Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

2 Chapter 2: The Momentum Principle

Q1:
Solution:

(a) The magnitude of the momentum increases because the net force is in the same direction as the momentum.
(b) The magnitude of the momentum increases because the net force is in the same direction as the momentum.
(c) The magnitude of the momentum increases because the net force is in the same direction as the momentum.
(d) The magnitude of the momentum decreases because the net force is in the opposite direction as the momentum.

(e) The magnitude of the momentum decreases because the net force is in the opposite direction as the momentum.
(f) The magnitude of the momentum decreases because the net force is in the opposite direction as the momentum.

Q2:
Solution:
The object is moving in the +y direction, but we are not given any information about the change in velocity. Without
knowing the change in velocity, we cannot know the change in momentum, nor the net force. All of these choices might
be true.

Q3:
Solution:
Cart B.
#
p A = 0 so F net on A = 0.
∆ #
#
p B is to the left, so F net on B is to the left.
∆ #
#
p C is to the right, so F net on C is to the right.
∆ #

Q4:
Solution:
Newton’s first law and second law refer to the net force on the system. If you pull the sled in the +x direction at constant
velocity, the forces in the x-direction on the sled are the force on the sled by you in the +x direction and the force on
the sled by snow (friction) in the −x direction. When added together, these forces sum to zero and the net force on the
sled is zero, thus satisfying Newton’s first and second laws.

Fon sled by friction Fon sled by you

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Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

Q5:
Solution:
(a) 1 second would be 12 the period of the oscillation; thus, no information about the motion during an oscillation could
be obtained. All other choices of ∆t are reasonable, with smaller ∆t like 0.01 s being best for a computer calculation.

Q6:
Solution:
When doing an iterative calculation, it is desirable to have a small ∆t so that |∆ #
r | is small. A small enough |∆ #
r | is
9 2
(d) 1 × 10 m, which is approximately 0.01 of the distance from the Sun. (a) 1 × 10 m is too small as it would take too
10
many calculations to see the comet move a small fraction of 9 × 10 m. On the other hand, (b) and (c) are too large
since one would not be able to ascertain anything about the orbit of the comet.
Note that the question emphasizes doing an iterative calculation by hand. If you desire a rough approximation without
10
doing very many iterative calculations, you may argue that (b) |∆ #
r | = 1 × 10 m is the better choice.

Q7:
Solution:
p is in the direction of the net force on the puck. Thus, ∆ #
∆ # p is in the direction of arrow (e).

P8:
Solution:
#
F 1 = h18, 47, −23i N
#
F 2 = h−20, −13, 41i N
# # #
F net = F 1 + F 2
= h18 + (−20) , 47 + (−13) , −23 + 41i N
= h−2, 34, 18i N

P9:
Solution:
The system is the truck.

49
Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

#
p i = h65000, 0, 0i kg · m/s
#
p f = h26000, 0, 0i kg · m/s
∆t = 4.1 s
# ∆ #p
F net =
∆t
#
p − #pi
= f
∆t
h26000, 0, 0i kg · m/s − h65000, 0, 0i kg · m/s
=
4.1 s
h−39000, 0, 0i kg · m/s
=
4.1 s
= h−9510, 0, 0i N

P10:
Solution:

#
p i = h8, 0, 0i kg · m/s
∆t = 0.13 s
#
p f =?
#
F net = h−7, 5, 0i N

# #
p f = #
p i + F net ∆t
= h8, 0, 0i kg · m/s + (h−7, 5, 0i N) (0.13 s)
= h7.09, 0.65, 0i kg · m/s
q
# 2 2 2
| p f | = (7.09) + (0.65) + (0) kg · m/s
= 7.12 kg · m/s

P11:
Solution:

ti = 16 s
tf = 16.2 s
m = 4 kg
#
v i = h9, 29, −10i m/s
#
v = h18, 20, 25i m/s
f
#
F net =?

50
Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

# ∆ #
p
F net =
∆t
m∆ # v
=
∆t
m ( #
v f − #
v i)
=
∆t
(4 kg) (h18, 20, 25i m/s − h9, 29, −10i m/s)
=
(16.2 s − 16.0 s)
(4 kg) (h9, −9, 35i m/s)
=
0.2 s
= h180, −180, 700i N

P12:
Solution:
This is a straightforward application of the momentum principle. Choose the system to consist of the proton; the only
significant interaction with the system is due to the HCl molecule. Further, assume non-relativistic speed so we can use
Newton’s expression for momentum. Since the net force only has an x component, we should not expect the proton’s y
or z components of momentum, and thus velocity, to change.

#
∆ #
p sys = F net,sys ∆t
# #
p sys,f − #
p sys,i = F net,sys ∆t
# #
p sys,f = #
p sys,i + F net,sys ∆t
#
# msys #v sys,i + F net,sys ∆t
v sys,f ≈
msys
−27 −11 −14
  D E  
1.6726 × 10 kg (h3600, 600, 0i m/s) + −1.12 × 10 , 0, 0 N · 3.4 × 10 s
#
v sys,f ≈  
1.6726 × 10−27 kg
−24 −24
D E
5.64 × 10 , 1.00 × 10 , 0 kg · m/s
#
v sys,f ≈
1.6726 × 10−27 kg
#
v sys,f ≈ h3370, 600, 0i m/s

Note that the proton’s position didn’t enter into this calculation.

P13:
Solution:
Choose the system to be just the ball.

51
Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

(a) Do the following calculations for the early time interval:

# ∆ #
r
v avg,early ≈
∆t
# ∆ #
r
p avg,early
≈ m #
v ≈m
avg,early
∆t
 −3
 h0.08, −0.04, −0.02i m
#
p avg,early ≈ 2.7 × 10 kg
0.02 s
#
p avg,early ≈ h0.011, −0.005, −0.003i kg · m/s

(b) Now do the same calculations for the late time interval:

# ∆ #
r
v avg,late ≈
∆t
# ∆ #
r
p avg,late
≈ m #
v ≈m
avg,late
∆t
 −3
 h0.02, −0.36, −0.02i m
#
p avg,late ≈ 2.7 × 10 kg
0.02 s
#
p avg,late ≈ h0.003, −0.049, −0.003i kg · m/s

(c) Now use these two results to get the average net force.

# ∆ #
p sys #
p − #
p avg,early
F net,sys = = avg,late
∆t ∆t
# h−0.008, −0.044, 0i kg · m/s
F net,sys ≈
2s
#
F net,sys ≈ h−0.004, −0.022, 0i N

P14:
Solution:

(a) Image (B) is correct because the kick is brief and after the kick, #
v is constant so the block will move with a constant
velocity.
(b) Only the y-component of #
p changes due to the kick because the kick is in the +y direction.

(c) Fnet, x is constant so vf x = vix = 2.5 m/s

Use a picture of #
v f after the kick (shown in the figure below) to find vf z .

vf
vfz

x
2.5 m / s

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Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

vf z
tan 22◦ =
vf x
vf z = vf x tan 22 ◦
= (2.5 m/s) tan 22 ◦
= 1.0 m/s

#
v f = h2.5, 0, 1.0i m/s
q
# 2 2 2
| v | = (2.5) + (0) + (1.0) m/s
= 2.69 m/s

#
v
vb = #
|v|
h2.5, 0, 1.0i m/s
=
2.69 m/s
= h0.929, 0, 0.372i

pb is the same as vb, so

pb = h0.929, 0, 0.372i

(d)

pf x = mvf x
= (0.7 kg) (2.5 m/s)
= 1.75 kg · m/s

(e)

| #
p | = m | #
v|
= (0.7 kg) (2.69 m/s)
= 1.88 kg · m/s

(f)

pf z = mvf z
= (0.7 kg) (1.0 m/s)
= 0.7 kg · m/s

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Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

(g)

# ∆ #
p
F net =
∆t

Choose the system to be the block of ice. The only component of the net force that is non-zero is the z-component.
∆pz
Fnet, z =
∆t
pf z − piz
=
∆t
0.7 kg · m/s − 0
=
0.003 s
= 233 N
#
F net = 233 N

This is called the average net force because we assumed that it is constant.

P15:
Solution:

m = 5 kg
#
F net = h29, −15, 40i N
∆t = 4 s
#
v f = h114, 74, 112i m/s
#
v =0
i

Define the system to be the rock.

# ∆ #p
F net =
∆t
m∆ # v
=
∆t
#
F net ∆t = m∆ # v
#
F net ∆t = m v f − m #
# vi
# # #
m v i = m v f − F net ∆t
#
# F
v i = #
v f − net ∆t
m  
h29, −15, 40i N
= h114, 94, 112i m/s − (4 s)
5 kg
= h114, 94, 112i m/s − h23.2, −12, 32i m/s
= h91, 106, 80i m/s

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Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

P16:
Solution:

m = 2200 kg
viy = −40 m/s
∆y = −0.06 m
vf y = 0

Define the system to be the safe. Draw a free-body diagram like the one shown in the figure below.

Fground

Fgrav

#
Assume that F ground is constant as the safe is slowing down due to the collision.
Apply the momentum principle.
# ∆ #
p
F net =
∆t
#
p f = h0, 0, 0i
#
p = m # v
i i

= (2200 kg) (h0, −40, 0i m/s)

= h0, −88000, 0i kg · m/s

To calculate ∆t, assume constant net force. Then,

#
v + #
vf
#
v avg = i
2
h0, −40, 0i m/s + h0, 0, 0i
=
2
= h0, −20, 0i m/s

∆y
vavg, y =
∆t
∆y
∆t =
vavg, y
−0.06 m
=
−20 m/s
= 0.003 s

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Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

This is such a small time interval that the approximation of constant net force is reasonable. Any error from this
approximation would be small.
The principle of superposition gives
# # #
F net = F ground + F grav
#
= F ground + h0, −mg, 0i
#
= F ground + h0, − (2200 kg) (9.8 N/kg) , 0i
#
= F ground + h0, −221560, 0i N

Substitute into the momentum principle.

