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College Teachers Education

PLANE AND SOLID

GEOMETRY
PRELIM MODULE

MARK DAVE J. FERRER CTE

INSTRUCTOR
INTRODUCTION
As preparation for teaching in the intermediate grades, this course emphasizes the integration of technological
pedagogical content knowledge that includes topics on rational numbers, measurement, geometric figures, pre-algebra concepts,
application of simple probability and data analysis. This course is capped with microteaching that utilizes appropriate teaching
strategies for the development of critical and problem solving and reasoning, communicating, making corrections,
representations and decisions in real life situations.

Objectives
At the end of this module, students should be able to:
1. Build basic vocabulary of geometric figures.
2. Differentiate properties of two and three dimensional figures
3. Identify the relationships between lines, planes, polygons, and solids.
4. Create illustrations using different geometric figures.
Pre-Requisite Questions
1. Draw at least 3 different figures.
2. Identify their similarities and differences to each other by using a Venn diagram.

Concept Map
PLANE GEOMETRY

PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF THE INNER PRODUCT AND

PLANE GEOMETRY DETERMINANT

THE PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM (Source: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pythagoras)

 What is a Pythagorean Theorem?
- The Pythagorean Theorem, or Pythagoras' theorem, is a fundamental relation in Euclidean geometry among
the three sides of a right triangle.
- It states that the area of the square whose side is the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the areas of the
squares on the other two sides.
 Who is Pythagoras?
- Pythagoras, (born c. 570 BCE, Samos, Ionia [Greece]—died c. 500–490 BCE, Metapontum, Lucanium
[Italy]), Greek philosopher, mathematician, and founder of the Pythagorean brotherhood that, although
religious in nature, formulated principles that influenced the thought of Plato and Aristotle and contributed to
the development of mathematics and Western rational philosophy. (source:
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pythagoras)
The Pythagorean Theorem
- In mathematics, the Pythagorean Theorem, or Pythagoras' theorem, is a fundamental relation in Euclidean
geometry among the three sides of a right triangle.
- It states that the area of the square whose side is the hypotenuse (the
side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the areas of the
squares on the other two sides.
- This theorem can be written as an equation relating the lengths of the
sides a, b and c, often called the Pythagorean equation:
a 2+ b2=c 2∨ √ a 2+ b2=c
- The sum of the areas of the two squares on the legs (a and b) equals
the area of the square on the hypotenuse (c).
Example:
1. Find the length of the hypotenuse if
c=?
1. a = 12 and b = 16.
b = 16
Solution:
2 2
12 + 16 = c 2

