Chapter 5 of:

Process Control Basics

George Buckbee, PE

Process Control
Basics
By George Buckbee, PE

CHAPTER

5
Book Table of Contents

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Process Control
Basics

George Buckbee, PE
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 About the Author

George Buckbee, PE, is a veteran of the process control industry. An experienced author
and instructor, Buckbee has more than 30 years of practical experience improving pro-
cess performance in a wide array of process industries including oil and gas, pulp
and paper, pharmaceuticals, and consumer products. Buckbee holds a BS in chemical
engineering from Washington University, and an MS in chemical engineering from
the University of California, Santa Barbara.

Buckbee’s career includes direct industry experience at Procter & Gamble and
Sanofi Pasteur, before entering the software development and control system con-
sulting business at ExperTune. Currently head of performance solutions at Neles, he
manages global digital solutions for valve monitoring, and the ExperTune family of
products and services.

Buckbee was selected as an ISA Fellow in 2011, and he is a member of the ISA
Publications Department. He is the coauthor (along with Joseph Alford) of Automation
Applications in Bio-Pharmaceuticals, published by ISA. He wrote several chapters in The
Instrument Engineer’s Handbook and authored Mastering Cascade Control and Mastering
Split-Range Control. Buckbee has also written dozens of articles and white papers on
control system performance.

Buckbee resides in Pennsylvania, where he and his wife Mary Ellen enjoy hiking,
kayaking, golf, and traveling to visit their adult children.

xix
 5
Final Control
Elements

Final control elements are the workhorses of control. Without them, control would
simply be a bunch of signals bouncing around without any impact on the real world.
When a control valve opens, fluid flow increases and the process is affected.

Final control elements are generally physical, mechanical devices. It is important

to pay close attention to their sizing, materials, and capacity. Also note that as physical
devices, they are subject to wear and tear. Mechanical maintenance is critical to main-
taining the reliability and performance of these devices.

This chapter provides an introduction to the most common final control elements
used in modern industrial process plants, including:

• Control valves

• Dampers

• Variable-speed drives

• Heaters

At the end of the chapter is a discussion of regulators and limiting elements. These
are relatively independent physical devices that perform some direct control of the
process.

73
74 Process Control Basics

5.1 Control Valves

The control valve is the workhorse of the process control business. The vast majority of
process control happens, in the end, because a valve opens or closes. An on-off valve
operates in binary fashion: it opens or closes fully when actuated. A modulating con-
trol valve can be adjusted to any position, from 0% to 100% open, thereby affecting the
flow through the valve.

Control valve selection and application can be surprisingly complex. Valves may
cost a few dollars or hundreds of thousands of dollars, depending on their size, materi-
als, quality, pressure, temperature, and performance specifications.

5.1.1 What Is a Control Valve?

A common notion is that every valve may be used as a control valve. However, that is
far from the truth. A control valve is a valve that can be manipulated to precisely regu-
late the flow of process fluids. Control valves must meet a demanding set of require-
ments to ensure accurate and precise control.

Manually operated valves are also used throughout plants. They can be opened or
closed with a lever, a wheel, or chain. These valves are not considered control valves.
However, it is possible for an attentive operator to achieve some control of the process
using manually operated valves.

The control valve must be properly designed, sized for the normal range of
flows and pressures, made of the correct materials, and perform properly across the
full range of operation. Each of these aspects of control valves is examined in this
section.

Control valves do not work by themselves. Typically, a complete valve assembly

consists of a valve body, an actuator, and oftentimes a positioner, as shown in Figure 5-1.

The valve body is a pressure housing through which fluid passes. The body has
connections for piping or tubing. A movable valve plug changes position to adjust the
flow. The plug may be a disk, a ball, or some other specialized design. The valve stem
is connected to the plug and provides a connection to the actuator.

The actuator provides the motive force to open or close the valve. There are sev-
eral types of actuators, including spring-and-diaphragm and electric motor–operated
actuators. Compressed air is often used as the motive force for valve actuators.
 Chapter 5 – Final Control Elements 75

Figure 5-1. A control valve assembly.

A positioner is a device that measures the actual valve position and adjusts the
inputs to the actuator to achieve more precise positioning of the control valve.

5.1.2 Types of Control Valves

Because there are many types of process fluid, there are many types of control valves.
Some of the more common control valve types are covered here.