# ∆ #
p
F net =
∆t
# #
p − # pi
F ground + h0, −21560, 0i N = f
∆t
# h0, 0, 0i − h0, −88000, 0i kg · m/s
F ground + h0, −21560, 0i N =
0.003
E s
# 7
D
F ground + h0, −21560, 0i N = 0, 2.93 × 10 , 0 N
# 7 4
D E D E
F ground = 0, 2.93 × 10 , 0 N − 0, −2.156 × 10 , 0 N
7
D E
= 0, 2.93 × 10 , 0 N

# # #
Note that F grav << F ground so we could have neglected F grav during the collision.

P17:
Solution:
Draw a sketch of the situation.

vi

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Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

m = 2500 kg
vix = 24 m/s
vf x = 0
∆x = 0.72 m

#
(a) Assuming constant F net during the collision, then,
vix + vf x
vavg, x =
2
24 m/s + 0
=
2
= 12 m/s

(b)
∆x = vavg, x ∆t
∆x
∆t =
vavg, x
0.72 m
=
12 m/s
= 0.06 s

(c) Define the system to be the truck. The only significant force on the truck during the collision is the force by the
wall. Apply the momentum principle.
# ∆ #
p
F net =
∆t
# ∆ #
p
F by wall =
∆t
#
p − # pi
= f
∆t
h0, 0, 0i − m #
vi
=
∆t
− (2500 kg) (h24, 0, 0i m/s)
=
0.06 s E
6
D
= − 1.0 × 10 , 0, 0 N
# 6
F by wall on truck = 1.0 × 10 N

(d)
weight = mg
= (2500 kg) (9.8 N/kg)
4
= 2.45 × 10 N

57
Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

# 6
F by wall on truck 1.0 × 10 N
=
#
F grav on truck 2.45 × 106 N

= 41

The wall exerts a force on the truck that is more than 40 times the weight of the truck.
(e) We assumed a constant force by the wall on the truck during the collision. This assumption allows us to calculate
the average velocity of the truck using:
#
v + #
vf
#
v avg = i
2

P18:
Solution:
Draw a sketch of the situation.

vi

vf =0

m = 0.057 kg
#
v i = h−50, 0, 0i m/s
v f = 0 when instantaneously stopped during the collision
#
∆x = −0.02 m during the collision when slowing down

Find the time interval as it is slowing down during the collision.

#
v + #vf
#
v avg = i
2
vix + vf x
vavg, x =
2
−50 m/s + 0
=
2
= −25 m/s

58
Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

∆x
vavg, x =
∆t
∆x
∆t =
vavg, x
−0.02 m
=
−25 m/s
= 0.0008 s

Apply the momentum principle. Define the system to be the tennis ball. The only significant force on the ball during
the collision is due to the wall. Thus Fnet, x = Fbywall, x .

∆px
Fnet, x =
∆t
pf x − pix
Fbywall, x =
∆t
0 − (0.057 kg) (−50 m/s)
=
0.0008 s
= 3560 N

Note that this is quite large compared to the weight of the ball (≈ 0.6 N)

P19:
Solution:
Basically, we need to deflect the object so that it doesn’t collide with Earth. If the object is a comet nucleus, there is a
high probability that its orbit is in a different plane than Earth’s orbit is in. If the object is not a comet, but an asteroid
fragment, then there is a greater probability that its orbit is coplanar, or very nearly coplanar, with Earth’s orbit so let’s
assume this is the situation. Now we have two choices. We can either attempt to deflect the object out of its orbital plane
or we can attempt to deflect it away from Earth but in its own orbital plane. Let’s assume the latter. We need to give
the object a component of momentum (and thus also velocity) perpendicular to its initial trajectory, and we do this by
slamming a spacecraft into the object. The object’s initial momentum is directed toward Earth, but its final momentum
will have an additional component perpendicular to the initial component. Let’s neglect Earth’s motion during this
mission, at least for the moment. Choose the system to be the incoming object and the spacecraft. Let’s also assume
non-relativistic speeds. Assume further that the spacecraft slams into the object from a direction perpendicular to the
object’s initial momentum and becomes completely embedded. Finally, let’s neglect interactions outside the system.
# #
p sys,final = #
p sys,initial + F net,sys ∆t
#
p final,craft+object ≈ #
p initial,craft + # p initial,object
 
mcraft + mobject v final ≈ mcraft v initial,craft + mobject #
# # v initial,object
m #
v initial,craft + mobject #v initial,object
v final ≈ craft
#  
mcraft + mobject

6
Now we need some reasonable physical values. A Saturn V rocket has a mass of about 3 × 10 kg, but what about the
object? Asteroids vary in composition and density, but Ceres, the largest asteroid, has a density approximately twice that
3 3
 
of water, or about 2 × 10 kg/m3 . The object is approximately spherical, so it’s mass must be about 2 × 10 kg/m3 ×

59
Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

4 9
50 m3 ≈ 1 × 10 kg.


3π

6 3 9 4
 D E  D E
3 × 10 kg 1 × 10 , 0, 0 m/s + 1 × 10 kg 0, 3 × 10 , 0 m/s
#
v final ≈  
3 × 106 kg + 1 × 109 kg
9 13
D E D E
3 × 10 , 0, 0 kg · m/s + 0, 3 × 10 , 0 kg · m/s
≈
1.003 × 109 kg
9 13
D E
3 × 10 , 3 × 10 , 0 kg · m/s
≈
1.003 × 109 kg
4
D E
≈ 3, 3 × 10 , 0 m/s

This doesn’t appear to change the object’s velocity (actually the velocity of the object and embedded spacecraft) very
11
much. However, this rendezvous takes place 2.5 × 10 m from Sun. The object’s initial speed (and final speed) are the
same as Earth’s orbital speed, so they travel about the same distance each day. Will this small deflection be enough to
prevent a collision with Earth?

P20:
Solution:
Choose the system to be just the spacecraft and its contents. This choice of system obviously doesn’t include thruster
exhaust gases. The only significant interaction with the system comes from the thruster exhaust. A popular misconception
is that air is needed for rockets to work; this is not true. Let’s assume non-relativistic speeds so we can use Newton’s
expression for momentum. Let’s also treat the spacecraft and its contents as a particle to which we apply the momentum
principle. We need to apply the momentum principle to see how the system’s momentum changes during the thruster
burn. Let’s also neglect the loss of mass while firing the engine (due to exhaust).
Notice that the net force is in the +x direction. As a result, vy does not change. It will remain constant. Only vx will
change.

#
∆ #
p sys = F net,sys ∆t
# #
p sys,f − #
p sys,i = F net,sys ∆t
# #
p sys,f = #
p sys,i + F net,sys ∆t
#
# Msys #v sys,i + F net,sys ∆t
v sys,f =
Msys
5 3 4
  D E  D E
1.5 × 10 kg 0, 20 × 10 , 0 m/s + 6 × 10 , 0, 0 N · (3.4 s)
#
v sys,f =  
1.5 × 105 kg
5 9
D E
2.04 × 10 , 3.00 × 10 , 0 kg · m/s
#
v sys,f =  
1.5 × 105 kg
4
D E
#
v sys,f = 1.36, 2 × 10 , 0 m/s

Now we know the system’s (spacecraft’s) velocity at the end of the burn. Find the position of the spacecraft after the
burn. Since the net force on the spaceship is constant, use the arithmetic average of the velocity.

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Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

#
r f = #
r i + #
v avg ∆t
 #
v i + #

vf
= #
ri + ∆t
2
D 4 4
E D E 
D 4 4
E 0, 2 × 10 , 0 m/s + 1.36, 2 × 10 , 0 m/s
= 1.2 × 10 , 1.5 × 10 , 0 m +   (3.4 s)
2
4 4
D E
= 1.2002 × 10 , 8.3 × 10 , 0 m

Note that the x-displacement ∆x is very small. The spacecraft barely moved in the x-direction. This is because ∆t and
the x-acceleration (Fnet,x /m) are very small.
After the burn, the spacecraft’s momentum (and thus velocity) is constant (since the net force on the spaceship is zero),
and its position after one hour of coasting can be calculated.

#
r f = #
r i + #
v ∆t
4 4 4
D E D E 
#
r f ≈ 1.2002 × 10 , 8.3 × 10 , 0 m + 1.36, 2 × 10 , 0 m/s (3600 s)
4 7
D E
#
r f ≈ 1.69 × 10 , 7.21 × 10 , 0 m

Notice that the final velocity after the burn has a very small x-component (in comparison to its y-component). As a
result, during one hour, it has a much greater y-displacement than x-displacement.

P21:
Solution:
Given the mass 0.25 kg, initial position h0, 2, 0i m, initial velocity h3, 4, 0i m/s and initial time 0 s. The net force on the
object will be that of gravitational attraction with Earth, so the net force will be h0, −9.8, 0i N. Use the momentum
principle to project the position and velocity vectors into the future in steps of 0.05 s. The initial momentum is 0.25 kg ×
h3, 4, 0i m/s = h0.75, 1, 0i kg · m/s.
First step into the future.
# #
p final ≈ #
p initial + F net ∆t
≈ h0.75, 1, 0i kg · m/s + (h0, −9.8, 0i N) (0.05 s)
≈ h0.75, 0.51, 0i kg · m/s
#
p
#
v final ≈ final
m
h0.75, 0.51, 0i kg · m/s
≈
0.25 kg
≈ h3, 2.04, 0i m/s
#
p
#
r final ≈ #
r initial + final ∆t
m 
h0.75, 0.51, 0i kg · m/s
≈ h0, 2, 0i m + 0.05 s
0.25 kg
≈ h0.15, 2.102, 0i m

At t = 0.05 s we have #
r ≈ h0.15, 2.102, 0i m, #
v ≈ h3, 2.04, 0i m/s.

