THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN AFRICA

CIS 071: Introduction to Information Technology and Computing

Supplement Notes

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The Computer System
A computer is a device that works under the control of stored programs, automatically accepting
data from a user, performs arithmetic/ logical operations that manipulate or change the data and
finally produces information that is the result of that processing. It also stores the data and
instructions used in processing and also the information produced.

The processor
The processor is the collection of circuitry and registers that performs the processing. It is
divided into four areas
1. the Arithmetic and logical unit
2. the control unit
3. the main store or memory
4. The registers

The arithmetic and logic unit

Carry out arithmetic functions e.g. adding, multiplying, and logical functions such as
comparisons, branch operations (a branch instructions changes the order of program instructions
and movement of data).

The control Unit

It receives program instructions one at a time from the main store and decodes them. It then
sends out control signals to the peripheral devices.

The memory
The computers memory is also known as main store, internal store or immediate access storage.
The memory will hold the following.
1. Programs: The control unit acts on program instructions that are held in the store; these
program instructions include the operating system.
2. Some Input data: A small area of internal store is needed to take in temporarily data that
will be processed next.
3. A working area: The computer will need an area of store to hold data that is currently
being processed or is used for processing other data.
4. Some output data: The computer will need an area of store to hold temporarily the data
or information that is ready for output to an output device.

TYPES OF MEMORY

RAM (Random Access Memory)

This is the memory with the ability to access any location in the main memory in any order at the
same speed.
Features
 RAM is volatile meaning the contents of the memory are erased/lost when the computer
power source is switched off/power failure.
 Data can be read from and written to the part of the memory i.e. allow both reading as well
as writing

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 Data can be accessed or written on any location of this memory in any order with the same
speed.

Functions of RAM
i. Stores a copy of the main software programs that controls the general operation of
the computer temporarily.
ii. Stores a copy of application programs being used for problem solving.
iii. It’s a temporary storage area for input data and processed data.

Types of RAM
i. Static RAM
A type of RAM which retains its contents as long as power is maintained. SRAM is fast but
more expensive.

ii. Dynamic RAM

A type of RAM which needs to be refreshed (the contents of each location are re-written at an
interval not exceeding 2 milliseconds. DRAM is slow but less expensive.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

This is a memory chip into which fixed data is written permanently at the time of its
manufacture. New data cannot be written into the memory and so the data on the memory chip is
unchangeable and irremovable. It is a non-volatile memory meaning its contents do not disappear
when the computer power is switched off.

Function of ROM
1. It stores control programs that are necessary for the initial activation of the computer
hardware on power switch on e.g. computer start up program known as ‘bootstrap’
program is held in form of ROM (booting up means running this program: It involves
loading the programs on to the main memory RAM so that it can be used to control the
general operations of the computer).

Other categories of Non-volatile Memory (ROM)

1. Programmable ROM (PROM): They function in the same way as ROM but
data/programs are not pre-coded on the PROM chip. The users can write their own
programs.
2. Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM): Instructions can be erased using some
special devices and can also be re-written to
3. Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM): Changes are made
electrically under software control.

Cache memory
Small amount of very fast static RAM located between the processor and the main memory. Its
purpose is to hold a copy of frequently used data. It regulates the speed imbalance between the
faster processor and the slower memory.
Registers are high speed temporary storage of instructions and data elements

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Virtual Storage Concept
Virtual storage concept allows the use of secondary storage devices as an extension of primary
storage. The large program is partitioned into segment or pages. Portions of the program
(segments) are swapped between the secondary and primary storage devices as needed. This
gives the illusion of having maximum amount of primary storage.
Advantages
 It saves on the cost of acquiring the primary memory
 Enables the user to write large programs using limited memory.

