A marketing ‘barometer’ for EU accession through female

perceptions of role portrayals in advertising at the border

of Europe: a Cross-cultural study of Ukraine and Turkey

Abstract
This article examines female response to gender role portrayals in advertising for Ukraine and
Turkey. Both being new potential EU candidates, we argue that gender stereotype could also
be use as a ‘barometer’ of progress and closure towards a more general EU accepted
behaviour towards women. While their history remains different, both from a political and
society values point of views, constraints are currently being faced that require convergence
or justification of practices and understanding. Principal components analysis was employed
over 290 questionnaires to identify the underlying dimensions. Results indicate overall
similarities in perceptions, fragmentation within groups, but seem to provide divergence
regarding thresholds.

Keywords Gender Role Portrayal, Advertising, Ukraine, Turkey

Track International and Cross- Cultural Marketing

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Introduction
Many measures are currently in use to evaluate the candidate member states accession to EU.
Some have criticised this process as being too economistic, and a poor reflection of the actual
motivations, lifestyles and expectations of the societies, culture, and population asking for
accession. Yet, role portrayal has often been centre to advertising strategies, and society
development. “Most ad campaigns invoke gender identity, drawing their imagery primarily
from the stereotyped iconography of masculinity and femininity” . Stereotypically the male
embodies the active subject, while the female occupies the passive subject, these stereotypes
dictate what is seen as attractive, desired by others , and the ‘ideal’ to aspire to. Consequently,
the image projected in advertising now, as in the past, provides a key to understanding how
we make sense of ourselves and the world we live in , and maintains socio-cultural identity
concerns such as ‘who are we and who are the others?’ and ‘how are we related to each
other?’. We contend here that these dimensions should be seen as key factor in measuring
‘real possible’ European integration. Consequently advertising influences both cultural and
individual concepts of identity, as individuals are enabled to use advertising images as “visual
department store[s] of symbolic possibilities that can be tried on, adopted, altered, or
discarded in keeping with their desired self” . Findings are derived from a survey
encompassing 56 statements over five key dimensions (general advertisement sensitivity (9),
role portrayal (30), effect on company image (3), purchase intention (4) and female
consciousness (10)) explored in the literature. This paper first provides a brief review of the
literature concerning gender role portraying in advertising and feminine consciousness in our
case study countries. Attention then turns to the issue of methodology. The final section
provides a synopsis and discussion of the more salient themes which have arisen from our
analysis and concluding statements.
Literature Review
Gender role portraying in advertising – an overview
Gender stereotyping in advertising is a major debate since the late 1960s . It has been claimed
that women are often portrayed as dependent on men or subservient to them, e.g. in a home
setting; mostly shown as preoccupied with their physical attractiveness, behaving as sex
objects or decorations, and as product users or demonstrators. These stereotypical portrayals
seem to have even increased in some ways during the last decade . Three main types of
studies are usually carried out to measure gender role portrayal including (a) content analysis
of magazines and or television ads , (b) survey and experimental studies of consumer groups’
role portraying ( and (c) critical studies concentrating on ideological themes and impacts
references.
Role portrayal in advertisements has been recognised as affecting society members’ self-
concept, achievement aspiration and self-images . The ‘ideal’ body image is associated with
the “good life” , furthering individual’s desires to peruse such an image. With our bodies
becoming recognised as a montage upon which people attach meanings , there is no counter
argument in the literature that body image represents gender identity whether attainable or
not. Additionally contrive body image as a continual process or ‘project’; arguing that bodies
are “not accepted as given; rather they are malleable, capable of being transformed and
reconstructed”. This brings into question how reliable female body image is as both a
construction and symbol of feminity/masculinity, if it can be “transformed and reconstructed”
to portray roles or to be moulded to suit any purpose. Most of these differences influence the
degree of gender stereotyping in advertising of a given country. Ads will differ for example
regarding simple criteria such as models’ age, models’ type of fashion (e.g. seductive vs.
modest), type of setting (working vs. lifestyle/leisure), psychological state, models’ relation to
depicted products etc. Indeed Sandikci’s model proposes gender identity to be complex, fluid