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Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

Carry out the above procedure for two more steps, letting the final values of momentum and position and velocity become
the initial values for the next step.
At t = 0.10 s we have #r ≈ h0.3, 2.106, 0i m, #
v ≈ h3, 0.08, 0i m/s.
At t = 0.15 s we have #
r ≈ h0.45, 2.012, 0i m, #
v ≈ h3, −1.88, 0i m/s.

P22:
Solution:

m = 240 kg
ti = 20.7 s
3 2
D E
#
r i = 4.3 × 10 , 8.7 × 10 , 0 m
4 3
D E
#
p i = 4.4 × 10 , −7.6 × 10 , 0 kg · m/s
# 3 2
D E
F net = −7 × 10 , −9.2 × 10 , 0 N

Define the system to be the space probe and apply the Momentum Principle.
At t = 20.9 s,
# #
p f = #
p i + F net ∆t
4 3 3 2
D E D E 
= 4.4 × 10 , −7.6 × 10 , 0 kg · m/s + −7 × 10 , −9.3 × 10 , 0 N (0.2 s)
4 3 3 2
D E D E
= 4.4 × 10 , −7.6 × 10 , 0 kg · m/s + −1.4 × 10 , −1.86 × 10 , 0 kg · m/s
4 3
D E
= 4.26 × 10 , −7.79 × 10 , 0 kg · m/s

Since the speed is non-relativistic, the velocity at t = 20.9 s is approximately

#
p
#
vf ≈ f
Dm 4 3
E
4.26 × 10 , −7.79 × 10 , 0 kg · m/s
≈
240 kg
≈ h177.5, −32.4, 0i m/s

The position at t = 20.9 s is approximately

#
r f ≈ #
r i + #
v f ∆t
3 2
D E
≈ 4.3 × 10 , 8.7 × 10 , 0 m + (h177.5, −32.4, 0i m/s) (0.2 s)
3 2
D E
≈ 4.3 × 10 , 8.7 × 10 , 0 m + h36, −6.5, 0i m
3 2
D E
≈ 4.34 × 10 , 8.64 × 10 , 0 m

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Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

P23:
Solution:
The ball is rolling in the xz-plane . Before you kick it, its velocity and momentum are in the +z direction. Your
kick imparts a momentum component in the −x direction, so that immediately after your kick the ball’s velocity and
momentum have two nonzero components. The net force on the ball is opposite the direction of the momentum. Assume
time starts passing immediately after your kick and at that instant, the ball is at the origin. Carry out a step by step
calculation as before.
At t = 0 s we have #
r =h0, 0, 0i m, #
v = h−3.023, 0, 2.2i m/s, m = 0.43 kg, #
p = h−1.3, 0, 0.946i kg · m/s, pb = h−0.809, 0, 0.588i,
#
and F net = h0.202, 0, −0.147i N.
With these initial conditions, the following VPython program does the calculations and thus at t = 1.5 s we have
#
r ≈ h−3.83, 0, 2.79i m.
from __future__ import d i v i s i o n , p r i n t _ f u n c t i o n
from v i s u a l import ∗

m = 0.43
r = vector (0 ,0 ,0)
print ( " r=" , r )
v = vector ( −3.023 ,0 ,2.2)
print ( "v=" , v )
p = m∗v
print ( "p=" , p )
phat = norm ( p )
print ( " phat=" , phat )
Fnet = −0.25 ∗ phat
print ( " Fnet=" , Fnet )
dt = 0 . 5
t = 0
print ( " t=" , t , " r=" , r , "v=" , v )
while ( t <01.5) :
p = p + Fnet ∗ dt
v = p/m
r = r + ( p/m) ∗ dt
t += dt
print ( " t=" , t , " r=" , r , "v=" , v )

P24:
Solution:
This problem can be approached as a kinematics problem with multiple legs as follows:

1. accelerate from rest to some arbitrary speed over some distance along the first hallway
2. coast with constant speed for some distance along the first hallway

3. accelerate back to rest over the same distance as the first acceleration along the first hallway while simultaneously
accelerating from rest to some arbitrary speed over some distance along the second hallway
4. coast with constant speed for some distance along the second hallway
5. accelerate back to rest over some distance along the second hallway

63
Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

This setup is such that the motion along each hallway is symmetric in the distances over which acceleration takes places.
In other words, the accelerations from and back to rest happen over the same distances (not necessarily the same for
both hallways). The coasting motion isn’t absolutely necessary either, but this author chose to include it. Note also
that negotiating the turn into the second hallway can be decomposed into a component along the first hallway and a
component along the second hallway.
Given the tedious calculations, a Python script was written to carry out the solution.
from __future__ import d i v i s i o n , p r i n t _ f u n c t i o n
from v i s u a l import ∗

m = 1200 # p a c k a g e ' s mass

Fmag = 20 # magnitude o f t h r u s t e r ' s f o r c e
L1 = 3 # length of f i r s t hallway
L2 = 4 # l e n g t h o f second h a l l w a y
r = vector (0 ,0 ,0) # s t a r t from t h e o r i g i n
v = vector (0 ,0 ,0) # s t a r t from r e s t
t = 0 # s t a r t the clock at 0
print ( t , r , v )
# F i r s t l e g : a c c e l e r a t e from r e s t t o c o n s t a n t s p e e d
dT1 = 1 # duration of thrust
F = v e c t o r ( 0 , Fmag , 0 ) # force
v = v + (F/m) ∗dT1 # v e l o c i t y a t end o f f i r s t l e g
dy1 = 0 . 5 ∗ ( mag(F) /m) ∗dT1∗∗2 # d i s p l a c e m e n t a t end o f f i r s t l e g
r = r + v e c t o r ( 0 , dy1 , 0 ) # p o s i t i o n a t end o f f i r s t l e g
t = t + dT1 # e l a p s e d time a t end o f t h i s l e g
print ( t , r , v )
# Second l e g : c o a s t f o r a w h i l e a l o n g f i r s t h a l l w a y
dy2 = L1 − 2∗ dy1 # d i s p l a c e m e n t a t end o f second l e g
dT2 = dy2 /mag( v ) # duration of coasting
r = r + v e c t o r ( 0 , dy2 , 0 ) # p o s i t i o n a t end o f second l e g
# v e l o c i t y hasn ' t changed
t = t + dT2 # e l a p s e d time a t end o f t h i s l e g
print ( t , r , v )
# Third l e g : a c c e l e r a t e b a c k t o r e s t a l o n g f i r s t h a l l w a y and a c c e l e r a t e
# from r e s t a l o n g second h a l l w a y , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
dT3 = dT1 # duration of thrust
F = v e c t o r (Fmag,−Fmag , 0 ) # force
v = v + (F/m) ∗dT3 # v e l o c i t y a t end o f t h i r d l e g
dx3 = 0 . 5 ∗ ( mag(F) /m) ∗dT3∗∗2 # d i s p l a c e m e n t a t end o f t h i r d l e g
r = r + v e c t o r ( dx3 , 0 , 0 ) # p o s i t i o n a t end o f t h i r d l e g
t = t + dT3 # e l a p s e d time a t end o f t h i s l e g
print ( t , r , v )
# Fourth l e g : c o a s t f o r a w h i l e a l o n g second h a l l w a y
dx4 = L2 − 2∗ dx3 # d i s p l a c e m e n t a t end o f f o u r t h l e g
dT4 = dx4 /mag( v ) # duration of coasting
r = r + v e c t o r ( dx4 , 0 , 0 ) # p o s i t i o n a t end o f f o u r t h l e g
# v e l o c i t y hasn ' t changed
t = t + dT4 # e l a p s e d time a t end o f t h i s l e g
print ( t , r , v )
# F i f t h l e g : a c c e l e r a t e b a c k t o r e s t a l o n g second h a l l w a y
dT5 = dT3 # duration of thrust
F = v e c t o r (−Fmag , 0 , 0 ) # force
v = v + (F/m) ∗dT5 # v e l o c i t y a t end o f f i f t h l e g

64
Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

dx5 = 0 . 5 ∗ ( mag(F) /m) ∗dT5∗∗2 # d i s p l a c e m e n t a t end o f f i f t h l e g

r = r + v e c t o r ( dx5 , 0 , 0 ) # p o s i t i o n a t end o f f i f t h l e g
t = t + dT5 # e l a p s e d time a t end o f t h i s l e g
print (t , r , v)

If you have VPython installed, you can open the program in VIDLE. This works on Mac OS X systems and probably
works on Windows systems too as long as VIDLE has been configured as the default application for opening Python
scripts.

P25:
Solution:

(a) If we assume a constant net force, then

#
v + #
vf
#
v avg = i
2

Assume the motion is in the +x direction.

#
v f = h8, 0, 0i m/s
#
v i = h0, 0, 0i m/s
# h0, 0, 0i m/s + h8, 0, 0i m/s
v avg =
2
= h4, 0, 0i m/s
|~v | = 4 m/s

(b)

# ∆ #
r
v avg =
∆t
∆ #
r = #
v avg ∆t
= (h4, 0, 0i m/s) (3 s)
= h12, 0, 0i m
#
|∆ r | = 12 m

P26:
Solution:

(a) Assume the direction of motion is the +x direction.

