of the nervous
system and for the functioning of the nervous system i.e. neurochemistry, the amount of
neurotransmitters produced and the way they are used.

To determine the involvement of genetic factors we use twin studies. We compare the
concordance rate (the presence of the same trait in both members of a pair of twins) of
monozygotic twins (MZ twins-same genetic material) to the concordance rate of dizygotic
twins (DZ twins- share 50% of their genetic material). For example McGuffin et al. (1996)
found 46% concordance for depression in MZ twins compared with 20% DZ twins.

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Genotype and phenotype (AO1)
Genotype: the genetic makeup of an individual (genes present in each of your cells).

Phenotype: the characteristics expressed by an individual (whether they have blue eyes or
brown eyes).

A practical example of the difference between genotype and phenotype: phenylketonuria

(PKU) PKU is a genetic disorder which affects the ability to break down a substance
contained in normal foods (phenylalanine).

If the individual follows a strict diet avoiding this substance his phenotype will be normal
intelligence and behavior however if an individual eats a diet containing the substance then
it will accumulate in the brain, this will lead to a different phenotype: severe learning
difficulties and behavioral problem.

This shows that the presence of particular genes might lead to different outcome
depending on the social environment. This shows that characteristics depend upon an
interaction between nature (the genes) and nurture (the environment).

Evolution (AO1)
Charles Darwin proposed the theory of natural selection. He argued that genetically
determined characteristics or behavior that enhances our chances of survival and
reproduction will be passed on to the next generation, and become more common in a
population whereas traits which do not enhance survival will gradually disappear.

Evolutionary psychology is an approach that attempts to explain mental and psychological

traits i.e. as memory and perception as adaptations which increase our chances of survival.
An example of behavior of evolutionary explanation is Bowlby’s theory of attachment.

Applications (AO3)
The understanding of the role of the role of neurotransmitters has led to the
development of drugs which are effective in the treatment of mental disorders such
as schizophrenia and depression.

This enables many of the sufferers to lead a fairly normal life.

However these drugs are not effective for all patients and they can have serious side
effects and they do not cure the disorders as if the patients stop taking the drug the
symptoms reappear.

Evaluation (AO3)
It uses scientific research methods such as EEGs, fMRI and PET scans and twin
studies. These produce objective data which can be replicated and peer reviewed.

It could be argued that twin studies do not separate nature and nature because twins
are raised and live in the same environment and the difference in the concordance
rate found between MZ and DZ twins could be due to the fact that MZ twins are
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 treated more similarly by their parents than DZ twins because they look more similar.

Also we usually do not find 100% concordance rate in MZ twins for mental disorders
which indicates that environmental and social factors must be involved in the
development of these disorders.

The approach has real-life applications: based on the understanding of the

neurotransmitters psychoactive drugs have been developed which help treat mental
disorders such as OCD and depression.

This allows people with these mental disorders to live a fairly normal life. However
they do not cure the disorders and when patients stop the drugs the symptoms
reappear.

These drugs can have very serious side-effects. Additionally it could be argued that
the unbalance in neurotransmitters such as low serotonin in depressed individual is
the consequence rather than the cause of depression because the brain is a plastic
organ which changes with the way we use it so it could be that the depressed
thinking causes the low level of serotonin observed.

Furthermore the imbalance in neurotransmitters is usually not directly observed it is

deduced from drug trials where patients are given the drugs and seen to improve so
we deduce that it was the lack of the neurotransmitters which cause the disorder but
this might not be the case.

For example if we cut ourselves and the cut becomes infected it is not the lack of
disinfectant which causes the infection it is the presence of germs.

The biological approach is determinist as it sees our behavior as caused entirely by

biological factors over which we have no control. This encourages people not to take
responsibility for their own actions and blame their genetic makeup.

It is also reductionist as it reduces our behavior to the outcome of the actions of

genes and other biological processes neglecting the effects of childhood and our
social and cultural environment.

Issues and debates (Biological) AO3

Free will Vs determinism

It is strongly determinist as it views our behavior as caused entirely by biological factors
over which we have no control.