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and multi-dimensional truly reflecting how societies perceive gender. Furthermore,
individuals undergo a process of constant negotiation and renegotiation adding weight to this
view. Patterson and Elliot have concluded that gender remains central to the world of
advertising, with advertising playing “a strong role in promulgating dualistic gender roles and
prescribing identities” . Not only does advertising broadcast gender identity, it assists in the
construction and reinforcement of gender identities . Moreover, Schroeder maintains that
advertising does not exist in a vacuum, it is connected to both media and cultural worlds, and
historical frameworks that inform “production, consumption, circulation and interpretation”
of images. Advertising affects us and we affect advertising” . Advertising does not control us,
nor is it responsible for solely creating gender identities that must be adhered to. It influences
us in many subtle ways, creating images of ‘perfection’ leading to unattainable gender
images, to which we can only aspire but can also be used in other manners such as ‘proxy
barometer’ in other context such as EU accession.
Feminine consciousness and advertising in Turkey and Ukraine
Turkey has experienced a substantial increase in the number of well-educated women,
increasing income level and global penetration of Western consumer values since the early
1980s. Feminism encompasses a wider modernisation trend within the Turkish state and
society. During Ottoman times, private space was associated with different dressing codes,
harems, isolation from economic-political life and strong patriarchy prejudices; while public
space was a masculine dominated place. One of the differences of Turkish feminism
compared to western ideology lies in the ideal for sharing the public space . Turkish feminist
from that perspective are often secular and have to integrate within their movement the
‘Kemalist ideology’. Indeed, Turkish national identity, feminism and consumptions are often
mixed together as ‘positive nationalism’ . Another aspect comes from an increasingly vocal
group of ‘Islamist women’ emerging with more traditional understanding of women’s roles
and status. Here the definition of progress, discrimination, inequalities and appropriate
behaviour in group or individually reflect the current political divide and polarization of the
Turkish society. Women are now assuming new social roles, responsibilities but this still need
to be mediated and contrasted by issues such as the number of women in Parliament, arranged
marriages, domestic violence, polygamy, maternity rights, pay levels etc. However, despite
the aforementioned changes, traditional values are still valid especially in rural areas and
eastern Turkey. Advertising has always been part of Turkish way of life. Multiple medias
types are available and only loosely controlled by the government (RTUK and RK). Turkey
also has access to many satellite channels exercising a counterbalancing influence while
highlighting clear cultural clashes. The large expatriated Turkish community in Europe is also
mediating the understanding and interpretation of many advertisements. Traditionally
advertisements have been promoting modernity and global brands using a mix of humour and
national pride. Turkey has often developed strong national brands instead of generic brands
used in many other countries.
Until December 1991, Ukraine was a part of unified country Soviet Union. According to some
of the principles that Soviet constitution declared, - such as the equality and opportunity for
everyone, - females were treated more or less equal to males in many aspects of the society.
Feminism movement were institutionalised. From the 1930s Soviet’s women were employed
outside the home and at the same time were managing most of traditional household tasks .
Following Soviet Union collapse Ukrainian woman were often the main provider for the
family . Today, they are certainly experiencing more gender discrimination in salary level,
employment, carrier promotion etc. When the Soviet Union collapsed, external constraint
vanished, and women representation has fallen from 35% to 9.8% of the total legislative
number . Women’s pay averaged 70% of man’s, though now only averaging 40% . Feminine