#
v i = h18, 0, 0i m/s
#
v f = h0, 0, 0i m/s
∆t = 4 s

Assume a constant net force, then

65
Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

#
v + # vf
#
v avg = i
2
h18, 0, 0i m/s + h0, 0, 0i m/s
=
2
= h9, 0, 0i m/s
|~v | = 9 m/s

(b)

∆ #
r = #
v avg ∆t
= (h9, 0, 0i m/s) (4 s)
= h36, 0, 0i m
#
|∆ r | = 36 m

P27:
Solution:

(a) ∆t = 3 h :

∆x = vavg, x ∆t
 
mi
= 30 (3 h)
h
= 90 mi

∆t = 1 h :

 
mi
∆x = 60 (1 h)
h
= 60 mi
∆xtotal = 90 mi + 60 mi
= 150 mi
∆ttotal = 4 h
∆xtotal
vavg, x =
∆ttotal
150 mi
=
4h
mi
= 37.5
h

(b) The arithmetic mean velocity is

66
Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

vix + vf x
vavg, x =
2
30 mi mi
h + 60 h
=
2
mi
= 45
h

(c) The arithmetic mean is only accurate in the case of constant net force. However the velocity of the car in this case
is constant for 3 h, briefly increases, and is then constant for 1 h. The net force, therefore, is zero for 3 h, briefly
non-zero, and then zero for 1 h. It is definitely not constant throughout the motion.

P28:
Solution:

(a) The net force is the gravitational force on the ball by Earth, and is directed downward toward Earth.
(b) Only the y-component of the momentum of the ball changes.
(c) The x-component of the momentum of the ball is constant because Fnet, x = 0.

(d) The y-component of the momentum of the ball changes at a constant rate because Fnet, y = −mg and is constant.

(e) The z-component of the momentum of the ball is constant because Fnet, z = 0.
 v +v 
(f) vavg, y = iy 2 f y is accurate because Fnet, y is constant.

P29:
Solution:

(a) vx is negative and “increases” toward zero, meaning that it becomes less negative as the cart slows down. There is
no graph that demonstrates this motion. Graph (2) is close, but in graph (2), the object reaches zero velocity and
then speeds up as it travels to the right.
(b) vx is positive and increases. This is graph (6).
(c) vx is negative and constant. This is graph (3).

(d) vx is negative, decreases in magnitude until vx = 0, then increases and is positive. This is graph (2).
(e) vx is zero and constant. No graphs depict this motion.
(f) vx is positive and decreases. No graphs depict this motion. Graph (5) is close, but it shows the object’s velocity
decreasing to 0, and then the object speeds up in the -x direction.

(g) vx is positive, decreases to 0, and then becomes more negative (i.e. increases in the -x direction). This is graph (5).
(h) vx is negative and becomes more negative as the cart speeds up. This is graph (1).
(i) vx is constant and positive. This is graph (4).

67
Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

P30:
Solution:

(a) px starts at zero, briefly increases in the +x direction, and then steadily decreases to zero as the cart slows to a stop.
The graph that depicts this motion is graph (2).
(b) px starts at zero and steadily increases until it quickly decreases when it is caught. This is shown in graph (4).

(c) While pushed, px briefly increases. After being released, px decreases to zero (as the cart slows to a stop) and then
increases in the -x direction (i.e. becomes more negative) as it speeds up while traveling in the -x direction. This is
shown in graph (1).

P31:
Solution:

(a) After releasing the cart, the force in the cart (friction) is constant and in the −x direction. This is shown in graph
(6). The frictional force on the cart becomes zero when the cart stops.
(b) The force by the air on the cart (resulting from the turning fan) is constant in the +x direction. A large force by
your hand on the cart is in the −x direction when stopping the cart. This is shown in graph (7).

(c) After the initial push in the +x direction, the force by air on the cart (due to the turning fan) is in the −x direction.
This is shown in graph (5).

P32:
Solution:

(a) The cart starts at the origin (x = 0) and slows down due to friction until it stops. Then its x-position remains
constant at some positive value of x. This is depicted in graph (9).
(b) The slope of x vs. t increases in the +x direction until the cart is caught and then x is constant. This is shown in
graph (12).
(c) The slope of x vs. t is initially positive, then decreases, then goes to zero (when vx = 0), then becomes negative
and increases (becomes steeper) until the cart is caught. Presumably the cart returns to where it started. This is
depicted in graph (10).

P33:
Solution:
First, sketch a picture of the situation.

68
Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

y=0 Window

yf =− 0.852.2 m=−1.87 m

P34:
Solution:

| #
v i | = 20 m/s
θi = 50 ◦

(a) Sketch a picture showing the trajectory of the ball, like the one shown in the figure below.

x

vi
x

y

Use direction cosines to write #

v i as a vector.

vix = | #
v i | cos θx
= (20 m/s) cos 59 ◦
= 10.3 m/s

69
Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

viy = | #
v i | cos θy
= (20 m/s) cos (90 ◦ − 59 ◦ )
= (20 m/s) cos 31 ◦
= 17.1 m/s

Define i to be when the ball is kicked and f when it hits the ground.

yi = 0
yf = 0

Use

  1 Fnet, y 2
yf − yi = viy ∆t + ∆t
2 m 
1 − mg
0 − 0 = viy ∆t + ∆t2
2 m

 = 1 g∆t2
viy 
∆t
2
2v
∆t = iy
g
2 (17.1 m/s)
=
9.8 N/kg
= 3.9 s

(b) Fnet, x = 0 therefore vx is constant.

∆x
vx =
∆t
∆x = vx ∆t
= (10.3 m/s) (3.49 s)
∆x = 35.9 m

(c) In this case, the motion is symmetric. Thus, the time when the ball is at its peak is 1
2 the time it takes to leave the
ground and return to the ground. Thus, ∆tpeak = 21 (3.49 s) = 1.75 s.

The y-velocity of the ball at its peak is zero.

70
Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

#
r f = #
r i + #
v avg ∆t
yf = yi + vavg, y ∆t
v + v 
fy iy
yf = yi + ∆t
2
 
0 + 17.1 m/s
=0+ (1.75 s)
2
= 15 m

P35:
Solution:

#
r i = h9, 0, −6i m
#
v i = h−11, 16, −6i m/s

(a) #
v f after ∆t = 0.5 s? According to the momentum principle, with the system defined to be the ball.
# #
p f = #
p i + F net ∆t
#
m #
v f = m #
v i + F net ∆t
#
# F
v f = #
v i + net ∆t
m 
# # mg, 0i
h0, −
vf = vi + ∆t
m

#
v = #v + h0, −g, 0i ∆t
f i

= h−11, 16, −6i m/s + h0, −9.8 N/kg, 0i (0.5 s)

= h−11, 16, −6i m/s + h0, −4.9, 0i m/s
= h−11, 11.1, −6i m/s

#
v + #
v #
(b) #
v avg = i 2 f gives the most accurate result for the average velocity because F net is constant. The arithmetic mean
is exact in this case.

(c)
#
v + #
vf
#
v avg = i
2
h−11, 16, −6i m/s + h−11, 11.1, −6i m/s
=
2
= h−11, 13.6, −6i m/s

Note that vx and vz are constant since Fnet, x = 0 and Fnet, z = 0.

71
Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

(d)
#
r f = #
r i + #
v avg ∆t
= h9, 0, −6i m + (h−11, 13.6, −6i m/s) (0.5 s)
= h9, 0, −6i m + h−5.5, 6.8, −3i m
= h3.5, 6.8, −9i m

(e) vy = 0 at its highest point because this is a "turning point" in the y-direction. When an object changes direction, vy
must be zero at the instant it changes directions. In terms of calculus, y is a maximum at the ball’s highest point.
vy = dy
dt must be zero since the derivative of a function at its maximum is zero.

(f)

pf y = piy + Fnet, y ∆t
mvf y = mviy + Fnet, y ∆t
 
−
mg
vf y = viy + ∆t
m

0 = 16 m/s + (−9.8 N/kg) ∆t

(g)

16 m/s
∆t =
9.8 N/kg
= 1.63 s

(h)
viy + vf y
vavg, y =
2
16 m/s + 0
=
2
= 8 m/s

yf = yi + vavg, y ∆t
= 0 + (8 m/s) (1.63 s)
= 13 m

P36:
Solution:

72
Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

m = 1.5 kg
#
v i = h5, 8, 0i m/s
#
r = h0, 0, 0i
i

(a) Sketch a picture of the motion as shown in the figure below.

x
vf

vi

y

At the peak, vf y = 0. Thus

#
v peak = h5, 0, 0i m/s

(b)
# #
p f = #
p i + F net ∆t
#
m #
v f = m #
v i + F net ∆t
#
# F
v f = #
v i + net ∆t
m
Fnet, y
vf y = viy + ∆t
m 
− mg
vf y = viy + ∆t
m

vf y = viy − g∆t
0 = 8 m/s − (9.8 N/kg) ∆t
8 m/s
∆t =
9.8 N/kg
= 0.816 s

#
(c) Since F net is constant,
#
v + # vf
#
v avg = i
2
h5, 8, 0i m/s + h5, 0, 0i m/s
=
2
= h5, 4, 0i m/s

73
Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

(d)

r f = #
# r i + #
v avg ∆t
= h0, 0, 0i + (h5, 4, 0i m/s) (0.816 s)
= h4.1, 3.3, 0i m