5.1.2.1 Butterfly Valve

The butterfly valve, shown in Figure 5-2, is one of the oldest and simplest control valve
designs. It is a single disc that rotates 90° from fully closed to fully open.

Butterfly valves are relatively low cost, and they can provide good shutoff. These can
be manufactured in very small or very large sizes, even as large as 48 inches in diameter.

However, the butterfly valve’s characteristic curve is very nonlinear. This may
make it difficult to control the process across the full range of valve operation. Also,
butterfly valves are not well suited for process situations where there is a large pres-
sure drop. At low openings, the butterfly valve is subject to cavitation, which can cause
extreme damage to the valve. When a liquid passes through the small opening of a
valve, its speed increases and its pressure drops. Vapor bubbles can form and then
suddenly collapse causing cavitation, which damages the valve or surrounding piping.

5.1.2.2 Globe Valve

The globe valve is so named because the body of the valve is shaped like a globe. In
this valve, the process fluid moves through the valve and around a plug, as shown in
76 Process Control Basics

Figure 5-2. A butterfly valve.

Figure 5-3. The plug moves up and down to adjust the flow. There are also three-way
globe valves that split the inlet flow between two outlet ports.

Globe valves have many advantages over rotary valve designs.

• Globe valve actuation has typically been performed by a simple spring-and-dia-

phragm actuator. The globe valve can be designed with a wide range of valve
characteristics.

• Due to the tortuous flow path, it is highly unlikely to develop cavitation or noise.

• The solid body also makes the globe valve suitable for high-pressure and high-
temperature applications.

• With relatively low deadband and hysteresis, globe valves can sometimes be
used without positioners.

However, for a given flow rate, globe valves are typically more expensive than the
simpler rotary designs. Also, the linear valve stem seal may not perform as well as
rotary valve stem seals. This means it may be more difficult to achieve environmental
requirements for fugitive emissions.
 Chapter 5 – Final Control Elements 77

Figure 5-3. Globe valve.

5.1.2.3 Ball Valve

In a ball valve, the plug resembles a ball with a bore through it, as shown in Figure
5-4. These quarter-turn valves are typically of simple construction and can be found
in sizes from 1/2 in to 48 in or more.

When fully opened, flow can pass through the full pipe diameter, causing very
little pressure drop. For this reason, these valves are often used as on-off valves.

Figure 5-4. Ball valve.

78 Process Control Basics

Ball valves may also be used for modulating flow. Some designs change the shape
of the bore with a notch shape, to adjust the flow characteristic.

5.1.2.4 Eccentric Disc Valve

An eccentric disc valve is similar to a butterfly valve but the plug looks like a shaped
disc, or a segment of a sphere, rather than a flat disc. The disc shape can help to shape
the flow characteristic, as described in Section 5.1.4.

5.1.3 Control Valve Sizing

Valve sizing is an important engineering task. The valve should be sized according to
the desired flow rate, for the given pressure drop. The flow through a valve increases
as the square of valve size. So, if the valve size is off by a factor of 2, the flow will be off
by a factor of 4. Also, the correct control valve is often smaller than the pipe diameter.

It is also important to consider the valve’s rangeability, which is the ratio of the max-
imum controllable flow to the minimum controllable flow. When requirements call for
good control over a wide range, it may be necessary to employ more than one valve.

5.1.3.1 Effects of Valve Sizing

If a valve is sized too small, it will not be able to pass the required maximum flow.
Consequently, the valve will operate fully open and there will be control only at low
flow rates.

If a valve is too large, it will operate with the plug near the closed position. This
presents several control challenges:

• Large valve gain – Small movements will create relatively large changes in flow.

• Poor accuracy and dynamic instability – It can be difficult to position a control

valve more accurately than ±0.5% or 1% of full stroke. If the valve is only open
3%, then ±1% could mean ±30% of flow. A controller may then force instability
as it tries to hunt for the correct valve position.

• Valve damage – The local fluid velocity through the plug can be higher, which
can cause erosion, flashing, or cavitation.

5.1.3.2 Valve Sizing

Control valves are sized using mathematical equations to determine the desired flow
rate, given the process conditions and the physical properties of the fluid. The valve-
sizing coefficient, Cv, is defined as the number of gallons per minute (gpm) of water at
60°F that can flow through the wide-open valve at a pressure drop of 1 psi.
 Chapter 5 – Final Control Elements 79

Valve manufacturers supply listings of Cv for their valves, along with body size,
weight, port size, actuator torque requirements, and other factors.