Nature Vs nurture
The biological approach is firmly on the nature side of the debate; however, it does
recognise that our brain is a plastic organ which changes with experience in our social
world so it does not entirely deny the influence of nurture.

Holism Vs reductionism
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The biological approach is reductionist as it aims at explaining all behavior by the action of
genetic or biochemical processes. It neglects the influence of factors such as early
childhood experiences, conditioning or cognitive processes.

Idiographic Vs nomothetic
It is nomothetic approach as it focuses on establishing laws and theories about the effects
of physiological and biochemical processes that apply to all people.

Are the research methods used scientific?

The biological approach uses very scientific methods such as scans, and biochemistry.
Animals are often used in this approach as the approach assumes that humans are
physiologically similar to animals.

Psychodynamic Approach

Assumptions (AO1)
The main assumption of the psychodynamic approach is that all behavior can be
explained in terms of the inner conflicts of the mind.

Freud highlights the role of the unconscious mind, the structure of personality and
the influence that childhood experiences have on later life.

Freud believed that the unconscious mind determines most of our behavior and that
we are motivated by unconscious emotional drives.

Tripartite Personality (AO1)

According to Freud our personality is composed of three parts (tripartite):

Id: it is the biological part (instincts and drives) of the personality. It is present at birth.
The Id is motivated by the pleasure principle; it demands instant gratification of its
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 needs.
Ego: develops from 1 - 3 years. It is motivated by the reality principle. It mediates the
conflicts between the ID and superego. It uses defence mechanisms to achieve this.
Superego: develops from 3 - 5 years. It is motivated by the morality principle. It
punishes the ego with guilt for “wrong doing”.

To be mentally healthy the ego has to be able to balance the demands of the ego and the
superego. If the superego is dominant, the individual might develop a neurosis e.g.
depression. If the ID is dominant, the individual might develop a psychosis e.g.
schizophrenia.

The Mind (AO1)

The mind is divided in three parts:

The conscious: this is the part we are

aware of and can access without any
effort. It contains part of the ego.
The preconscious: this a part of the
mind that we cannot access without
effort. It contains the ego and some of
the superego.
The unconscious: this part of the
mind cannot be accessed without the
help of a trained psychoanalyst. It
contains the superego and the Id.

When unconscious conflicts between the Id

and the superego cannot be resolved by the
ego they create anxiety. To reduce this
anxiety we use defense mechanisms such
as repression.

Defense Mechanisms (AO1)

Repression: Is used by the ego to keep disturbing memories out of the conscious
mind and in the unconscious mind where they cannot be accessed, e.g. sexual or
aggressive urges or painful childhood memories.
Displacement: An impulse may be redirected from its original target onto a more
acceptable one, e.g. being angry with your father and shouting at your little sister.
Denial: the existence of unpleasant internal or external realities is denied and kept
out of conscious awareness, e.g. having lost your job and yet you go to work every
day.

Psychosexual Stages of Development (AO1)

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 Stage Source of pleasure Outcome

Oral (0- Mouth – sucking, swallowing If forceful feeding, deprivation or early weaning occur then
1year) etc. fixation could lead to oral activities (e.g. smoking),
dependency, and aggression.

Anal (1-3 The anus – withholding or If toilet training is too harsh or too lax then fixation could
years) expelling faeces. lead to obsessiveness, tidiness, meanness; or to untidiness
and generosity.

Phallic The penis or clitoris – If abnormal family set-up leading to unusual relationship with
(3-5 masturbation. mother/father then fixation could lead to Vanity, self-
years) obsession, sexual anxiety , inadequacy, inferiority, envy,

Latent Sexual drives are repressed. Fixation does not happen in this stage.
(5-
puberty)

Genital The genitals. The adult Fixation at this stage should occur in a mentally healthy
(puberty- derives pleasure from adult.
death) masturbation and sexual
intercourse.

For more information on psychosexul stages click here.