 
(e) The motion is symmetric in this case. The total time will be 2 tpeak = 2 (0.816 s) = 1.63 s. Alternatively, use the
fact that vf y = −viy = −8 m/s

vf y = viy − g∆t
−8 m/s = 8 m/s − (9.8 N/kg) ∆t
8 m/s + 8 m/s
∆t =
9.8 N/kg
= 1.63 s

Which agrees with what was obtained by calculating 2 times the time interval to reach the peak.
(f)
#
r f = #
r i + #
v avg ∆t

Note: vavg, y = 0, so one only needs to consider the x direction.

xf = xi + vavg, x ∆t
= 0 + (5 m/s) (1.63 s)
= 8.2 m

(g) Because of symmetry,

vf y = −viy
= − (8 m/s)
= −8 m/s

(h) Sketch a picture of the vector, as shown in the figure below.

vi
viy

x
vix

74
Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

Use direction cosines

v
cos θx = #ix
|v |
qi
2 2 2
| #
v i | = (5) + (8) + (0) m/s
= 9.43 m/s
5 m/s
cos θx =
9.43 m/s
θx = 58 ◦

(i) Sketch a picture of #

v f when the ball hits the ground.

vfx
x

vfy
vf

vf x = 5 m/s
vf y = −8 m/s

Due to symmetry, θx is the same as what was calculated for #

v i when the ball was released, except that now it is
below the x-axis. Thus,

θx = −58 ◦

P37:
Solution:
Just after release, yi = h and viy = 0.
Just before hitting the floor, yf = 0.
To find ∆t, use

75
Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

1 Fnet, y 2
yf − yi = viy ∆t + ∆t
2 m
1 −
mg 2
0−h=0+ ∆t
2 m
1
−h = − g∆t2
s2
2h
∆t =
g

For vf y , use the momentum principle applied to the system of the ball.

pf y = piy + Fnet, y ∆t
Fnet, y
vf y = viy + ∆t
m
−
mg
=0+ ∆t
m
s
2h
= −g
g

Note that vf y is negative as expected.

The results for ∆t and vf y do not depend on the mass m. As a result, if you drop two balls with the same mass m, they
will hit the floor at the same time and with the same velocity, as long as air resistance is negligible since we assumed
# #
that F net = F grav in this problem.

P38:
Solution:
#
There are two regions to consider. (1) in between the plates where F net = h0, +F, 0i and is constant. (2) after leaving
#
the plates where F net = 0 and #
v is constant.
Calculate ∆y in region (1) and ∆y in region (2). Add them together for the total ∆y. Define yi = 0 to be the vertical
position of the electron before going through the plates.
In region (1),

pf y = piy + Fnet, y ∆t
Fnet, y
vf y = viy + ∆t
m
F
= viy + ∆t
m
F
=0+ ∆t
m

76
Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

viy + vf y
vavg, y =
2
yf − yi = vavg, y ∆t
v + v 
iy fy
∆y = ∆t
2
F
0+ m ∆t
= ∆t
2
1F
= ∆t2
2m

To know ∆t, use the x-motion. Since Fnet, x = 0, vx is constant and is v0 .

∆x = vx ∆t
d = v0 δt
d
∆t =
v0

Substitute to get ∆y for region (1).

1F
∆y = ∆t2
2m
!2
1F d
=
2m v0

Now for region (2),

The velocity is constant and is

 
# F
v = v, 0, ∆t 0
m

where ∆t = v
d
from region (1). Thus,
0

* +
# F d
v = v, 0, 0
m v0
∆y = vavg, y ∆t
F d
= ∆t
m v0

Where ∆t is the time interval in region (2).

77
Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

To get ∆t in region (2), use the x-motion. Note that vx = v0 throughout the motion since Fnet, x = 0.

∆x = vavg, x ∆t
L = v0 ∆t
L
∆t =
v0

Substitute into the expression for ∆y.

! !
F d L
∆y =
m v0 v0
F dL
∆y =
m v02

The total y-displacement across regions (1) and (2) is

!2
1F d F dL
∆ytotal = +
2m v0 m v02
 
F 1 2
= d + dL
mv02 2

Notice that the dimensions on each term are the same.

force distance2
mass speed2

So that gives us some confidence. Now, check that the units result in meters.

N m2 kg sm2 
m2
= 
2 = m
kg ms22 kg m
s2


So the units do give meters which is correct.

P39:
Solution:
First, sketch a picture of the test track. Let’s call region A the first half of the track (0 ≤ x < L/2). Let’s call region B
the last half of the track (L/2 < x ≤ L). Let’s call the length of the track L.

78
Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

A B

x=0 x=L/2 x=L

The cars have different accelerations, so let’s call their x-accelerations a1x and a2x respectively. For constant net force,
use these equations

vx,f = vx,i + ax ∆t
1 2
∆x = vx,i ∆t + ax (∆t)
2

Begin with Car 1. You have to analyze its motion during each region (A and B) separately since its acceleration is
different in the two regions. In region B, a1 = 0.

1 2
Car 1, Region A: ∆x = vx,i ∆t + ax (∆t)
2
1 2
= ax (∆t)
2
L 1
= a1 ∆tA
2 2
s
L
∆tA =
a1
vx,f = vx,i + ax ∆t
s
L
= a1
a1
q
vx,f = a1 L

Car 1, Region B: ∆x = vx ∆t
L q
= a1 L∆tB
2 s
1 L
∆tB =
2 a1

q q q
Thus, the total time for Car 1 to travel down the track is ∆t = L
a1 + 1
2
L
a1 = 3
2
L
a1 .

Now analyze Car 2. It has constant acceleration for the entire length of the track. There’s no need to analyze regions A
and B separately.

79
Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

1 2
Car 2: ∆x = vx,i ∆t + ax (∆t)
2
1 2
= ax (∆t)
2
1
L = a2 ∆t2
2
s
2L
∆t =
a2
vx,f = vx,i + ax ∆t
s
2L
= a2
a2
q
vx,f = 2a2 L

(a) Using these results we can answer the questions. First find the average speed of each car. Use the conventional
definition of average speed:

distance traveled
average speed =
time elapsed

#
v i + #
vf
Note that this does not generally give the same result as #
v avg = 2 , except in the case of constant acceleration
(such as Car 2).
Both cars travel the distance L in the time ∆t. Thus, they have the same average speed, and the ratio of their
average speeds is 1.
(b) We have already solved for the total time traveled by each car in terms of the distance L and their accelerations.
They reach the end of the track in the same time. Set their times equal to each other and solve for the ratio of
accelerations.

∆t = ∆t
s 1 s2
3 L 2L
=
2 a1 a2
9 L 2L
=
4 a1 a2
a1 9
=
a2 8

(c) The ratio of their final x-velocities is

vx,f1
p
a L
=p 1
vx,f2 2a2 L
s s
a1 L a1
= =
2a2 L 2a2
r
9 3
= =
16 4

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Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

It is nice to check our work with a VPython program. Using L = 100 m and a1 = 25 m/s2 , a VPython program
produced the following graphs of x (t) and vx (t) for the two cars. By knowing that a1 = 89 a2 , you should be able to
figure out which curves (on each graph) represent Car 1 and Car 2, respectively. From the graphs you should also
be able to measure the total time to reach the end of the track and the final x-velocity of each cart. Then you can
compare the values to what you calculate from the equations, using L = 100 m and a1 = 25 m/s2 .

P40:
Solution:
The car’s acceleration is constant, so we can use the corresponding relationships among the various quantities.

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Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

(a) Calculate the acceleration.

1 # 2
∆x = |a|t
2
2∆x
| #
a| =
t2
3

2 0.1 × 10 m
=
8s
= 3.125 m/s2

(b) Calculate final speed.

2
| #
v f | = 2 | #
a | ∆x
p
| #
v f | = 2 | #
a | ∆x
r  
= 2 (3.125 m/s2 ) 0.1 × 103 m

= 25.0 m/s

(c) Calculate the final speed at the next marker, using the speed above as the initial speed.
2 2
| #
v f | = | #
v i | + 2 | #
a | ∆x
r  
2
v | = (25.0 m/s) + 2 (3.125 m/s2 ) 0.1 × 103 m
| #
f

= | #
v f| = 35.4 m/s

(d) Calculate the clock reading at which the car is at the second marker.
1 # 2
∆x = |a|t
2
s
2∆x
t=
| #
a|
v  
u 2 0.2 × 103 m
u
t
=
3.125 m/s2
= 11.3 s

P41:
Solution:

ks = 40 N/m
#
F on spring = 2 N
L = 18 cm
L0 =?