144 + 256 = c2
400 = c2 a = 12
- Take the square root of both sides. 400  c 2
20 = c
Other proofs of the theorem
Proof using similar triangles (source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorean_theorem#Other_proofs_of_the_theorem )
- This proof is based on the proportionality of the sides of two similar triangles, that is, upon the fact that the
ratio of any two corresponding sides of similar triangles is the same regardless of the size of the triangles.
- Let ABC represent a right triangle, with the right angle located at C, as shown on the figure. Draw
the altitude from point C, and call H its intersection with the side AB. Point H divides the length of the
hypotenuse c into parts d and e. The new triangle ACH is similar to triangle ABC,
because they both have a right angle (by definition of the altitude), and they share
the angle at A, meaning that the third angle will be the same in both triangles as well,
marked as θ in the figure. By a similar reasoning, the triangle CBH is also similar
to ABC. The proof of similarity of the triangles requires the triangle postulate: The
sum of the angles in a triangle is two right angles, and is equivalent to the parallel
postulate. Similarity of the triangles leads to the equality of ratios of corresponding
BH
∧AC
sides: Bc BC AH .
= =
AB AB AC
- The first result equates the cosines of the angles θ, whereas the second result equates their sines.
- These ratios can be written as, BC 2= AB × BH ∧AC 2=AB × AH
- Summing these two equalities results in
2 2 2
BC + AC = AB× BH + AB× AH = AB × ( AH × BH )= AB
- which, after simplification, expresses the Pythagorean theorem: BC 2 × AC 2= AB 2
- The role of this proof in history is the subject of much speculation. The underlying question is why Euclid did
not use this proof, but invented another. One conjecture is that the proof by similar triangles involved a theory
of proportions, a topic not discussed until later in the Elements, and that the theory of proportions needed
further development at that time
Euclid's proof
- In outline, here is how the proof in Euclid's Elements proceeds. The large square is divided into a left and
right rectangle. A triangle is constructed that has half the area of the left rectangle. Then
another triangle is constructed that has half the area of the square on the left-most side.
These two triangles are shown to be congruent, proving this square has the same area as
the left rectangle.
- This argument is followed by a similar version for the right rectangle and the remaining
square. Putting the two rectangles together to reform the square on the hypotenuse, its
area is the same as the sum of the area of the other two squares.
- Let A, B, C be the vertices of a right triangle, with a right angle at A. Drop a perpendicular from A to the side
opposite the hypotenuse in the square on the hypotenuse. That line divides the square on the hypotenuse
into two rectangles, each having the same area as one of the two squares on the legs.
- For the formal proof, we require four elementary Lemmata.
- Lemmata is a generally minor, proven proposition which is used as a stepping stone to a larger result.
 1. If two triangles have two sides of the one equal to two sides of the other,
each to each, and the angles included by those sides equal, then the
triangles are congruent (side-angle-side).
2. The area of a triangle is half the area of any parallelogram on the same
base and having the same altitude.
3. The area of a rectangle is equal to the product of two adjacent sides.
4. The area of a square is equal to the product of two of its sides (follows from 3).
- Next, each top square is related to a triangle congruent with another triangle related in turn to one of two
rectangles making up the lower square.
The proof is as follows:
1. Let ACB be a right-angled triangle with right angle CAB.
2. On each of the sides BC, AB, and CA, squares are drawn, CBDE, BAGF,
and ACIH, in that order. The construction of squares requires the
immediately preceding theorems in Euclid, and depends upon the parallel
postulate.[9]
3. From A, draw a line parallel to BD and CE. It will perpendicularly intersect
BC and DE at K and L, respectively.
4. Join CF and AD, to form the triangles BCF and BDA.
5. Angles CAB and BAG are both right angles; therefore C, A, and G are collinear.
6. Angles CBD and FBA are both right angles; therefore angle ABD equals angle FBC, since both are the
sum of a right angle and angle ABC.
7. Since AB is equal to FB, BD is equal to BC and angle ABD equals angle FBC, triangle ABD must be
congruent to triangle FBC.
8. Since A-K-L is a straight line, parallel to BD, then rectangle BDLK has twice the area of triangle ABD
because they share the base BD and have the same altitude BK, i.e., a line normal to their common
base, connecting the parallel lines BD and AL. (lemma 2)
9. Since C is collinear with A and G, and this line is parallel to FB, then square BAGF must be twice in
area to triangle FBC.
10. Therefore, rectangle BDLK must have the same area as square BAGF = AB 2.
11. By applying steps 3 to 10 to the other side of the figure, it can be similarly shown that rectangle CKLE
must have the same area as square ACIH = AC2.
12. Adding these two results, AB2 + AC2 = BD × BK + KL × KC
13. Since BD = KL, BD × BK + KL × KC = BD(BK + KC) = BD × BC
14. Therefore, AB2 + AC2 = BC2, since CBDE is a square.
- This proof, which appears in Euclid's Elements as that of Proposition 47 in Book 1, demonstrates that the
area of the square on the hypotenuse is the sum of the areas of the other two squares
- This is quite distinct from the proof by similarity of triangles, which is conjectured to be the proof that
Pythagoras used.
SAQ1.
Answer and illustrate the following problem. Show your solution.
1. A person has to walk 100 m to go from position X in the north of east direction to the position B and then to the
west of Y to reach finally at position Z. The position Z is situated at the north of X and at a distance of 60 m from
X. Find the distance between X and Y.
2. A ladder 13 m long is placed on the ground in such a way that it touches the top of a vertical wall 12 m high. Find
the distance of the foot of the ladder from the bottom of the wall.