Also, in many control valves, the valve trim or plug may be replaced with another
one to provide a different Cv.

5.1.4 Control Valve Characteristics

It is not always easy to configure valves for good control. Every valve has a characteris-
tic, which is the relationship between the valve position and the flow rate, for a given
fixed pressure drop. The characteristic that is needed for each application depends on
the process, the piping, and the control requirements. There are three common valve
characteristics:

1. Equal percentage – Equal increments in valve movement produce an equal

percentage of change to the existing flow.

2. Linear – The flow rate is directly proportional to the valve position.

3. Quick opening – Gives quick response when first opened, but then produces
little change as the valve reaches full-open position. This is often used for on-
off valves.

These characteristics are illustrated in Figure 5-5.

Figure 5-5. Common valve characteristics.

80 Process Control Basics

Note that the valve characteristics provided by vendors are the inherent valve char-
acteristics, meaning they are determined under a constant pressure drop across the
valve. In most plants, the pressure drop across the valve varies due to piping and
process arrangement. The actual characteristic in your plant is called the installed flow
characteristic.

The flow characteristic of the butterfly valve is nonlinear. At low flow rates, small
valve movements will generate large changes in flow. When the valve is more than
50% open, it takes much more valve movement to increase the amount of flow. Also,
the fluid moving through the butterfly valve puts pressure on the disk. So, different
forces are required to open the valve than to close it.

5.1.4.1 Adjusting for the Valve Characteristic

The selected valve characteristic has several effects. First, it affects the opening time.
Large valves may take a full minute to fully open. If it is important for the process to
get flow quickly, the quick-opening characteristic may be required.

The installed valve characteristic also affects the controller tuning. From a control
standpoint, it would be ideal if 1% valve movement always caused 1% process variable
movement. However, that is not the case with all valve characteristics. The valve gain
refers to the ratio of change in flow for each percentage change in valve position. If the
valve gain varies greatly, you may need to compensate for this nonlinearity. There are
several ways to compensate, including:

• Installing a shaped cam on the valve positioner

• Using a digital characterizer in the positioner or in the distributed control sys-

tem (DCS)

• Adjusting the controller tuning according to valve position

5.1.5 Performance Factors

When fluids flow through the restrictions of a control valve, the fluid velocity must
speed up to squeeze the fluid through. This can cause several significant issues,
such as:

• Pressure drop – The pressure drop across the valve can be significant, and
it represents lost energy. When there are large energy costs, a variable-speed
pump may be considered instead of a pump and valve.
 Chapter 5 – Final Control Elements 81

• Erosion – The high-speed fluid can wear the valve materials. When the valve is
only partially opened, this has the greatest effect. Eventually, erosion can wear
the seats or the plug so much that the valve will leak when closed.

• Flashing – Bernoulli’s equation states that when fluid speed increases, the pres-
sure drops. Hot liquids may flash (boil) as they pass through the tight restric-
tions in the valve. This can create vibration, noise, flow restrictions, or cavitation.

• Cavitation – Cavitation describes a situation where the liquid flashes and then
the bubbles collapse immediately after the valve. This is a violent and noisy
phenomenon that will damage the valve and/or piping. Cavitation is often easy
to detect, as it sounds like rocks are passing through the valve.

• Pluggage – When the fluid contains solid materials, as in a slurry, some mate-
rial can get trapped at the plug. The buildup can eventually trap more and more
material, and it can plug the line. As the solid material becomes dewatered, it
can create a plug of materials, requiring a shutdown to remove the valve and
clean it out.

It is important to consider all these possible issues to select the proper valve type,
actuator type, and valve size.

5.1.6 Control Valve Maintenance

Control valves come in direct contact with process fluids, which may be extremely
hot, cold, abrasive, corrosive, acidic, or even radioactive. Process equipment and pip-
ing may vibrate, stressing the valve connections and materials. Valves are also moving
frequently, which results in wear and tear on all points of contact between the valve
body and the plug. Regular inspection and maintenance are required to ensure that
the valve assembly will not fail during normal operation and that the valve will sur-
vive for its expected life span.