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Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

#
F on spring = ks |s|
= ks L − L0
#
F on spring
L − L0 =
ks
2N
=
40 N/m
= 0.05 m
= 5 cm
L = L0 + 5 cm
= 18 cm + 5 cm
= 23 cm

P42:
Solution:
Begin with #
r =h0.0.28, 0i m, #
p = h0, 0, 0i kg · m/s, ∆t = 0.1 s. Actual calculations were done in Python.
Here’s the first time step.
# D E
F net = 0, −mg − ks (L − Lo ) , 0
= h0, − (0.07 kg) (9.80 N/kg) − (11 N/m) (0.03 m) , 0i
= h0, −1.016, 0i N
# #
p = #
p + F ∆t
net

= h0, −0.1016, 0i kg · m/s

 # 
# # p
r = r + ∆t
m
= h0, 0.1349, 0i m

Here’s the second time step, using final value from first time step as new initial values. Note that the force changed
because the amount of stretch changed.
# D E
F net = 0, −mg − ks (L − Lo ) , 0
= h0, − (0.07 kg) (9.80 N/kg) − (11 N/m) (−0.115 m) , 0i
= h0, 0.5790, 0i N
# #
p = #
p + F net ∆t
= h0, −0.0437, 0i kg · m/s
 # 
# # p
r = r + ∆t
m
= h0, 0.0726, 0i m

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Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

P43:
Solution:
Begin with #
r =h0.0.0798, 0i m, #
v = h0.0877, 0i m/s, #
p =h0, 0.0307, 0i kg · m/s, ∆t = 0.1 s. Actual calculations were done in
Python.
Here’s the first time step.
# D E
F net = 0, −mg − ks (L − Lo ) , 0
= h0, − (0.350 kg) (9.80 N/kg) − (55 N/m) (−0.1502 m) , 0i
= h0, 4.831, 0i N
# #
p = #
p + F net ∆t
= h0, 0.5138, 0i kg · m/s
 # 
# p
r = #
r + ∆t
m
= h0, 0.2266, 0i m

Here’s the second time step, using final value from first time step as new initial values. Note that the force changed
because the amount of stretch changed.
# D E
F net = 0, −mg − ks (L − Lo ) , 0
= h0, − (0.350 kg) (9.80 N/kg) − (55 N/m) (−0.0034 m) , 0i
= h0, −3.243, 0i N
# #
p = #
p + F ∆t
net

= h0, 0.1895, 0i kg · m/s

 # 
# # p
r = r + ∆t
m
= h0, 0.2807, 0i m

P44:
Solution:

(a) First record the given values at t = 0. Since the origin is where the elastic band is attached to the paddle, then
the magnitude of the position of the ball is equal to the length of the elastic band. By subtracting the unstretched
length, you can calculate the distance that the band is stretched. This will be required for calculating the force of
the band on the ball.

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Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

m = 0.015 kg
mg = 0.147 N
k = 0.9 N/m
L0 = 0.3 m
#
p i = h−0.02, −0.01, −0.02i kg · m/s
#
r = h−0.2, −0.61, 0i m
i

| #
r i | = 0.642 m
#
r
rbi = #i = h−0.312, −0.950, 0i
| r i|
si = |L − L0 | = || #
r i | − 0.3 m| = 0.642 m − 0.3 m = 0.342 m
∆t = 0.1 s

Define the system as the ball, and apply the Momentum Principle. The steps are to: (1) calculate the net force on
the ball; (2) update the momentum of the ball; (3) update the position of the ball. The forces on the ball are the
#
force by the elastic band and the gravitational force by Earth. Note that F elastic is directed along the elastic band,
# #
toward the paddle. Therefore the direction of F elastic is −b
r and the magnitude of F elastic is ks.

# # #
t=0: F net,y = F elastic + F grav
= −ksb
r + h0, −mg, 0i
= − (0.9 N/m) (0.342 m) h−0.312, −0.950, 0i + h0, −0.147, 0i N
= h0.0959, 0.292, 0i N + h0, −0.147, 0i N
= h0.0959, 0.145, 0i N

Use this net force as the approximate average net force during the next 0.1 s time interval, and calculate the velocity
and position at the end of the time interval.

# #
t = 0.1 s : p f = #
p i + F net ∆t
≈ h−0.02, −0.01, −0.02i kg · m/s + (h0.0959, 0.145, 0i N) (0.1 s)
≈ h−0.0104, 0.00454, −0.02i kg · m/s
#
p h−0.0104, 0.00454, −0.02i kg · m/s
#
vf = f ≈ ≈ h−0.694, 0.303, −1.33i m/s
m 0.015 kg

To calculate the final position, let’s approximate the average velocity during the time interval to be approximately
equal to the final velocity at the end of the time interval. This approximation is only valid for small time intervals.

#
r f ≈ #
r i + #
v f ∆t
≈ h−0.2, −0.61, 0i m + (h−0.694, 0.303, −1.33i m/s) (0.1 s)
≈ h−0.269, −0.580, −0.133i m

(b) Repeat the calculations for a time interval of 0.05 s.

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Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

# #
t = 0.05 s : p f = #
p i + F net ∆t
≈ h−0.02, −0.01, −0.02i kg · m/s + (h0.0959, 0.145, 0i N) (0.05 s)
≈ h−0.0152, −0.00273, −0.02i kg · m/s
#
p
#
v f ≈ f = h−1.01, −0.182, −1.33i m/s
m

#
r f ≈ #
r i + #
v f ∆t
≈ h−0.2, −0.61, 0i m + (h−1.01, −0.182, −1.33i m/s) (0.05 s)
≈ h−0.251, −0.619, −0.0667i m

Since the position has changed, then the distance stretched has changed and the net force must be recalculated.

L0 = 0.3 m
#
r = h−0.251, −0.619, −0.0667i m
| #
r | = 0.671 m
rbi = h−0.373, −0.922, −0.0993i
s = |L − L | = || #
0 r | − 0.3 m| = 0.671 m − 0.3 m = 0.371 m
i

# # #
t = 0.05 : F net,y = F elastic + F grav
= −ksb
r + h0, −mg, 0i
= − (0.9 N/m) (0.371 m) h−0.373, −0.922, −0.0993i + h0, −0.147, 0i N
= h0.125, 0.308, 0.0332i N + h0, −0.147, 0i N
= h0.125, 0.161, 0.0332i N

Now the momentum and position can be updated.

# #
t = 0.1 s : p f = #
p i + F net ∆t
≈ h−0.0152, −0.00273, −0.02i kg · m/s + (h0.125, 0.161, 0.0332i N) (0.05 s)
≈ h−0.00897, 0.00533, −0.0183i kg · m/s
#
p
#
v f ≈ f = h−0.598, 0.355, −1.22i m/s
m

#
r f ≈ #
r i + #
v f ∆t
≈ h−0.251, −0.619, −0.0667i m + (h−0.598, 0.355, −1.22i m/s) (0.05 s)
≈ h−0.281, −0.601, −0.128i m

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Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

(c) In summary,

Using ∆t = 0.1 s #
v f = h−0.694, 0.303, −1.33i m/s
#
r f = h−0.269, −0.580, −0.133i m

Using two successive time steps of ∆t = 0.05 s #

v f = h−0.598, 0.355, −1.22i m/s
#
r f = h−0.281, −0.601, −0.128i m

# #
The differences are due to the approximations that F net,avg = F net,i and #
v avg ≈ #v f during the time interval ∆t.
These approximations are more accurate for smaller time intervals. Therefore, the velocity and position at t = 0.1 s
is more accurate when calculating it using two successive time steps of ∆t = 0.05 s.

P45:
Solution:
Let’s define s as the distance stretched or compressed so that s = |L − L0 | where L0 is the relaxed length of the device.
Also, define y = 0 to be the location of the box at t = 0. Then our initial values are:

L0 = 0.1 m
# 5
F s = 2 × 10 s3
m = 0.5 kg
mg = (0.5 kg) (9.8 N/kg)
vyi = 0
yi = 0

At t = 0, the device is not compressed so the force by the device on the block is zero.

t=0: Fnet,y = Fdevice,y + Fgrav,y

5
= 2 × 10 s3 − mg
= 0 − 4.9 N = 4.9 N

Use this net force as the approximate average net force during the next 0.04 s time interval, and calculate the velocity
and position at the end of the time interval.

F
t = 0.04 s : vfy = viy + net,y ∆t
 m 
−4.9 N
≈0+ (0.04 s) ≈ −0.392 m/s
0.5
yf ≈ yi + vfy ∆t
≈ 0 + (−0.392 m/s) (0.04 s) ≈ −0.0157 m

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Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

Thus, at t = 0.04 s, s = 0.0157 m and L = 0.1 m − 0.0157 m = 0.0843 m.

Calculate the net force on the block now that the device is compressed.

t = 0.04 s : Fnet,y = Fdevice,y + Fgrav,y

5 3
= 2 × 10 (0.0157 m) − mg
= 0.774 N − 4.9 N = −4.12 N

Use this net force at t = 0.04 s as an approximation of the average net force during the next 0.04 s time interval.

Fnet,y
t = 0.08 s : vfy = viy + ∆t
m  
−4.12 N
≈ −0.392 m/s + (0.04 s) ≈ −0.722 m/s
0.5
yf ≈ yi + vfy ∆t
≈ −0.0157 m + (−0.722 m/s) (0.04 s) ≈ −0.0466 m

Thus, at t = 0.08 s, s = 0.0466 m and L = 0.1 m − 0.0466 m = 0.0554 m. However, due to the approximations of constant
net force and constant velocity in our equations, this answer is an approximation. Perhaps we should round to one
significant figure. L ≈ 0.06 m.

P46:
Solution:
Assume motion in the +x direction.

−27
mproton = 1.7 × 10 kg
#
v i = h0.990c, 0, 0i m/s
#
v = h0.994c, 0, 0i m/s
f

#
p i = γm #
vi
m #
vi
=r
| #
2
v |
1 − c2i
m h0.99c, 0, 0i
= q 2
1 − (.99c)
c2
m h0.99c, 0, 0i
= √
1 − 0.992
−27 8
 D   E
1.7 × 10 kg (0.99) 3 × 10 m/s , 0, 0
= √
1 − 0.992
−18
D E
= 3.58 × 10 kg · m/s, 0, 0

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Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

−27 8
 D   E
1.7 × 10 kg
(0.994) 3 × 10 m/s , 0, 0
#
pf = q
2
1 − (0.994)
−18
D E
= 4.63 × 10 , 0, 0 kg · m/s

#
impulse = F net ∆t
= ∆ #
p
= #
p f − #
pi
−18 −18
D E D E
= 4.63 × 10 , 0, 0 kg · m/s − 3.58 × 10 , 0, 0 kg · m/s
−18
= 1.05 × 10 kg · m/s

P47:
Solution:
The momentum principle is applicable to this problem provided we use Einstein’s expression for a particle’s momentum
rather than Newton’s expression. If we know the net force on a particle and the particle’s change in momentum, then the
momentum principle gives us the duration of the interaction. Take the system to be the electron. The only significant
interaction with the system is that of the particle accelerator. Assume the particle’s initial and final momenta are in the
same direction.