Basic Assumptions in Plane Geometry (J.M. Aarts 2008 (Plane and Solid Geometry)
- In this section we begin studying plane geometry and fix the basic assumptions for later deductions. The
previous sections should be seen as background information and illustrations of these assumptions; they are
not part of the theory that we are going to develop. Although it was not something we aimed at specifically,
basic assumptions, theorems, and proofs will follow each other in rapid succession. This is almost inevitable;
many important details need to be fixed carefully for later reference.
Unfamiliar Term used:
1. DIGRESSION - The act or an instance of leaving the main subject in an extended written or verbal expression of
thought: the act or an instance of digressing in a discourse or other usually organized literary work. (source: Merriam
dictionary)
- the action of moving away from the main subject you are writing or talking about and writing or talking about
something else (source: Cambridge English Dictionary)
2. ASSUMPTION
Something that is believed to be true or probably true but that is not known to be true. (Source: Merriam dictionary)
- Something that you accept as true without question or proof.
- Something is true or will happen, you accept that it is true or will happen, often without any real proof.
3. THEOREM
- A theorem is a statement that has been proved, or can be proved.
- The proof of a theorem is a logical argument that uses the inference rules of a deductive system to establish
that the theorem is a logical consequence of the axioms and previously proved theorems.
- A formula, proposition, or statement in mathematics or logic deduced or to be deduced from other formulas
or propositions.
Basic Assumptions in Plane Geometry
 Digression 1. Euclid’s Elements [18] is a typical example of the axiomatic construction of a theory. For
centuries this monumental work of Euclid (ca.325–ca.265 BC) was a model for the axiomatic approach to
constructing mathematical theories. Roughly speaking, the axiomatic approach goes as follows. First we fix a
number of primitive notions, notions that require no further explanation. In the classical approach these are
often point and line. All other notions are defined using the primitive notions. The axioms give the links
between the different notions and describe properties that are not or cannot be deduced. The remaining
statements in the theory, the theorems, are deduced from the axioms following generally accepted logical
principles and proof structures.
 The way this book was set up, a number of notions from set theory are assumed known, among others
element, set, function. We moreover assume that the reader is familiar with the real line. We will define,
among others, the notions point, distance, line segment, line, and angle. We fix the properties that we do not
prove in basic assumptions. We use the words basic assumption instead of axiom because the basic
assumptions differ from the axioms that are usually seen as the starting point of geometry in the traditional
construction. In particular, the definition of perpendicular is rather unconventional. Basic Assumption 1.14,
which we will state shortly, simply states that every line has the structure of a real line. Consequently, the
points on a line are ordered, and we can easily define the ratio of line segments. In [48, Chap. 20], ordering
and ratio are defined using Euclid’s postulates, and the two methods we mention here are compared.
Basic Assumption 1.11. The Euclidean plane is a metric space: a set V with a metric d. The set V has more than one
point.
- This basic assumption also fixes the notation for the rest of this book: whenever we speak of “the plane” or
“V,” we mean the Euclidean plane with its metric d.
- Before defining straight lines, let us first say what a line segment is in an arbitrary metric space.
Definition 1.12. For any pair of points A and B in a metric space M with metric d, the ne segment [AB] is given by
[AB] ={X ∈ M : d (A,X) + d(X,B) = d (A,B) } .
- In words: the line segment [AB] is the set of all points X of M such that the sum of the distances from X to A
and from X to B is equal to the distance from A to B.
A X B

- This definition corresponds to what is commonly used for the metric space R: for real numbers A and B, [AB]
is the line segment with endpoints A and B. The definition does not exclude the case A = B: the line segment
is then the set consisting of a single point. Note that both A and B are elements of [AB]. It is also immediately
clear that [AB] = [BA]. Moreover, for any point Y outside [AB], that is, Y is not an element of [AB], we have
d(A,B) < d (A,Y ) + d (Y,B)
 - Indeed, by the triangle inequality we always have d(A,B) ≤ d(A,Y ) + d(Y,B). Equality holds if and only if Y ∈
[AB]. One could say that the line segment [AB] is the shortest path from A to B.
Definition 1.13. For any pair of distinct points A and B of V , the straight line AB is given by
AB = {X : X ∈ [AB] or B ∈ [AX] or A ∈ [XB]}.