Applications (AO3)
The psychodynamic approach has given rise to one of the first “talking cure",
psychoanalysis, on which many psychological therapies are now based.
Psychoanalysis is rarely used now in its original form but it is still used in a shorter
version in some cases.

This approach can be used to explain mental disorders such as depression and
schizophrenia although these explanations are rarely used by mainstream
psychology. One of the very influential concept put forward by Freud is the lasting
importance of childhood on later life and development.

Evaluation (AO3)
The concepts of Id, ego and superego are very abstract and difficult to test
experimentally so evidence is obtained from case studies (Little Hans and Anna O).
However, the sample used in these case studies is mainly Austrian so lack
population validity.
These case studies used mainly unstructured interviews so yielded qualitative data.
The need for interpretation of the material gathered means that it is biased on the
part of the researchers as they tend to interpret the data in a way that supports their
theory.

Furthermore, the fact that two different researchers can reach completely different
interpretations of the same case suggests that the methods lack objectivity.

The theory is not falsifiable as if people behave in the way predicted by the theory it
is viewed as support, if they don’t it is argued that they are using defence
mechanisms.
The individual is not seen as responsible for their disorders however as the conflicts
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 which lead to the disorder are unconscious there is nothing they can do about it
without an analyst, they are disempowered.
It cannot explain the biological symptoms observed in some disorders such as
enlarged ventricles in schizophrenics.
It has given rise to one of the first “talking cure”, psychoanalysis, on which many
psychological therapies are now based. Psychoanalysis is rarely used now in its
original form but it is still used in a shorter version in some cases.
It could be argued that Freud was the first person to highlights the importance of
childhood in mental health and this is an idea extensively used today.
The psychodynamic approach is determinist as it rejects the idea of free will. A
person’s behavior is determined by their unconscious motives which are shaped by
their biological drives and their early experiences.
It recognises the influence of social and cultural factors as it proposes that we are
driven by innate, biological instincts (nature) but that the way they are expressed is
shaped by our social environment (nurture).

Issues and debates (Psychodynamic) AO3

Free will Vs determinism

It is strongly determinist as it views our behavior as caused entirely by unconscious factors
over which we have no control.

Nature Vs nurture
The psychodynamic approach recognises the influence of social factors as it argues that
we are driven by innate biological instincts, represented by the Id (nature), but the ways
these instincts are expressed is shaped by our social and cultural environment (nurture).

Holism Vs reductionism
The psychodynamic approach is determinist as it rejects the idea of free will. A person’s
behavior is determined by their unconscious motives which are shaped by their biological
drives and their early experiences.

Idiographic Vs nomothetic
Freud argued that human behavior is governed by universal processes that apply to
everyone e.g. the tripartite structure of the mind (nomothetic) however, he also proposed
that the ways in which these processes manifest themselves in the individual is unique
(idiographic).

Are the research methods used scientific?

The concepts proposed by Freud cannot be tested empirically. The theory is not falsifiable
as if people behave in the way predicted by the theory it is viewed as support, if they don’t
it is argued that they are using defence mechanisms.

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Humanistic Psychology

Assumptions (AO1)
Every person has their own unique way of perceiving and understanding the world and that
the things they do only make sense in this light. Therefore, the aim of this approach is not
objectivity as the other approaches; its aim is to understand people’s subjectivity.

According to this approach, people are self-determining, which means that they have free
will they can make choices about the way they think and act. These choices are not
determined by biological or other external factors.

Self-actualisation (AO1)
All people have an innate tendency towards growth and the fulfilment of their potential, they
have a desire to become everything that they are capable of – self-actualisation.

However, according to Maslow, people also have needs which must be met for self-
actualisation to be possible. The basic needs e.g. food and water have to be satisfied
before the higher.

According to Rogers, people could only self-actualise if they had a positive view of
themselves (positive self-regard). This can only happen if they have unconditional positive
regard from others – if they feel that they are valued and respected without reservation by
those around them (especially their parents when they were children).