# 1 −31
p sys,i = r | #
v i |9.1094 × 10 kg | #
v i|
2
| #

v|
1− c

1  −31
 1  −31

≈r (0.93c) · 9.1094 × 10 kg · 0.93c ≈ √ · 9.1094 × 10 kg · 0.93c

| #
v|
2 1 − 0.932
1− c
−22
& ≈ 6.91 × 10 kg · m/s
# 1 −31 1  −31

p sys,f = r | #
v f |9.1094 × 10 kg | #
v f| ≈ r (0.99c) · 9.1094 × 10 kg · 0.99c
2 2
| # | #
 
v| v|
1− c 1− c

1  −31

≈√ · 9.1094 × 10 kg · 0.99c
1 − 0.992
−21
≈ 1.92 × 10 kg · m/s

If the initial and final momenta are in the same direction, then the difference in their magnitudes is equal to the magnitude
of their difference.

89
Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

(a) Now we can apply the momentum principle.

#
∆ #
p sys = F net,sys ∆t
∆ #
p
∆t = # sys
F net,sys
−21 −22
1.92 × 10 kg · m/s − 6.91 × 10 kg · m/s
∆t ≈ −12
2 × 10 N
−10
∆t ≈ 6.15 × 10 s

(b) Since the net force on the system is assumed constant, we can approximate the particle’s average velocity as the
arithmetic mean of the initial and final velocities.
#
v avg ≈ 0.96c
|∆ #
r | ≈ #
v avg ∆t
8 −10
  
|∆ #
r | ≈ 0.96 2.9979 × 10 m/s 6.15 × 10 s
−1
|∆ #
r | ≈ 1.77 × 10 m ≈ 18 cm

CP48:
Solution:

(a) The program for part (a) is shown below. After running the program, click in the animation window to start the
animation. When the cart passes the right side of the track, the position and clock reading of the cart is printed and
the program ends.
from __future__ import d i v i s i o n
from __future__ import p r i n t _ f u n c t i o n
from v i s u a l import ∗
from v i s u a l . graph import ∗

# make a t r a c k
# Note t h a t t h e t r a c k i s a b i t l o n g e r than 2 m t o accommodate t h e c a r t
t r a c k = box ( pos=v e c t o r ( 1 , − 0 . 0 5 , 0 ) , s i z e = ( 2 . 1 , 0 . 0 5 , 0 . 1 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )

# make a c a r t
c a r t = box ( pos=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , s i z e = ( 0 . 1 , 0 . 0 4 , 0 . 0 6 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . r e d )

# d e f i n e c a r t ' s mass i n SI u n i t s
# re ad t h e v a r i a b l e name from r i g h t t o l e f t : mass o f t h e o b j e c t named " c a r t "
c a r t .m = 0 . 8

# d e f i n e c a r t ' s i n i t i a l momentum ( and i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y ) i n SI u n i t s

# re ad t h e v a r i a b l e name from r i g h t t o l e f t : momentum o f t h e o b j e c t named " c a r t "
c a r t . p = c a r t .m ∗ v e c t o r ( 0 . 5 , 0 , 0 )

# d e f i n e n e t f o r c e on c a r t
Fnet = v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )

# timestep
deltat = 0.01

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Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

# i n i t i a l time
t = 0

# pause and w a i t f o r u s e r t o c l i c k mouse t o s t a r t animation

s c e n e . mouse . g e t c l i c k ( )

# l o o p t o animate t h e c a r t
while 1 :
# l i m i t animation r a t e
rate (100)
# a p p l y momentum p r i n c i p l e t o u p d a t e c a r t ' s momentum
c a r t . p = c a r t . p + Fnet ∗ d e l t a t
# u p d a t e c a r t ' s p o s i t i o n , assuming Newton ' s e x p r e s s i o n f o r momentum
c a r t . pos = c a r t . pos + ( c a r t . p/ c a r t .m) ∗ d e l t a t
if c a r t . x > 2 :
print ( " c a r t i s a t x=" , c a r t . x , " a t t= " , t )
break
# u p d a t e e l a p s e d time
t = t + deltat

The output of the program is shown below.

(b) Run the program in part (a) and read the data printed in the shell window. The cart reaches the right end of the
track at approximately t = 4 s.
(c) There are many combinations of initial velocity and force that will result in the motion described. For example, if
#
the initial velocity is #
v i = h−1, 0, 0i m/s, then the net force that gives the described motion is F net = h0.2, 0, 0i N.
The program below gives the correct motion using these values for the initial velocity and net force.
from __future__ import d i v i s i o n
from __future__ import p r i n t _ f u n c t i o n
from v i s u a l import ∗
from v i s u a l . graph import ∗

# make a t r a c k
# Note t h a t t h e t r a c k i s a b i t l o n g e r than 2 m t o accommodate t h e c a r t
t r a c k = box ( pos=v e c t o r ( 1 , − 0 . 0 5 , 0 ) , s i z e = ( 2 . 1 , 0 . 0 5 , 0 . 1 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )

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Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

# make a c a r t
c a r t = box ( pos=v e c t o r ( 2 , 0 , 0 ) , s i z e = ( 0 . 1 , 0 . 0 4 , 0 . 0 6 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . r e d )

# d e f i n e c a r t ' s mass i n SI u n i t s
# re ad t h e v a r i a b l e name from r i g h t t o l e f t : mass o f t h e o b j e c t named " c a r t "
c a r t .m = 0 . 8

# d e f i n e c a r t ' s i n i t i a l momentum ( and i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y ) i n SI u n i t s

# re ad t h e v a r i a b l e name from r i g h t t o l e f t : momentum o f t h e o b j e c t named " c a r t "
c a r t . p = c a r t .m ∗ v e c t o r ( −1 ,0 ,0)

# d e f i n e n e t f o r c e on c a r t
Fnet = v e c t o r ( 0 . 2 , 0 , 0 )

# timestep
deltat = 0.01

# i n i t i a l time
t = 0

# create a t r a i l
t r a i l =c u r v e ( c o l o r=c a r t . c o l o r )

# pause and w a i t f o r u s e r t o c l i c k mouse t o s t a r t animation

s c e n e . mouse . g e t c l i c k ( )

# l o o p t o animate t h e c a r t
while 1 :
# l i m i t animation r a t e
rate (100)
# a p p l y momentum p r i n c i p l e t o u p d a t e c a r t ' s momentum
c a r t . p = c a r t . p + Fnet ∗ d e l t a t
# u p d a t e c a r t ' s p o s i t i o n , assuming Newton ' s e x p r e s s i o n f o r momentum
c a r t . pos = c a r t . pos + ( c a r t . p/ c a r t .m) ∗ d e l t a t
# s e e i f c a r t runs o f f e i t h e r end o f t r a c k
if c a r t . x > 2 :
print ( " c a r t i s a t x=" , c a r t . x , " a t t= " , t )
break
if c a r t . x < 0 :
print ( " c a r t went o f f t h e t r a c k a t x=" )
break
# update the t r a i l
t r a i l . append ( pos=c a r t . pos )
# u p d a t e e l a p s e d time
t = t + deltat

(d) The y-component of the net force is zero. Therefore, if the y-component of the initial velocity of the cart is non-zero,
the cart will travel in the y-direction with a constant y-velocity. In words, the cart will travel upward above the track
(or downward below the track if vy is negative.) The x-motion will remain the same as in the previous example, with
the cart slowing down to the left and speeding up to the right. The net result of these two motions in the x and y
directions is a parabola.

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Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

A screen capture of the animation with vy = 0.5 m/s is shown below.

To produce this animation, simply change the y-component of the initial velocity of the cart in the program for part
(c) to something like 0.5 m/s.

CP49:
Solution:

(a) In Problem P48, two programs were written. In P48 (a), the net force on the cart is zero, so the cart’s momentum
is constant. Graphs of x (t) and px (t) are shown below.