Manufacturers provide recommendations for valve maintenance based on the

number of valve strokes or elapsed time since the previous installation. Valve mainte-
nance may include replacement of soft parts such as seals and rings, or a full rebuild
of the valve.

Preparation and shutdown planning are key to valve maintenance. Most valve
maintenance actions require removal from the piping, and many require sending the
valve to a repair shop.
82 Process Control Basics

5.2 Dampers
5.2.1 What Is a Damper?
A damper is a type of valve or series of plates that are used to restrict the flow of gases,
especially the flow of air through a duct. The damper found in a home chimney is a
simple form. Larger, more complex dampers are used in industrial processes to man-
age the flows of gases, as shown in Figure 5-6.

In most dampers, the plates, or louvers, are attached to a common linkage, and they
all move together. A motor or pneumatic actuator drives the linkage.

One common application of a damper is to control the flow of air into an industrial
furnace or boiler.

5.2.2 Damper Characteristics

Like control valves, dampers exhibit nonlinear flow characteristics. Typically, the char-
acteristic resembles the shape of the quick-opening valve. That is, the airflow increases
quickly on opening and then increases only gradually after the damper is 50% open.

To obtain good control, a characterizer may be used to create a more linear profile.

Figure 5-6. A damper.

Source: Photo courtesy of Mestek Commercial Damper & Louver Group.
 Chapter 5 – Final Control Elements 83

5.2.3 Damper Maintenance

The linkages between the damper actuator and the damper usually contain several
mechanical joints. For good control, these joints must move freely. Proper alignment,
lubrication, and tightness are essential to good control. When linkages are too loose,
the control will oscillate, or hunt, back and forth, as it tries to properly position the
damper. Too much stiffness or tightness in the linkage can cause the linkage to bind or
stick, which then causes the controls to oscillate.

Proper training of maintenance personnel is required to ensure that the damper

moves smoothly without sticking.

A damper can also become a trap or filter for dust and other foreign material that
finds its way into the ductwork. Routine inspection and cleaning are needed to reduce
the buildup, plugging, and associated fire hazards.

5.3 Actuators
The actuator is the mechanical drive or power element that moves the part of the final
control element to manipulate the flow or other manipulated variable. In the case of a
control valve, the actuator moves the plug. There are many types of actuators, and they
are selected according to the valve requirements noted in this section.

5.3.1 Type of Actuator Movement

Linear actuator movement is required for globe valves, gate valves, and many others.
With these valves, the plug moves up and down in a straight line. A spring-and-dia-
phragm design, shown in Figure 5-7, is commonly used.

Piston actuators are similar, but they use a solid piston rather than a flexible dia-
phragm to separate the chambers. A double-acting piston actuator uses air on both sides,
rather than a spring.

Rotary actuator movement is needed for butterfly valves, ball valves, and eccentric
disc valves. Various actuator designs may convert linear motion into the rotary torque
needed to manipulate these valves.

Solenoid valves are valves connected to an electrical coil. When the coil is energized,
the valve opens (or closes) completely. Solenoid valves often control the supply of com-
pressed air to a larger actuator.
84 Process Control Basics

Figure 5-7. Spring-and-diaphragm actuator.

5.3.2 Actuator Control Action

Actuators are used for modulating service or for on-off service. In fact, the same actua-
tor may be used in both scenarios.

Spring-and-diaphragm actuators may be configured to require air to open the

valve, or air to close the valve. The configuration is usually selected based on the
desired fail-safe condition for the valve. In other words, if the compressed air supply
were lost, which would be the safest position? For combustible gases, you typically
want the valves to fail in the closed position. For air supply to a combustor, you usu-
ally want the valve to fail open, to purge the combustion chamber. Some actuators will
fail in the last state, meaning that they will not open or close, but just stay in the same
position. There are also some that fail in an indeterminate or unpredictable way.

5.3.3 Actuator Power Source

The most common actuators use compressed gas, such as compressed air, as their power
source. Common air supply pressures for on-off valves are 50 psig, 80 psig, or 100 psig.
For modulating valves, compressed air in the range of 20 to 35 psig is used, which is
then applied based on the 3–15 psig signal representing 0% to 100% of valve travel.