- See Fig. 1.12: the points X, Y , and Z are elements of the line AB; the caption of the figure shows why. Lines
are often denoted by lower case letters l, m, n. If the point X is an element of line l, we also say that X lies on
l, that l passes through X, or that each of X, l is incident to the other; we abbreviate this as X ∈ l. Note that A
and B both lie on line AB.
Fig.1.12

- How many lines pass through two given points? For any pair of distinct points A and B, we would like there to
be just one line passing through both. We can deduce this property using the following basic assumption,
which fixes the structure of lines in the plane.
Basic Assumption 1.14. Every line l in the plane admits an isometric surjection ϕ from l to R.
An isometric surjection is a distance-preserving surjection. First of all, ϕ is surjective: for every c in R there exists a P on l such
that ϕ (P) = c. Secondly, ϕ preserves distances:
| ϕ (X) – ϕ (Y | = d (X, Y) for all X and Y in l.
- In the basic assumption, the map ϕ is also injective (see the proof of Theorem 1.6), hence it is bijective.
Through this basic assumption, the real line R has become the prototype of the lines in the plane. The
following theorem gives an additional property of isometric surjections.

Theorem 1.15. Let ϕ be an isometric surjection from a line l in V to R. Then for any two points point A and B of l, we have ϕ
([AB]) = [ϕ (A) ϕ (B)].
In words: ϕ maps the line segment [AB] onto the line segment [ϕ (A) ϕ (B)]; see Fig. 1.13.
- Proof. Let X be a point on the line AB. Then X ∈ [AB] if and only if d (A, X) + d (X, B) = d (A, B).
- Since ϕ preserves distances, this holds if and only if | ϕ (A) – ϕ (X) | + | ϕ (X) – ϕ (B) | = | ϕ (A) – ϕ (B) |.
- This, in turn, is true if and only if ϕ(X) lies between ϕ (A) and ϕ (B), that is, ϕ (X) ∈ [ϕ (A) ϕ (B)]. The
theorem follows.
Theorem 1.16. For every pair of distinct points A and B of the plane, there is exactly one line m passing through A and B.
The (unique) line through two distinct points is called the join of these points.
- Proof. Let us first note that the linen = AB passes through A and B. It remains to show that if A and B lie on
the line m = CD, then n = m.
- Once this is proved, we know that every line through A and B coincides with n. By Basic Assumption 1.14,
there is an isometric surjection ϕ from m to R.A
- Possible image of m under the map ϕ is given in Fig. 1.14. Other dispositions of ϕ (A), ϕ (B), ϕ (C), and ϕ (D) are of course
also possible; those situations can be dealt with analogously. It is important to note that we always have ϕ (A) = ϕ(B) and ϕ (C)
= ϕ (D), since ϕ is injective and A = B and C = D. Let X be an arbitrary point of m. We distinguish three cases: X ∈ [CD], D ∈
[CX], and C ∈ [XD]. Let us assume that we are in the second case; see Fig. 1.14. The other cases can be dealt with
analogously. The point’s ϕ(X), ϕ (A), and ϕ (B) lie on the real line. In the situation sketched in the figure, we have
|ϕ(X) – ϕ (A)| + | ϕ (A)−ϕ(B) | = | ϕ (X) – ϕ (B) | .
Since ϕ is an isometry, this implies that d(X, A) + d (A, B) = d(X, B) and therefore A ∈ [XB], whence X ∈ AB. In general, every
point X of CD lies on AB. Hence m ⊆ n: the line m is a subset of the line n. What have we proved? We have shown that if the
points A and B of line n lie on line m = CD, then m ⊆ n. In particular, C ∈ n and D ∈ n. Thus, the points C and D of line m lie on n
= AB. By the same token, n ⊆ m. We conclude that n = m.
Let us now look at the position of lines with respect to each other. First we need the assertion that there is more than one line in
the plane. This is given by the following basic assumption.
Basic Assumption 1.17. The Euclidean plane contains three non-collinear points.
- This basic assumption implies that there are at least three distinct lines.
Definition 1.18. We call a point P an intersection point of the lines l and m if P lies on both l and m. In this case we also say that
the lines l and m are concurrent or that they concur at P we say that the lines m and n are parallel if m = n or m ∩ n =∅; we
denote this by m//n. If m and n are not parallel, we say that m and n are intersecting lines.
The following theorem gives an important property of intersecting lines.
Theorem 1.19. Two intersecting lines have exactly one intersection point.