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movements are in need of organisation and lack awareness in the general population.
Advertising in the Ukraine is not new, noted that goods needed to be promoted to foreign and
COMECON buyers. However, marketing mix decision were centralised and the advertising
managed by state owned agencies that were considered as a political propaganda tool . The
content was often informative but not directed at individual satisfaction . Advertising was
aimed at re-directing demand for a greater overall economic and social welfare . Advertising
for foreign products was censored and export oriented products were presented as showing
Soviet Union capabilities . Post 1991, research showed that decision was affected by
unavailability of product, indifference to media and muted response to advertising .
Methodology
Data were collected through a questionnaire via face-to face interview in both countries. 56
statements designed to assess feminine role portrayal orientation were included in the survey.
Respondents were informed about the general purpose of the survey. Responses were
measured using five-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1- Strongly Disagree to 5 – Strongly
Agree. A total of 280 filed questionnaires were analysed. The population of this study was
adult females over the age of 18 who reside in Ukraine (Dnepropetrovsk city) and Turkey
(Istanbul). Descriptive demographics of data are presented in Table 1. Principal component
analysis (PCA) was conducted on statements regarding role portrayals.
Results and conclusion
The questions in our survey were organized following five majors areas including general
attitudes, role portrayal, company image, purchase intention and female autonomy. Overall, I
both countries sexism stereotypes are perceived to be increasingly less acceptable and are
notices by consumers. While most respondents agree that sexism has a negative impact on
women self and society at large, few make a clear link with purchase intention and company
image. In Ukraine, it even seems that these stereotypes are becoming more current and should
not necessarily be restricted (as they were in the past under soviet time).
Subsequently, the results were distilled using PCA to identify the core determinants of gender
role portrayal. The emergent factors and loadings are compared in Table 2, where 7
components extracted explain 55.268% and 55.944% of variation in Ukraine and Turkey
datasets, respectively. Slight changes emerged however, in the underlying variable
composition of the factors labelled, where congruencies are highlighted in gray (Table 2).
UKRAINE & TURKEY 7 PCs… similar, different…

Female consumers in these countries seemed to acquire distinctive views on variables: (1)
Advertising that shows women as sexual object should be restricted; (2) Only women should
decide how many children to have or not; (3) Husband should be legal family representative;
(4) Advertising uses female bodies excessively; (5) I don’t mind when advertising uses female
sexuality to attract attention; (6) Usually woman in advertising are a good example for me to
follow; (7) I find images of woman in advertising to be too offensive for our society; and (8)
The use of female sexuality in most of advertising is unsuitable.
What is most surprising in comparing the two countries is that, given the very significant
changes in political landscape over the last 50 years and the very different approaches to
women place in society, we would have expected to find that attitudes were radically different
and altering quickly. However, whilst some important differences are evident in area – such as
objectification of women and restriction, sexuality use as attention seeker and female body
use – we conclude that, overall, there appears to be a notable degree of stability in perception
of attitude towards gender role portrayal in advertising in both countries. While gender
stereotype are negatively perceived, they seem to also be a sign of freedom of expression,

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diversity within the society and modernity to a certain extend. This could also be interpreted
as sexism being institutionalized, hence the fragmentation of feminist movements in both
countries. Respondents also seem to demonstrate the increasingly plural, global and
multicultural aspects of societies in both countries. From a European integration point of view
it could be argued that women in both these countries are less stigmatized than in many
European countries where diversity (sexuality, clothing, modernity) has become a major
political issues polarizing and dividing society not on women issue per se but on immigration
grounds mainly. It also seem that in term of equality regarding more grounded variables such
as age, body shape, fashion, serious occupation and unattainable ideal self models are used in
both countries as is often the case in most of Europe with the usual consequences such as
anorexia on one hand and the wide spread use of plastic surgery on the other hand. Taken as a
whole, role portrayal understanding in both countries seem very similar bearing in mind that
the underlying reasons in reaching this position are profoundly different.

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 Table 1: Descriptive Demographics
Age Range Education Level Employment Status Monthly Income Marital Status
Turkey1

18-25: 47.4% Primary School: 5.3% Full-time: 18.7% $350 < : 17.5% Single: 63.2%
25-35: 28.3% High School: 32.5 Part-time: 64.5% $400-$700: 38.1% Married: 27.6%
36-45: 11.2% University: 62.3% Retired: 9.3% $750-$1,350: 23.7% Divorced: 6.6%
46-55: 8.6% Looking for job: 7.5% > $1,400: 20.6% Widow: 1.3%
56-65: 2% Living together: 1.3%
66 plus: 2.5% ($1≈1.46YTL as of Nov 23, 2006)
Ukraine2