Although compressed air is most commonly used, some systems may use other
gases. For example, remote stations for natural gas transmission pipelines often use
compressed natural gas.
 Chapter 5 – Final Control Elements 85

For on-off valves, electric solenoids can be used to open or close the valve. Solenoids
are electromagnets that can actuate the valve directly. Alternately, a solenoid-operated
valve could control the pneumatic air supply to a larger valve.

Compressed gas is an expensive source of power. Consider that it is normally pro-

duced using an electric motor to drive a compressor and then transported through
long lines of pipes and tubing. Electric motor actuators connect directly to the valve
and can be used for both on-off and modulating control actions. Electric actuators can
become hot, so they are not suitable for all applications.

Manual valve actuation may be included for emergency or override scenarios. A

handwheel or chain operator may be used to manually adjust the valve position.

5.3.4 Actuator Sizing

The actuator must, of course, be powerful enough to move the valve. Linear actuators
are sized for their linear thrust, measured in pound force (lbf). Rotary actuators are
sized for torque, which is measured in foot-pounds (ft · lbf). The SI unit for torque is
the newton meter (N · m).

In any case, the actuator must be powerful enough to overcome the valve friction
and any process fluid pressure against the plug, and to move the valve quickly enough
in emergency situations. Some actuators include a horsepower rating, which is basi-
cally used to determine how quickly the valve can move with the maximum torque
applied.

5.4 Switches and Positioners

A variety of electric and electronic devices may be used to ensure better performance
of the valve or damper, or to provide feedback to the operator about the actual position
of the final control element.

5.4.1 Switches
It is not enough for the control system to command each valve to open. The valve
may fail to respond due to one of many points of failure along the way, such as elec-
trical failures, broken tubing, and mechanical issues. Switches can provide position
feedback, confirming the actual position of the valve. The most common of these are
switches confirming that the valve is either fully open or fully closed.

Some valves, such as pressure relief valves, may be fitted with switches to notify
the operator that a process incident has occurred.
86 Process Control Basics

5.4.2 Positioners
A positioner is a small self-contained controller. It takes the commanded valve signal
from the control system (i.e., the 3–15 psig signal) and measures the actual valve posi-
tion. It then adjusts the motive force to the actuator to ensure that the valve actually
reaches the desired position. This helps to overcome local issues at the actuation of the
valve, such as hysteresis, stiction, or actuator performance issues. The plant benefits
from improved control.

Digital positioners also calculate a variety of statistics and perform diagnostics on

the air supply, the actuator, and the valve. These statistics and diagnostics may be con-
veyed digitally to the control system or to a parallel communications network. Valve
performance and the valve life cycle may be greatly improved when the information
from digital positioners is used to manage a fleet of valves.

5.5 Variable Speed Drives

5.5.1 What Is a Variable Speed Drive?
A drive is simply a motor plus a controller. Both alternating current (AC) and direct
current (DC) drive controllers are commonly used in industry, although the recent
trend is toward more and larger AC drives. Variable speed drives (VSDs) work by
adjusting the electrical supply to the motor, to vary its speed.

In most process control applications, a motor is connected to a centrifugal load,

such as a pump, or to a rotating roll, press, or agitator. When a VSD is connected to
a pump, it can perform many of the functions of a pump and valve combination, all
while consuming less energy. This is because there is no longer a pressure drop across
the valve. However, note that a VSD does not have the tight shutoff characteristic of a
valve. It cannot be used for process isolation and may not be suitable in all processes.

5.5.2 Types of VSDs

5.5.2.1 Cones and Belts
The cone and belt system, or cone and pulley system, is an old type of VSD unit used
heavily in pulp and paper and textile applications. A cone is mounted on the motor
shaft. A parallel opposing cone is on a shaft and connected to the process. A belt is
stretched across the two cones to connect them. To increase the speed, the belt is shifted
from the narrow end to the wide end of the drive cone. The speed changes according
to the ratio of the diameters between the cones at the location of the belt.
 Chapter 5 – Final Control Elements 87

5.5.2.2 DC Drives
A DC VSD uses a DC motor. These motors have been in use since the 1870s and are
still widely used in appliances, toys, and other small drive situations. The motor speed
can be adjusted either by changing the supply voltage or by changing the current in
the field windings.

Large DC motors can drive steel mills, paper machines, and other large equipment.
Some DC motor designs use brushes, while others are brushless. Although brushed
DC motors with commutators may be lower cost than AC drives, they typically require
more maintenance. Brushless DC drives use permanent magnets, which reduces the
level of maintenance required.