 Proof. Let l and m be two intersecting lines. Since they are not parallel, the lines l and m have an intersection point and
l = m. Let P be a common point of l and m. If it is not unique, there exists another point, say Q that lies on both l and m.
According to Theorem 1.16 we then have l = m, which gives a contradiction. Therefore the intersection point is unique.
 Because of this last theorem, we can speak of the intersection point of two intersecting lines. The following basic
assumption and Basic Assumption 1.17 guarantee the existence of parallel, non-coincident lines.
Basic Assumption 1.20. For every point P and every line m of the plane, there exists a unique line passing through P and parallel
to m.
It immediately follows from the definition of parallel that every line l is parallel to itself, l // l, and that if l // m, then m // l. The first
property expresses the reflexivity of the parallel relation, the second its symmetry. The following theorem asserts its transitivity.
Theorem 1.21. Given lines l, m, and n, If l // m and m // n, then l // n.
 Proof. We give a proof by contradiction. Suppose l is not parallel to n; then l and n have an intersection point P. By
assumption, both l and n are parallel to m. According to Basic Assumption 1.20 there is exactly one line through P that
is parallel to m. Consequently l = n. This contradicts the assumption that l is not parallel to n, which concludes the proof
of the theorem.
 The proofs given in Sect. 1.1 use congruence and similarity. In this phase of the setup of plane geometry we do not yet
have these notions at our disposal, since they will be studied only in the next chapter. Many of the properties needed at
that point follow from the Pythagorean Theorem and its converse. Those properties are implicitly present in the
following definition of perpendicular and the basic assumption concerning the existence of mutually perpendicular lines.
Definition 1.22. Let l and m be intersecting lines with common point C. We say that l is perpendicular to m if for every point A of l
and every point B of m we have d (C, A)2 + d(C,B)2 = d(A,B)2 ; we denote this by l ⊥ m.
 - Consider Fig. 1.15. It is immediately clear that the statements l ⊥ m and m ⊥ l are equivalent. If l ⊥ m, l is
said to be a perpendicular on m; we also say that l and m are perpendicular to each other. In a figure, we
sometimes show that l ⊥ m by placing a small square at their intersection point C. Definition 1.22 clearly
states that (1.5) must hold for all A on l and all B on m. Consequently, if we know that lines l and m are
perpendicular to each other, we can use this formula, which is in fact the Pythagorean Theorem. This will
simplify the introduction of coordinates; see Sect. 1.5. The existence of perpendicular lines is asserted in the
following basic assumption.
Basic Assumption 1.23. For every point P and every line m of the plane, there exists a line l through P that is perpendicular to m:
P ∈ l and l ⊥m.
This basic assumption states the existence, for every point P and every line m, of a perpendicular on m passing
through P. The following theorem implies the uniqueness of such a perpendicular for given P and m. We call the intersection
point of the perpendicular on m and the line m the foot of the perpendicular.
Theorem 1.24. If lines l and m are both perpendicular to a line n, then l // m. Through every point there is a unique perpendicular
onto n. Proof. See Fig. 1.16. Let P be the intersection point of l and n, and Q that of m and n. We distinguish two cases: P ≠ Q
and P = Q. Consider the first case: P = Q. Suppose that l and m meet at R. Then by Definition 1.22,
d(P,R)2 + d(P,Q)2 = d(Q,R)2 and d(Q,R)2 + d(Q,P)2 = d(P,R)2 .
 This implies that 2d (P,Q)2 = 0 and therefore P = Q, which contradicts the fact that P = Q. The assumption that l and m
intersect each other is therefore incorrect. We conclude that l // m. Now consider the second case: P = Q. Let S be
another point on n and let n⊥ be the perpendicular on n at S. By what we have just proved, l // n⊥ and m // n⊥. By
Theorem 1.21, this implies that l//m.
 Finally, let us prove the second statement of the theorem. Let l and m be perpendiculars onto n passing through R.
Then by the first statement of the theorem, l // m. Since R lies on both l and m, it follows from Basic Assumption 1.20
that l = m.