However, most people don’t perceive the positive regard of others as being unconditional.
They tend to think they will only be loved and valued if they meet certain conditions of
worth. These conditions of worth create incongruity within the self between the real self
(how the person is) and the ideal self (how they think they should be or want to be).

Self-actualisation is only possible if there is congruence between the way an individual

sees themselves and their ideal self (the way they want to be or think they should be).
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If there is a large gap between these two concepts, negative feelings of self-worth will arise
that will make it impossible for self-actualisation to take place.

Applications (AO3)
Based on this approach, client-centred therapy aims to increase clients’ self-worth and
decrease the incongruence between the self-concept and the ideal self.

It is a non-directive therapy in which the client is encouraged to discover their own solutions
to their difficulties in an atmosphere that is supportive and non-judgemental and that
provides unconditional positive regard.

It focuses on the present rather than dwell on the past unlike psychoanalysis. This therapy
is widely used e.g. health, education and industry.

Evaluation (AO3)
It has given rise to a new way to look at people’s needs, for example Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs is widely used in health and social work as a framework for
assessing clients’ needs.

Client-centred therapy is widely used in health, social work and industry. This therapy
has helped many people overcome difficulties they face in life, which is a significant
contribution to improving people’s quality of life.

The approach uses non-scientific research methods. As its aim is to understand

people’s subjectivity, it uses methods that yield qualitative data such as unstructured
interviews or participant observations. These are difficult/ impossible to replicate and
the interpretation of the data is influenced by researcher bias.

It proposes a positive view of human nature, however, it could be argued that this
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 might not be very realistic when considering the everyday reality such as domestic
violence and genocides.

Furthermore, the approach’s focus on meeting our needs and fulfilling our growth
potential reflects an individualistic, self-obsessed outlook that is part of the problem
faced by our society rather than a solution.

The approach is holistic as it does not try to break down behaviors in simpler
components.

The approach is non-determinist as it recognises free will but its position on this topic
is somewhat incoherent as on one hand it argues that people have free will but, on
the other hand it argues that our behavior is determined by the way other people treat
us (whether we feel that we are valued and respected without reservation by those
around us).

The approach recognises both the influence of nature and nurture, nurture- the
influence of experiences on a person’s ways of perceiving and understanding the
world, nature- influence of biological drives and needs (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs).

Issues and debates (Humanism) AO3

Free will Vs determinism

It is the only approach that explicitly states that people have free will, but its position on this
topic is somewhat incoherent as on one hand it argues that people have free will but, on
the other hand it argues that our behavior is determined by the way other people treat us
(whether we feel that we are valued and respected without reservation by those around us).

Nature Vs nurture
The approach recognises both the influence of nature and nurture, nurture- the influence of
experiences on a person’s ways of perceiving and understanding the world, nature-
influence of biological drives and needs (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs).

Holism Vs reductionism
The approach is holistic as it does not try to break down behaviors in simpler components.

Idiographic Vs nomothetic
As this approach views the individual as unique it does not attempt to establish universal
laws about the causes of behavior, it is an idiographic approach.

Are the research methods used scientific?

As the approach views the individual as unique it does not believe that scientific
measurements of their behavior are appropriate.

About the Author

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Elisabeth Brookes is an A-level psychology teacher, and author of her own website
http://www.psychbug.co.uk/

Assessment Objectives

AO1

Knowledge and understanding

(a) recognise, recall and show understanding of scientific knowledge

(b) select, organise and communicate relevant information in a variety of forms

AO2

Application of knowledge

(a) analyse and evaluate scientific knowledge and processes

(b) apply scientific knowledge and processes to unfamiliar situations including those
related to issues

(c) assess the validity, reliability and credibility of scientific information

AO3

How Science Works (Research Methods)

(a) describe ethical, safe and skilful practical techniques and processes, selecting
appropriate qualitative and quantitative methods

(b) know how to make, record and communicate reliable and valid observations and
measurements with appropriate precision and accuracy, through using primary and
secondary sources

(c) analyse, interpret, explain and evaluate the methodology, results and impact of
their own and others’ experimental and investigative activities in a variety of ways.

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