5.5.2.3 AC Variable Frequency Drive

A commonly used drive is the AC variable frequency drive (VFD). This drive unit
adjusts the electric power input frequency and voltage to control both motor speed
and torque. This enables precise control of the process, especially through start-up and
shutdown operations.

Typically, solid-state electronics are used to control the supply power to the motor.
A standard AC motor is often used, although some applications require special insula-
tion and motor cooling.

The AC VFD also permits regenerative braking. During regeneration, or regen, the
process is slowed down, with the motor acting as a generator, to recover the energy
from the process. This can significantly reduce costs in applications with large, heavy
loads and frequent speed changes.

5.5.3 Other Drives

There are many clever ways to vary and control the speed of rotating equip-
ment, such as by using hydraulic drives, pneumatic drives, linear motors, and
servomotors.

5.5.4 Drive Sizing

The VSD must be sized for the maximum required flow rate and maximum head
through the pump. One must also consider the turndown ratio to ensure that the
motor can operate at the slower speed without overheating
88 Process Control Basics

5.5.5 Drive Characteristics

Drive controllers are highly programmable. It is possible to establish and adjust many
drive characteristics through configuration. Some of these adjustments are:

• Ramp rate – This is the rate of change to be used when changing speeds. This will
be a compromise between fast control performance and overloading the motor.

• Speed loop and current loop tuning – These two loops are cascaded. The cur-
rent loop should be tuned fairly fast. The speed loop can be tuned according to
process needs.

• Minimum speed – Set this to attain the minimum flow rate, but beware of the
allowable minimum speed of the motor to avoid overheating.

5.5.6 Drive Maintenance

Both the motor and the drive unit need periodic inspection and maintenance. Vendor
recommendations are readily available for each. Brushed DC motors have carbon
brushes that wear over time and must be periodically replaced.

5.6 Heaters
Heaters may be used as the final control element to increase temperature in a control
loop. Electrical heaters provide fast response and good control, without the need for
piping to deliver the heating fluids. Keep in mind that a heater can only increase tem-
perature, not decrease it.

Heat from electric energy is relatively expensive when compared to combustion,

steam, or thermal fluids. However, electricity may often be available at remote loca-
tions where the infrastructure for steam distribution does not exist.

5.6.1 Heater Sizing

The heater must be sized to accommodate the largest temperature increase at the larg-
est possible flow rate. If the process fluid will go through a phase change (i.e., boil), then
the heater may need to be significantly larger to supply the latent heat of vaporization.

5.6.2 Heater Characteristics

Electric heaters typically exhibit some lag time between supplying power and when
the process fluid temperature rises. This is largely due to transmission of heat through
the walls of the piping or vessel, or due to the distance from the heater to the tempera-
ture measurement. Also, the heater itself and its casing may introduce a thermal lag.
 Chapter 5 – Final Control Elements 89

5.6.3 Heater Maintenance

Regular inspection of heater wiring and heater elements is recommended. When
electric heaters fail, they tend to fail completely, so detection of the issue is relatively
straightforward.

5.7 Other Final Control Elements

There are many other ways to manipulate a process. Gates may be used to adjust flow
in open channels. Many combustors use the burner tilt to adjust the combustion pro-
cess and efficiency. A wide variety of specialty valves can be used for unusual process
conditions such as slurries.

5.8 Regulators
5.8.1 What Is a Pressure Regulator?
A pressure regulator is a mechanical spring-diaphragm device that can be used to main-
tain a constant downstream pressure. It may be applied to liquids or gases. For exam-
ple, most homes that use natural gas have a regulator before the gas line comes into the
house. Regulators are adjusted locally by changing the spring tension.

If the downstream pressure set point does not vary, a regulator can be much more
cost-efficient than a pressure control loop with a sensor and control valve. Regulators
are also widely used in remote locations where no electricity is available.

5.8.2 Regulator Maintenance

Regulators can fail in many ways, including:

• Diaphragm rupture

• Buildup of foreign material

• Corrosion

Regular inspection is required to prevent the regulator from failing.