Backing Storage (Auxiliary Storage)

Serves an important role in holding ‘maintained data’ i.e. data held by the computer so that it
can provide information to the user when required to do so. It’s a permanent storage media is
used to store and retrieve data and information as needed. It supplements expensive RAM
storage.
Secondary storage includes:
i. Magnetic disks
a. Floppy disks/diskettes: known as floppies because they are made from soft
pliable/bendable/elastic material. The surface of the material under the cover is
coated with magnetic materials (iron oxide).
b. Hard Disks; are made from rigid light alloy coded on both sides with a layer of
magnetic oxide. The disks rotates at a very high speed on the disk drives therefore
data transfer speed is greater. Data is stored on disk surface along concentric
tracks. Reading and writing is carried out by a Read/Write head

ii. Optical Disks

Optical data disks are rotating storage devices which use lasers to read and write data
from and to the disk. The information is stored on the disk by high intensity laser
beam which burns some pattern on the disk layer. Reading is carried by a lower
intensity laser beam which interprets/ reads the pattern. Examples include CD ROM.
Features
 Have very high storage capacity
 More difficult to damage
 Are read only; allows reading but not writing.
 Data on optical disks cannot be erased accidentally

iii. Universal Serial Bus drives

iv. Magnetic tapes

INPUT MEDIA
i. The keyboard
ii. The Mouse
iii. The Joystick: Joysticks are used primarily at workstations that can display
dynamic graphics. They are also used in playing video games. The joystick
moves and positions the cursor at the desired object on the screen with their
fingers.

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iv. Touch screens: A type of display screen that includes touch sensitive areas
/objects on-screen. Users make selection
v. The light pen: Is a special device with a light sensing mechanism which is used
to touch the screen. Pointing with a light pen is more accurate than touch
screens because you can point at very small objects.
vi. Voice input recognition: Computer software has been developed that can
convert speech into computer sensible form via a microphone.
vii. Magnetic stripe cards: Contains machine sensible data on a thin stripe of
magnetic recording tape stuck to the back of the card. The magnetic card reader
converts this information directly into computer sensible form. This is applied
on bank service cards ATMs, security cards or any other identification cards
that require quick input to be read by a reading device.

viii. Smart Cards: Is a plastic card in which is embedded a microprocessor

chip. A smart card would typically contain a memory and a processing
capability. The information held on smart cards can therefore be updated using a
PC and a special device.

ix. Magnetic ink Character Recognition (MICR): MICR is the recognition by a

machine of special formatted characters printed in magnetic ink. Using ink
which contains a metallic powder, highly stylized characters such as those as on
a cheque are encoded onto documents by means of special typewriters. The
document must be passed through a magnetic field before the characters can be
detected by a suitable reading device.
Advantages
 Accuracy
 Reliability
 Faster way of data capture
Applications
Used in data capture on documents as in a check

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CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
Criteria for hardware selection
The following factors need to be considered when choosing suitable computer hardware
Cost
The value of the hardware should match its costs (the benefits should exceed the cost)
Compatibility
The hardware selected should fit into the existing system with ease i.e. should fit into the existing
technology (hardware and software)
Documentation
There should be written manuals accompanying the hardware to illustrate the operational
procedures, installation procedures etc
Reliability
The hardware should be capable of performing the designated functions without failure should
be up running most of the time
Ease of use
The hardware should be simple to operate (should be user friendly)
User requirement/area of application
The user requirement will influence the type of hardware to be required
Power
The power of the computer must be sufficient for current and future requirements. This is
measured by the processor type e.g. whether its Pentium I, II, III, RAM in mb, clock speed MHZ
Vendor support
The vendor/the supplier must be in a position to an after sale service in an event of
failure/difficulty

Factors to consider when selecting software

a) Cost – the software should give good value for money (the benefits derived from each
application must exceed the cost of acquiring and maintaining it)

b) Portability – the software should be capable of running on a variety of computer platforms

c) Documentation – the software should be accompanied by written records that explains its
functionalities, the procedures of installing it and instructions on how to use it

d) User friendliness – the software should be simple to use (should have some online help
facilitator)

e) Compatibility - the software should easily fit/integrate into the existing system (technology
– hardware and software that is in use)

f) Reliability – the software must be capable of performing the designated functions without
failure

g) Vendor support – the supplier of the software must be willing to provide after sale service in
terms of training, upgrading the software and awaiting any other relevant documentation