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Matter & Interactions Chapter 2 Solutions

The program used to simulate the cart and plot the graphs is given below.
from __future__ import d i v i s i o n
from __future__ import p r i n t _ f u n c t i o n
from v i s u a l import ∗
from v i s u a l . graph import ∗

# make a t r a c k
# Note t h a t t h e t r a c k i s a b i t l o n g e r than 2 m t o accommodate t h e c a r t
t r a c k = box ( pos=v e c t o r ( 1 , − 0 . 0 5 , 0 ) , s i z e = ( 2 . 1 , 0 . 0 5 , 0 . 1 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )

# make a c a r t
c a r t = box ( pos=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , s i z e = ( 0 . 1 , 0 . 0 4 , 0 . 0 6 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . r e d )

# d e f i n e c a r t ' s mass i n SI u n i t s
# re ad t h e v a r i a b l e name from r i g h t t o l e f t : mass o f t h e o b j e c t named " c a r t "
c a r t .m = 0 . 8

# d e f i n e c a r t ' s i n i t i a l momentum ( and i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y ) i n SI u n i t s

# re ad t h e v a r i a b l e name from r i g h t t o l e f t : momentum o f t h e o b j e c t named " c a r t "
c a r t . p = c a r t .m ∗ v e c t o r ( 0 . 5 , 0 , 0 )

# d e f i n e n e t f o r c e on c a r t
Fnet = v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )

# timestep

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deltat = 0.01

# i n i t i a l time
t = 0

# i n i t i a l i z e x graph
graph1 = g d i s p l a y ( x=450 , y=0, t i t l e = ' x vs . t ' , x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' ,
y t i t l e= ' x (m) ' , xmin =0. , xmax=5.0 , ymin =0. , ymax=2.0)
# i n i t i a l i z e t h e f u n c t i o n t o be p l o t t e d
xvt = g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . g r e e n )
# i n i t i a l p_x graph
graph2 = g d i s p l a y ( x=450 , y =450 , t i t l e = 'p_x vs . t ' , x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' ,
y t i t l e= 'p_x (m) ' , xmin =0. , xmax=5.0 , ymin =0. , ymax=0.5)
# i n i t i a l i z e t h e f u n c t i o n t o be p l o t t e d
pxvt = g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . g r e e n )

# pause and w a i t f o r u s e r t o c l i c k mouse t o s t a r t animation

s c e n e . mouse . g e t c l i c k ( )

# l o o p t o animate t h e c a r t
while 1 :
# l i m i t animation r a t e
rate (100)
# a p p l y momentum p r i n c i p l e t o u p d a t e c a r t ' s momentum
c a r t . p = c a r t . p + Fnet ∗ d e l t a t
# u p d a t e c a r t ' s p o s i t i o n , assuming Newton ' s e x p r e s s i o n f o r momentum
c a r t . pos = c a r t . pos + ( c a r t . p/ c a r t .m) ∗ d e l t a t
if c a r t . x > 2 :
print ( " c a r t i s a t x=" , c a r t . x , " a t t= " , t )
break
# u p d a t e e l a p s e d time
t = t + deltat
# u p d a t e x graph
xvt . p l o t ( pos=(t , c a r t . x ) )
# u p d a t e p_x graph
pxvt . p l o t ( pos=(t , c a r t . p . x ) )

The slope of the x (t) graph is positive and constant. The cart starts at the origin and travels to the right with a
constant x-velocity (the slope). The graph of px (t), shows that the value of px is constant.

(b) In P48 (c), the net force on the cart is to the right and the initial velocity is to the left. As a result, the cart travels
to the left and slows down until it momentarily stops. Then it travels to the right and speeds up. Graphs of x (t)
and px (t) are shown below.

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The graph of x (t) shows that the cart starts at x = 2 m and travels to the left (negative slope). The slope decreases
to zero, so the cart is slowing down. At x = 0 (t = 4 s), the slope is zero, so this is when (and where) the cart
momentarily stops. After t = 4 s, the slope of the curve is positive so the cart travels to the right. Since the slope
increases, the cart speeds up as it travels to the right.
The graph of px (t) shows that the initial value of px is negative. Thus at t = 0, the cart is traveling to the left. The
absolute value |px | decreases to 0 at t = 4 s. Thus, for t < 4 s, the cart is slowing down. For t > 4 s, the value of px is
positive and increases so the cart speeds up as it travels to the right. The slope of px (t) is constant; therefore, the
x-component of the net force on the cart is constant.

CP50:
Solution:
There are many possible trajectories for the ball depending on the angle of its initial velocity and on its initial height
above the ground. For example, if the angle of the ball’s initial velocity is 45 ◦ and if it starts 1 m above the ground,
then it will travel 310 m before it hits the ground. Clearly this is unrealistic and shows that the force by air on the ball
cannot be neglected.
Here is a sample program.
from __future__ import d i v i s i o n
from __future__ import p r i n t _ f u n c t i o n
from v i s u a l import ∗
from v i s u a l . graph import ∗

#c r e a t e t h e ground ( or c o u r t ) and t h e b a l l
ground = box ( pos=v e c t o r ( 0 , − 0 . 0 5 , 0 ) , s i z e = ( 2 0 . 0 , 0 . 0 5 , 1 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )

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b a l l = s p h e r e ( pos=v e c t o r ( 0 , 1 , 0 ) , r a d i u s =0.4 , c o l o r=c o l o r . g r e e n )

#s e t t h e magnitude and a n g l e f o r t h e i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y v e c t o r
s p e e d =55 #m/ s
a n g l e =45 #d e g r e e s

#s e t t h e mass and c a l c u l a t e t h e i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y and momentum o f t h e b a l l

b a l l .m = 0 . 0 5 5 #kg
angle_in_rad = a n g l e ∗ p i /180
b a l l . v = s p e e d ∗ v e c t o r ( c o s ( angle_in_rad ) , s i n ( angle_in_rad ) , 0 ) #magnitude ∗ d i r e c t i o n
b a l l . p = b a l l .m ∗ b a l l . v

#s e t t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d o f Earth
g = vector (0 , −9.8 ,0)

dt = 0 . 0 1
t = 0

#c r e a t e a t r a i l
t r a i l =c u r v e ( c o l o r=b a l l . c o l o r )

#w a i t f o r a mouse c l i c k t o s t a r t t h e s i m u l a t i o n
s c e n e . mouse . g e t c l i c k ( )

while b a l l . pos . y > 0 :

rate (100)
Fnet=b a l l .m∗g

#u p d a t e momentum and p o s i t i o n o f t h e b a l l
b a l l . p = b a l l . p + Fnet ∗ dt
b a l l . pos = b a l l . pos + ( b a l l . p/ b a l l .m) ∗ dt

#u p d a t e t h e t r a i l
t r a i l . append ( pos=b a l l . pos )

#u p d a t e t h e c l o c k r e a d i n g
t = t+dt

#c h e c k i f t h e b a l l i s h i t s t h e ground
if ( b a l l . y<0) :
print ( "The b a l l l a n d e d a t x=" , b a l l . pos . x , "and t=" , t )
break

If you change the angle and run the program again, you will get a different trajectory. The figure below shows trajectories
at 30 ◦ , 40 ◦ , 50 ◦ , 60 ◦ , and 70 ◦ .

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CP51:
Solution:
You can use VPython for the calculations, but you do not have to create 3D objects. Because the speed of the cargo
ship will approach the speed of light, it is necessary to calculate the velocity of the cargo ship using # v . If you
p = γm #
substitute for γ and algebraically solve for the velocity, then

#
p /m
#
v =q
2
1 + mp2 c2

This equation can be found on pg. 78 of the textbook.

Because the motion occurs over a large time interval, you must choose a time step ∆t that is small compared to the total
time of travel for the cargo ship but large enough for the simulation to run in a reasonably short time. We used a time
5
step of 1 × 10 s.
By running the program below, you will obtain the following graph.

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8
Halfway to the stars, at x = 2.15 ly, the speed of the spaceship is 2.85 × 10 m/s, which is 0.95c. Note that for low speeds,
the graph of | #
v |(t) is linear as expected. However for high speeds where the motion is relativistic, | #
v |(t) is non-linear.
Here is the program.

from __future__ import d i v i s i o n

from __future__ import p r i n t _ f u n c t i o n
from v i s u a l import ∗
from v i s u a l . graph import ∗

#d e f i n e a l i g h t y e a r
l i g h t y e a r =9.46 e15 #1 l i g h t y e a r i n m e t e r s

#d e f i n e s p e e d o f l i g h t
c=3e8

#d e f i n e mass
m = 1 #kg

#d e f i n e p o s i t i o n
pos = v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )

#d e f i n e v e l o c i t y
s p e e d=0
v=s p e e d ∗ v e c t o r ( 1 , 0 , 0 )

#d e f i n e gamma
gamma=1/(1−( s p e e d / c ) ∗ ∗ 2 )

#d e f i n e momentum
p=gamma∗m∗v

#d e f i n e g
g = v e c t o r ( 9 . 8 , 0 , 0 ) #assume t h a t t h e f o r c e i s i n t h e +x d i r e c t i o n

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#d e f i n e n e t f o r c e
Fnet=m∗g

#d e f i n e t h e c l o c k r e a d i n g t h e time s t e p
t=0
dt=1e5

# i n i t i a l i z e s p e e d graph
graph = g d i s p l a y ( x =450 , y=0, t i t l e = ' s p e e d vs . t ' , x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' ,
y t i t l e= ' | v | (m/ s ) ' )
# i n i t i a l i z e t h e f u n c t i o n t o be p l o t t e d
vvt = g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . g r e e n )

#use b o o l e a n t o know when s h i p p a s s e s h a l f w a y p o i n t

p a s t h a l f w a y=f a l s e

while v . x>=0: #run t h e l o o p w h i l e t h e x−v e l o c i t y i s p o s i t i v e

rate (100)

#u p d a t e momentum
p=p+Fnet ∗ dt

#c a l c u l a t e t h e v e l o c i t y
v=p/m/ s q r t (1+(mag( p ) /m/ c ) ∗ ∗ 2 )

#u p d a t e t h e p o s i t i o n
pos=pos+v∗ dt

# u p d a t e s p e e d graph
vvt . p l o t ( pos=(t , mag( v ) ) )

#u p d a t e t h e c l o c k
t=t+dt

#i f s h i p i s h a l f w a y t h e r e , t h e f o r c e i s i n t h e −x d i r e c t i o n
if ( p a s t h a l f w a y==f a l s e and pos . x > 0 . 5 ∗ 4 . 3 ∗ l i g h t y e a r ) :
Fnet=−m∗g
d i s t a n c e i n l y=pos . x/ l i g h t y e a r
print ( " S p a c e s h i p i s a t x=" , d i s t a n c e i n l y , " l y a t t=" , t , " s with | v|=" , mag( v ) )
p a s t h a l f w a y=t r u e

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