5.9 Limiting Elements

5.9.1 What Is a Limiting Element?
A limiting element is a control device that provides some control of the process when
regular limits are exceeded. These devices are often the last line of defense to prevent
equipment damage and/or safety incidents.
90 Process Control Basics

5.9.2 Types of Limiting Elements

Some of the most common forms of limiting elements are:

• Safety valves – These are required on pressurized tanks and vessels. If the tank
pressure approaches the limits of the tank’s safe design, the pressure relief valve
opens, venting the tank’s contents to the atmosphere or to a containment area.

• Vacuum relief valves – A tank with an internal vacuum can collapse when out-
side atmospheric pressure pushes inward on it. The vacuum relief valve opens
to let air inside, raising the tank’s pressure closer to atmospheric pressure.

• Rupture disks – Like an electric fuse, the rupture disk is a single-use device to
relieve pressure or vacuum.

These limiting elements are often outfitted with switches or other feedback devices
that alarm the operator when an incident occurs.

5.9.3 Maintenance
The most important concern for a limiting element is having confidence that it will
work when needed. However, we hope that the process never reaches such conditions.
So, how can you be sure that it will operate?

Regular inspection and maintenance programs can be instituted to confirm opera-

tion, either in the field or on bench tests. In recent years, smart positioners have been
created to perform partial stroke testing. These positioners can make small adjustments
to the safety valve spool position to test that the valve actually starts to move. Smart
positioners satisfy the need for confirmation at a much lower cost, and with less pro-
cess disruption, than traditional testing.

References
ANSI/ISA-75.01.01-2012 (IEC 60534-2-1 MOD). Industrial-Process Control Valves – Part 2-1:
Flow Capacity - Sizing Equations for Fluid Flow Under Installed Conditions. Research
Triangle Park, NC: ISA (International Society of Automation).

Baumann, Hans D. Control Valve Primer, A User’s Guide. Research Triangle Park, NC:
ISA (International Society of Automation) 2009.
 Chapter 5 – Final Control Elements 91

Fisher Controls Company. Control Valve Handbook. 2nd ed. Marshalltown, IA: Fisher
Controls Company, 1977.

Liptak, Bela G., ed. Instrument Engineer’s Handbook: Process Control. 3rd ed. Radnor, PA:
Chilton Book Company, 1995.

Spitzer, David W. Variable Speed Drives: Principles and Applications for Energy Cost Savings.
4th ed. New York: Momentum Press, 2012.
 Contents

Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xvii

About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix

Chapter 1 What Is Process Control? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 What Is a Process? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 What Is Control? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Why Do We Need Process Control? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.1 Process Safety and Reliability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.2 Process Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.3 Process Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.4 Labor Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 How to Use This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Chapter 2 Basic Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.1 General Principles of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Pressure Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.1 What Is Pressure? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.2 Units of Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.3 Types of Pressure Sensors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 How Level Sensors Sense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.1 What Is Level? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.2 Units of Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3.3 Types of Level Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

vii
viii Process Control Basics

2.4 How Flow Sensors Sense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.4.1 What Is Flow? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4.2 Units of Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4.3 Types of Flow Measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.5 Temperature Sensors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.5.1 What Is Temperature? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.5.2 Units of Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.5.3 Types of Temperature Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.6 Range, Span, and Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.6.1 Range and Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.6.2 Instrument Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.6.3 Truth in Measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Chapter 3 Control System Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.1 Closed Loop versus Open Loop Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1.1 Open Loop Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.1.2 Closed Loop Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2 Single Loop Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3 Logic Control, Sequential and Batch Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.3.1 Logic Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.3.2 Sequential Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3.3 Batch Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4 PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4.1 Typical PLC Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.4.2 Typical PLC Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.5 DCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.5.1 Typical DCS Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.5.2 Typical DCS Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.6 Hybrid Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.7 Embedded Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Chapter 4 Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.1 Binary Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.2 Analog Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.2.1 Mechanical Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.2.2 Communicating with Pressure: Pneumatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.2.3 Communication with Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.2.4 Communication with Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.3 Digital Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.3.1 Smart Device Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.3.2 Wireless Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.4 Converting Between Signal Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.4.1 I/O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.4.2 Analog to Digital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
 Contents ix

4.4.3 Digital to Analog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

4.4.4 Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.5 Displaying Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.5.1 Mechanical Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.5.2 Electrical and Electronic Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.5.3 Computer Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.6 Retaining Data History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Chapter 5 Final Control Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