Theorem 1.25. If l//m and l ⊥ n, then m ⊥ n.

 We conclude this section with a number of definitions. A quadrilateral ABCD is a set consisting of four points A, B, C,
and D, the vertices of the quadrilateral, no three of which are collinear. The four line segments [AB], [BC], [CD], and
[DA] are the sides of the quadrilateral. The lines AB, BC, CD, and DA are called the sidelines of the quadrilateral. The
quadrilateral ABCD is called a parallelogram if AB//DC and AD//BC; if, moreover, two intersecting sidelines of a
parallelogram, for example AD and AB, are perpendicular to each other, we call the quadrilateral ABCD a rectangle.
The following theorem gives a number of properties of the rectangle; see Exercise 1.18 for a proof.
SAQ.2
Illustrate the following using the proofs and Theorems above.
1.16. Let M be a set consisting of more than one point, endowed with the discrete metric. For any two distinct points A
and B, we have [AB] = {A,B}, that is, the line segment [AB] consists of the two points A and B.
1.17. The proof of Theorem 1.25 can be divided up into the following steps. We use the notation of the theorem. (a) m
and n are intersecting lines. Call the intersection point Q. (b) the perpendicular n⊥ on n at Q is parallel to l. (c) n⊥ coincides with
m; hence m ⊥ n.

The Inner Product and Determinant (Source: https://slideplayer.com/slide/12583092/ )

As we saw in the last section, vectors can be very useful in studying geometric problems. Can coordinates also be
used to check whether lines are perpendicular to each other? They can, through the inner product.
Definition 1.30. The inner product of vectors x and y of R2 is given by (x, y) = x 1, y1 + x2 y2.
 The inner product is a real number and not a vector. Let us begin by stating a number of rules for computing the inner
product; these rules can easily be checked on the components. For any vectors a, b, and c and any real number(λ),

Theorem 1.31. Let l and m be lines in the coordinate plane, given by the parametric equations x = p + λa and x = q + μb,
respectively. The lines l and m are perpendicular to each other if and only if (a, b) = 0.
Proof. First note that if l // m, then (a,b) ≠ 0. Indeed, if l // m , a and b have the same span. Since a ≠ o ≠ b, we then have b = νa
for some ν ≠ 0, and therefore (a, b) = ν||a|| 2, which is nonzero. To prove the theorem, we first assume that l and m are
perpendicular to each other. In that case the lines intersect, say at the point r; see Fig. 1.25, on the right (the coordinate axes are
not drawn in this figure). The equations of l and m can be rewritten in the form x = r+ λ’a respectively x = r+ μ’b; indeed, l passes
through r and is parallel to the span of a, while m passes through r and is parallel to the span of b.

What does it mean for these equations if l and m are perpendicular to each other? Let us choose points d on l and e on m, both
distinct from r; then d = r+ λ0a and e = r+ μ0b for suitable nonzero λ0 and μ0. Computations show that
See Fig. 1.25 on the left. If l ⊥ m, we must have ρ(d, e)2 = ρ(r, d)2 +ρ(r, e)2. Consequently, (a, b) = 0. If, conversely, we know that
(a, b) = 0, then by the remark made at the beginning of the proof, the lines l and m intersect each other. It then follows from the
computation given above that l ⊥m.
- In Exercise1.28 of the last section we already mentioned that the altitudes of a triangle are concurrent, at a
point called the orthocenter of the triangle. We will now prove this using the inner product.
- Example 1.32 (Orthocenter). Given a triangle ABC, we draw the altitudes AD and BE. These altitudes
intersect at H; if AD were parallel to BE, then by Theorems 1.24 and 1.25, AC would be parallel to BC, which
is impossible. We choose the origin of the coordinate system at H; see Fig. 1.26.