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h) Flexibility – the software should give room for modification, amendments or any alterations
to take account of any changes in user requirements, technology etc (should be able to meet
both current and future requirements)

i) Security – the software must have inbuilt security features to handle any error or faults

j) User requirements

SOFTWARE
A software is a set of instructions that make a computer work or a program that runs the
computer hardware.
Software can be classified into:
 Systems software
 Application software
 Systems development tools (programming languages)

Systems software
Is a set of instructions designed to manage and support the computer resources (hardware and
application programs). The system software is used within the computer for organizing the
internal functioning of the computer.
NB: Systems software is designed for the computer
Application Software
Are a set of instructions/programs designed to help the users solve specific application problems.
Application software are designed for the user. Application software can be bought from the
market or developed in house depending on organizational needs.

Application software is normally used in the following areas

a) Banking industry for records maintenance and updating

b) Payroll processing system in an organization

c) Stock control systems

d) Word processing systems

e) Preparation of sales and purchases ledgers (accounting systems)

f) Application specific

Are those programs designed to be used in application specific environment/industry eg

accounting industry, publishing industry etc

General purpose
Are those programs that can be used in a wide environment e.g. in an office for word processing
Off-the-shelf vs bespoke/tailor made software
Circumstance under which off the shelf packages are suitable

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These are standardized ready-made packages/software that are bought from the market
When the programmes are not available in the organization
When the problem to be solved is of general nature (not unique)
When its cheaper to buy than to develop on in-house
When the problem at hand is urgent

Advantages
They are highly portable, most of them can run on a variety of computer machine or hardware
They are less error prone, they are developed by a team of experts, well tested and are likely to
be error free
They are cheap; are produced in mass and the cost of development can be shared by the
customers
They are readily available and takes less time to implement
Most of them are usually well documented

Limitations
 They are not tailor made and cannot solve very unique organizational problems/user
requirements
 There is problem of compatibility, assurance of compatibility is minimized. May force
the user to upgrade memory and change the type of operating system currently in use
 The user does not have the ownership rights and cannot modify the program
 They require regular start up training cost (users require occasional package is acquired)
 Some of them may have viruses
 Most of application packages become obsolete very fast.

Bespoke/tailor made software

These are tailor made programs developed by the user to help them solve specific very unique
problems. They are usually developed by the users programmers or hired programmers.
Circumstances under which bespoke software are suitable
When there is enough time and there is no urgency in the use of application program
When the user problem is unique and cannot be solved using standardized ready made package
When there is availability of programmers in the organization to develop the program
When there is need for assurance of compatibility
When its cheaper to develop one in house

Advantages
 They are tailor made and capable of solving very unique organizational problems
 Security very few people have access/knowledge of in-house package
 There is assurance of compatibility (the software can easily fit into the existing
hardware/operating system environment)
 The users can modify the program since they have ownership rights
 They may be virus free
 Doesn’t suffer from risk of obsolescence

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Limitations
 They are costly, the user has to meet all the expenses of programming, testing, installation
and maintenance individually
 Requires a lot of time to implement
 May not be well documented as compared to off the shelf
 They are not highly portable i.e. they may not run on a variety of computer machine
 They are likely to have errors

Systems software
System software can be divided into the following categories
Operating system
Utility programs
Translator programs

Operating systems
An operating system is an integrated collection of programs that mange the operation of the CPU
other peripheral devices and application software as efficiently as possible.
An operating system thus manages the computer system to enhance optimum utilization and
efficiency

Functions of the operating system

Memory management
An operating system organizes memory for respective use i.e. it allocates and de-allocates
memory locations for processes, cleans up data which is not needed in the memory and defines
the damaged memory locations

File management
These refer to the management of structure in which data is sorted. It facilitates file creation,
deletion, naming etc
Job scheduling the operating system queues up jobs to be loaded into the memory, determines
which job to be run first and also swap out jobs out of memory

Enhances system security

An operating system enables the user to use passwords. Secret code or name given to the user
which the computer recognizes to identify the legitimate user. Passwords denies unauthorized
access to the computer system. Operating system will also identify and report systems errors e.g.
hardware fault or malfunction, syntax errors use of inappropriate programming language