5.1 Control Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.1.1 What Is a Control Valve? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.1.2 Types of Control Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.1.3 Control Valve Sizing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.1.4 Control Valve Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.1.5 Performance Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.1.6 Control Valve Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.2 Dampers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.2.1 What Is a Damper? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.2.2 Damper Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.2.3 Damper Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.3 Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.3.1 Type of Actuator Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.3.2 Actuator Control Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.3.3 Actuator Power Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.3.4 Actuator Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.4 Switches and Positioners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.4.1 Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.4.2 Positioners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.5 Variable Speed Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.5.1 What Is a Variable Speed Drive? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.5.2 Types of VSDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.5.3 Other Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.5.4 Drive Sizing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.5.5 Drive Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.5.6 Drive Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.6 Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.6.1 Heater Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.6.2 Heater Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.6.3 Heater Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.7 Other Final Control Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.8 Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.8.1 What Is a Pressure Regulator? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.8.2 Regulator Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.9 Limiting Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.9.1 What Is a Limiting Element? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
x Process Control Basics

5.9.2 Types of Limiting Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

5.9.3 Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Chapter 6 Continuous Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

6.1 Control Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.2 On-Off Control of Continuous Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.3 PID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.3.1 Proportional Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.3.2 Integral Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.3.3 Derivative Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.3.4 Controller Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.3.5 Controller Tuning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.3.6 Software Tools for Tuning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.4 Selectors, Overrides, and Interlocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.4.1 Selectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.4.2 Overrides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
6.4.3 Interlocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
6.5 Alarms, Messages, and Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
6.5.1 Alarms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
6.5.2 Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.5.3 Reports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

Chapter 7 Logic Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

7.1 Binary Logic Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
7.2 How Binary Logic Control Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
7.2.1 Discrete Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
7.2.2 Operations of Logic Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
7.3 Binary Logic Diagramming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.3.1 Ladder Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.3.2 Boolean Logic Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.3.3 Sequential Function Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.3.4 Structured Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.3.5 Combining Programming Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.3.6 PLC Programming Skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.4 Implementation of Binary Logic Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.4.1 Electromechanical Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.4.2 PLCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.4.3 Logic in DCSs and Hybrid Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Chapter 8 Control System Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

8.1 Process Flow Diagrams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
8.2 P&ID Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
 Contents xi

8.3 Instrument Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

8.4 Instrument Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
8.5 Piping Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
8.6 Control Narratives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
8.7 Loop Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
8.8 Logic Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
8.9 Control Loop Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
8.10 Network Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
8.11 Factory and Site Acceptance Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Chapter 9 Practical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

9.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141
9.1.1 Wetted Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141
9.1.2 Harsh Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
9.2 Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
9.2.1 Electrical Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
9.2.2 Instrument Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.3 Instrument Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
9.4 Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
9.4.1 Electrical Signal Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
9.4.2 Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
9.4.3 Other Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
9.5 Protecting the Instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
9.5.1 Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
9.5.2 Enclosures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
9.6 Maintenance and Reliability Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
9.6.1 Inspection and Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
9.6.2 Automated Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
9.7 Management of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
9.8 Cybersecurity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Chapter 10 Advanced Sensors and Analyzers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

10.1 Sensors for Process Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
10.1.1 pH and Oxidation-Reduction Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
10.1.2 Dissolved Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
10.1.3 Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
10.1.4 Thermal Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
10.1.5 Turbidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
10.1.6 Infrared and Near-Infrared Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
10.1.7 Consistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
10.1.8 Humidity and Dew Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
10.2 Physical and Mechanical Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
10.2.1 Photoelectric Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
xii Process Control Basics

10.2.2 Weighing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

10.2.3 Vibration Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
10.2.4 Speed Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
10.3 Analyzers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
10.3.1 Sampling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
10.3.2 Total Organic Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
10.3.3 Mass Spectrometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
10.3.4 Titration Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
10.3.5 Other Specialty Analyzers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
10.4 Combining Measurements: Virtual Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161

Chapter 11 Beyond the Basics of Process Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

11.1 Advanced Regulatory Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
11.1.1 Cascade Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
11.1.2 Feedforward Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
11.1.3 Ratio Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
11.1.4 Signal Characterizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
11.1.5 Gain Scheduling and Gap Controllers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
11.2 Model Predictive Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
11.3 Artificial Intelligence in Process Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
11.3.1 Fuzzy Logic Controllers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
11.3.2 Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
11.4 Safety Instrumented Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
11.5 Diagnostics and Analytics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
11.5.1 Instrument and Valve Diagnostics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
11.5.2 Control Loop Performance Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
11.6 Alarm Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

Abbreviations/Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187