18-25: 38.2% School: 9.8% Part-time: 20.9% $50 < : 7.7% Single: 48.5%
25-35: 28.2% High School: 4.5% Full day: 57.5% $60-$100: 29.8% Married: 35.8%
36-45: 16% Liceum / College: 19% Retired: 5% $110-$200: 43.3% Divorced: 8.2%
46-55: 12.2% Institute: 28% Looking for job: 16.7% > $210: 19.2% Widow: 3.7%
56-65: 3.8% University: 38.6% Living together: 3.7%
66 plus: 1.5%
1 2
N age=152; education=151; employment=107; income=97; marital=152 / N age=131; education=132; employment=120; income= 104; marital=134

Table 2: Comparison of gender role portrayals in Turkey and Ukraine - PCA

TURKEY UKRAINE
PC Variables Factor Variables Factor
PC
Loading1 Loading2

(explaining 13.631% of vatiation)1.Feminism

(explaining 11.088% of vatiation)1.Feminism

I find images of woman in advertising to be too 0.805 I find using women in advertising offensive 0.795
offensive for our society The use of female sexuality in most of advertising 0.722
I find using women in advertising offensive 0.693 is unsuitable
Advertising usually humiliates women intelligence 0.629 Advertising that shows women as sexual object 0.701
I would prefer to see women in advertising dressed 0.618 should be restricted
with everyday fashion rather than too glamorously I find images of woman in advertising to be too 0.682
Advertising that shows women as sexual object offensive for our society
should be restricted 0.606 I would prefer to see women in advertising dressed 0.669
The use of female sexuality in most of advertising with everyday fashion rather than too glamorously
is unsuitable 0.530 I find that women image in advertising has a 0.626
I find that women image in advertising has a negative effect on my own perception by other
negative effect on my own perception by other 0.503 Advertising uses female bodies excessively 0.531
I don’t mind when advertising uses female 0.519
sexuality to attract attention
I prefer to watch advertisement that uses women to 0.662 Advertising that shows women as sexual objects 0.707
attract attention encourages other women to feel freer in their
Advertising shows/uses realistic women 0.584 sexuality
2.Ideal Self
2.Ideal Self

Usually woman in advertising are a good example 0.576 I associate sexual images of woman in advertising 0.699
for me to follow with freedom
Advertising accurately shows women in most of 0.560 I prefer to watch advertisement that uses women 0.652
their daily environment to attract attention
Usually I can easily associate myself with women 0.550
in advertising
Segregation3.Reverse

In advertisements women are only accessory to 0.668 Advertising shows men realistically 0.800
what is advertised Advertising shows accurately men in their daily 0.785
3.Segregation

In most advertisements women are dependent on 0.668 activities

men Advertising accurately shows women in most of 0.665
In most advertisements women do not do important 0.667 their daily environment
things

Advertising should use more ‘common’ everyday 0.768 Advertising only employ young and beautiful 0.722
women women
4.Beauty Appeal
4.Beauty Appeal

Advertising only employ young and beautiful 0.716 Advertising usually shows women as objects of 0.565
women desires
Advertising uses female bodies excessively 0.550 Advertising usually shows men as the ideal 0.534
Advertising usually shows women as objects of 0.511 companion to be with
desires Usually woman in advertising are a good example 0.516
for me to follow
7.Conservatism Segregation6.Reverse Conflict5.Society

I associate sexual images of woman in advertising 0.757 In most advertisements women do not do 0.652
5.Segregation

with freedom important things

Advertising that shows women as sexual objects 0.752 In advertisements women are only accessory to what is 0.453
encourages other women to feel freer in their advertised
In most advertisements women are dependent on men 0.449
sexuality

Advertising shows men realistically 0.828 Advertising should use more ‘common’ everyday 0.746
Advertising shows accurately men in their daily 0.818 women
activities Advertising should show older women more often 0.717
6.Honesty

Using older women in advertising is offensive 0.629

7.Conservatism

I don’t mind that advertising shows women as 0.636 Advertising usually humiliates women intelligence 0.711
being dependent on men I don’t mind that advertising shows women as 0.632
I don’t mind when advertising uses female sexuality 0.609 being dependent on men
to attract attention

All loadings are presented as absolute values, with |0.500| as cut-off, except for 5th factor on Ukraine data, where |0.400| is also used. Employed rotation method is Varimax Kaiser Normalization.
1
A Rotation converged in 13 iterations. / 2A Rotation converged in 10 iterations.

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References