Logging and accounting

The operating system keeps a record of all users logged into the system, processes that are
running, the number of files that are open etc
It indicates the memory space that is used and the available memory space
Operating system communication link between the user and the computer
Operating system interfaces the user with the computer system

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Peripheral control
Operating system facilitates the transfer of data between input and output devices to and from the
CPU
Examples of operating system
Microsoft – disk operating systems (ms dos, Windows, NT, 95, 98, 2000, XP, Vista
etc
Unix
Linux
Operating system 2

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 DATA AND INFORMATION
The terms ‘data’ and ‘information’ are commonly used interchangeably but they can be
distinguished from each other.

Data is defined as the raw material for data processing and relates to facts, events and
transactions.
Data can be classifies as:

 quantitative ;
 qualitative ;
 discreet ;
 continuous;
 primary;
 secondary ;

Quantitative data is that capable of being measured numerically, e.g. the standard labour hours
required to produce a unit of output.

Qualitative data is that not capable of being measured numerically and may reflect distinguishing
characteristics; e.g. the grade of labour used to produce the unit of output.

Data is said to be discrete when it can only take on specific fixed values, e.g. the actual number
of vehicles through a car wash per day could be 35 but not 35.3. Whereas continuous data takes
any numerical value and we could, in an eight-hour day, measure the throughput of cars as 4.375
per hour i.e. 35 cars/8 hours.

Data needs to be collected and summarised to the form required by the user.

Primary data is collected for a particular enquiry, for example by observation, the employees
who would be observed performing a ‘value adding’ activity when establishing a standard time
for the activity.

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Data collected by a trade association from a number of firms and comprising trade association
statistics would become secondary data when used by a firm in the sector making an enquiry of
its own.

WHAT THEN IS THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN DATA AND INFORMATION

Information is defined as ‘data that has been processed in such a way that it is meaningful to the
end user’.

Within organizations information is defined as hierarchy. This is shown in Figure 1.

Information is classed as:

 Strategic – that information relating to the longer term planning strategic focus of the
business.
 Tactical – tat used in short term planning and decision making within an organisation.
 Operational – that relevant o day-to-day decision making.
 From bottom up, the following example refers to capital equipment utilization;
 Operational information would include current weeks report for a cost center on the
capacity of the plant utilized in the period. Such a measure may include:

Actual machine hours x 100

Budgeted machine hours 1

i.e. the percentage capacity utilized.

Tactical information could include short-term budget for 12 months and would show the
budgeted machine utilization in terms of machine hours for each plant. The total machine hours
being predetermined from the production budget for the period.

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Strategic information would relate to the longer-term strategy on the company’s market share,
which in turn informs the production plan. This plan would be used to predetermine the level of
investment required in capital equipment in the longer term. This process which ‘compels
planning’ would lead to investigating new methods for the technology.

ATTRIBUTES OF INFORMATION
Quality information is that, which when used, ‘adds value’. Research suggests that information
should possess numerous attributes, which include:

 relevant for its purpose;

 complete enough for the issue in question;
 accurate for the purpose;
 from a reputable source;
 communicated to the right person;
 timely in communication;
 communicated to an appropriate channel;
 the value should be manageable;
 must be understandable by the end user;
 must be cost effective.

The attributes which ‘add value’ and together underpin quality of information are examined
further below.

RELEVANT PURPOSE
Information should always be relevant to the issue of being considered. It is often the case that
memos, reports and schedules contain irrelevant sections, which can have adverse effect on the
understanding of the issue by the user.

COMPLETENESS

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It is desirable that all information required for decision-making is made available. There must be
close co-operation between the information provider and the end user. Therefore, all factors
influencing decision-making should be included.

ACCURATE FOR THE PURPOSE

Managers rely on information to effectively manage their ‘value adding’ activities. For example,
to satisfy the VAT regulations, a VAT invoice must be accurate to the nearest penny. However,
the aged debtors list would contain rounding to the nearest £.

REPUTABLE SOURCE
For information to be used effectively by the managers, the users must have confidence in its
source.