- The axes are not drawn in the figure on the right. As usual, we denote the vector associated to A by a, and
so on. We obtain the following parametric equations:
- HA: x = λ1a , BC : x = b+ μ1(c−b)
- HB: x = λ2b, AC: x = a+ μ2 (c−a).
- Since HA⊥ BC and HB ⊥ AC, we have) a, c−b) = 0 and (b, c−a) = 0. Moreover, (a, c−b) – (b, c−a) =(a−b, c)
- So (a−b, c) = 0. This implies that HC is perpendicular to BA, that is, that HC is the altitude on AB. The three
altitudes therefore all pass through H.
Many other properties can easily be proved using vectors. The parallelogram law is a nice example of this.
 Example 1.33 (Parallelogram Law). If ABCD is a parallelogram, then d(A,C) 2 + d(B,D)2 = 2[ d(A,B)2 + d(B,C)2].
 In words: the sum of the squares of the two diagonals is equal to the sum of the squares of the four sides.
This is called the parallelogram law. To prove that the formula is correct, we choose the origin of the
coordinate system at A.


 We see that d(A, B) = ||b|| and d(A, D) = ||d||. Since ABCD is a parallelogram, we have d(B,C) = d(A,D) and
c = b + d. Moreover, d(B,D) = || d−b ||. Consequently,

 This proves the parallelogram law.

- The following theorem states two important inequalities that are closely related to the triangle inequality. The
first is again called the triangle inequality, the second is known as the Cauchy–Bunyakovski˘ı–Schwarz
inequality.
Theorem 1.34. The following inequalities hold for every x and y in R2:
1. ||x + y|| ≤ ||x|| + ||y||.
2. |(x, y)| ≤ ||x|| + ||y||.
Proof. Consider the points o, x, and x + y. The triangle inequality says that ρ(o,(x + y)) ≤ ρ(o, x) + ρ(x, (x + y)), that is, x + y ≤ x +
y.
  This proves the first inequality. By substituting −y for y we obtain ||x + y|| ≤ ||x|| + ||y||. Since ||x – y|| 2 = (x−y, x−y),
squaring this last inequality gives x2 −2(x, y) + y2 ≤ ||x||2 +2||x||, ||y|| + ||y||2, and therefore – (x, y) ≤ ||x|| ||y||
 Analogously we obtain (x, y) ≤ ||x|| ||y||. The Cauchy–Bunyakovski˘ ı–Schwarz inequality follows from this.

Digression 2. This seems like the right place to mention a common method for setting up plane geometry. First one introduces
the vector space R2. Then the norm and inner product are introduced in the same way as in the last section. Next one proves the
Cauchy–Bunyakovski˘ı–Schwarz inequality, for example as is done in Exercise 1.34, and the resulting triangle inequality
(compare this to Exercise 1.33). After this, lines are introduced, for example using parametric equations. As we have seen, the
notions of parallel and perpendicular can be introduced in terms of vectors. Finally, one can show that the basic assumptions
stated in Sect. 1.4 hold. Therefore, R2 has the structure needed to develop plane geometry.
The Distance from a Point to a Line
 We conclude this section with the computation of the distance from a point to a line. To determine the distance from a
point P to a line l, we drop the perpendicular m from P onto l. Let Q be the foot of m, that is the intersection

 point of l and m. Then, by definition, d(P,Q) is the distance from P to Q. By the definition of perpendicular, we easily
see that d(P,Q) <d (P,X) for every X on l other than Q. To determine the distance from P to l, we first rewrite the
equation of l in a special form. We start with the equation (1.7) of l in some coordinate system:

The line l is parallel to the span of a. By eliminating λ we obtain the following equation of l:
a 2 x 1−a1 x 2=a2 q1 −a1 q2
Setting b = b 1 b2 =a2−a1=¿ c=a2 q1−a1 q2 we can rewrite this equation in the formb 1 x 1−b2 x 2=c ,
(b, x) – c = 0
 The line l is therefore determined by an equation of degree one. We see that (b, a) = 0. Consequently, the span of b is
perpendicular to the span of a, hence also perpendicular to l. This proves the first statement of the following theorem.
Theorem 1.35. If the line l has equation (b, x) − c = 0 with c = (b, q), then l and the span of b are perpendicular to each other.
Moreover, the distance from a point p to l is equal to | (b, p) – c | / b.
 Proof. See Fig. 1.28. Draw the perpendicular m from P onto l and let Q be its foot. Since m is parallel to the span of b,
the vector p − q is a multiple of b, say p − q = λb. Then p = q + λb, and the distance from p to l is equal to the distance
from p to q, which is |λ| b. Since q lies on l, (b, q)−c = 0. We therefore have the distance from p to l.
Example 1.36 (Determinant). We can use the formula from the last theorem to find a formula for the area of the parallelogram
spanned by vectors a and b. First we take a vector c such that |c| = 1 and (b, c) = 0. This vector must equal either (b 2, − b1) / |b|
or (−b2, b1) / |b|. We choose the first possibility. Let l and m be the respective spans of b and c; see Fig. 1.29. The equation of l is
(c, x) = 0. According to Theorem 1.35, the distance from a to l, that is, the height of the parallelogram, is equal to |(c, a)|. The
area of the parallelogram is therefore b|(c, a)|. By the definition of c, we have

|b|(c, a) = (|b| c, a) = ((b2, −b1), (a1, a2)) = a1b2 –a2b1.

Consequently, the area is |a1b2 –a2b1|. The number a1b2 –a2b1is called the determinant of a and b and is written det(ab) = a1b2 –
a2b1
For more information about determinant click the link below:
  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ww_aQqWZhz8
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ip3X9LOh2dk

Answer to the Self-Assessment Questions

Self-Assessment Questions
SAQ1.
SAQ1.
Answer and illustrate the following problem. Show your solution.
3. A person has to walk 100 m to go from position X in the north of east direction to the position B and then to the
west of Y to reach finally at position Z. The position Z is situated at the north of X and at a distance of 60 m from
X. Find the distance between X and Y.
4. A ladder 13 m long is placed on the ground in such a way that it touches the top of a vertical wall 12 m high. Find
the distance of the foot of the ladder from the bottom of the wall.

SAQ2.
SAQ.2
Illustrate the following using the proofs and Theorems above.
1.16. Let M be a set consisting of more than one point, endowed with the discrete metric. For any two distinct points A and B, we
have [AB] = {A,B}, that is, the line segment [AB] consists of the two points A and B.
1.17. The proof of Theorem 1.25 can be divided up into the following steps. We use the notation of the theorem. (a) m and n are
intersecting lines. Call the intersection point Q. (b) the perpendicular n⊥ on n at Q is parallel to l. (c) n⊥ coincides with m; hence
m ⊥ n.

Concept Inventory
General Instructions
This inventory is designed to find out how well you understand the concepts presented in this module. Each item consist of one
or two-word concepts that are parts of this module.
This inventory is not a test. There are no right or wrong answers.
Makes sure that you understand all the directions before you begin.
Read each item carefully. Indicate on the answer sheet how well you think you understand each concept by using the numerical
system below
On the answer sheet, write:
5 – If you think you can understand the concept well enough to explain it clearly to someone.
4 – If you think you can understand the concept but not well enough to explain it clearly to someone.
3 – If you think you have a fair but not good understanding the concept means.
2 – If you think you are not sure what the concept means
1 – If you feel that you do not understand the concept at all.
Concept Inventory
Name of student: __________________________________________________
Name of school: ___________________________________________________
Address: ___________________________________________________________
____________________ 1. Pythagorean Theorem
____________________ 2. Other Proofs about Pythagorean Theorem
____________________ 3. Basic Assumptions
____________________ 4. Digressions
____________________ 6. Theorem
____________________ 7. Inner Products
____________________ 8. Distance between two points
____________________ 9. Determinants
Study Questions
Advance study and read about:
1. Transformations
2. The reflection in a line congruence
3. Angles measure orientation
References
 https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pythagoras)
 : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorean_theorem#Other_proofs_of_the_theorem
 J.M. Aarts 2008 (Plane and Solid Geometry)
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ww_aQqWZhz8
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ip3X9LOh2dk