This would be supported by the fact that the source was reliable in the past and there is a good
and clear channel of communication between the provider and the user of the information.

Strategic

Tactical

Operational

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COMMUNICATED TO THE RIGHT PERSON
Where responsibility accounting is used in practice, managers have a clear and defined level of
responsibility and must achieve their predetermined objectives.

Managers should therefore receive information to carry out their defined tasks. Such information
should be communicated to the right person at the right time within the organisation.

TIMELY
For effective decisions to be taken, information needs to be reported to management on a timely
basis.

For example, a budgetary control or standard costing report containing adverse variances would
need to be timely for managers to take immediate corrective action. Likewise, if a favourable
position was reported ‘late’, the reward and recognition to employees ma be delayed and effect
morale.

COMMUNICATED IN AN APPROPRIATE CHANNEL

For a manager to use the information effectively it must be transmitted in the communication
process. The process takes many forms and the channel selected must take account of nature,
purpose, speed and requirement of the user.

VOLUME
The detail and volume of the information communicated should be consistent with the need of
the user.

The information should focus clearly on the issue and main points highlighted and not ‘clouded’
by superfluous and excessive volume.

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UNDERSTANDABLE
Managers can only use information to good effect if they understand its purpose.

The level and skill of the manager is important here. Managers need to continually update their
skills and therefore, Continuing Professional Development (CPD) is important. For example, for
managers to fully understand their role in a responsibility accounting environment and to
interpret the management accounting reports they need training.

‘Training aids understanding’

The provider also needs to choose the style and language appropriate to the user.

COST EFFECTIVE
The costs of providing information must not outweigh the ‘value added’ benefits derived from its
use.

An understanding of the underpinning knowledge, principles and concepts outlined above are all
relevant to your development as trainee accounting technicians – the providers of information for
the effective financial management business.

Dr Phillip E Dunn, Esk Valley Business School

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DATA COMMUNICATION & COMPUTER NETWORKS
What is a network?
A network is simply an interconnection of computers. The computers are interconnected by
means of special network cable, which contains buses for the transfer of information from one
computer to another. Connecting computers into a network allows you to send messages from
one computer to the other. In addition, it allows you to share the resources of your computer with
other users who need to use those resources. These resources can be files, folders, printers,
backing storage devices (including CD-ROMs), etc.

Benefits of Networks
Networks have various benefits:
 They allow you to access data that is stored in one central location from several different
sites.
 They allow you to share files and folders through several computers.
 They minimize costs spent on hardware resources since they allow you to utilize printers,
CD-ROMs, programs, etc from one location.
 They provide a quick means of sending messages in the form of electronic mail to
different people.
 They provide for quick distribution of information worldwide, especially through use of
the Internet.

Types of Networks
A network is made up of interconnected computers. There are various kinds of networks, the
most common being the Local Area Network and Wide Area Network. A Local Area Network
(LAN) is an interconnection of computers situated at the same geographical location and
connected by a common cable so they can exchange information. These computers are connected
by means of network cable and are normally within a one-mile radius of each other.

A Wide Area Network (WAN) is an interconnection of computers that are more than one mile
apart. To allow for transmission of data from one computer to another, network cables alone are
not enough. They are impractical and also inadequate because data being transmitted over
network cable for long distances can easily be lost due to energy dissipation (wastage). For such
networks therefore, each far-off computer must be equipped with a modem (MOdulator-
DEModulator). The modem converts the computer digital signals into an analogue (wave-like)
form. The signals are then sent like radio signals to the receiving computer. The receiving
computer must also have a modem to re-convert the analogue signals back to digital format.

Network Protocols
Protocols are the agreed upon ways(rules) in which computers exchange information. A
computer needs to know exactly how messages will arrive from the network so that it can make
sure the message gets to the right place. It needs to know how the network expects the message
to be structured so that the network can convey the data to its destination.

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How Protocols work

A protocol defines a set of steps that both parties (computers) must perform in the right order to
ensure that they communicate. The first computer must perform the following steps:
 Break the data into small sections called packets.
 Add addressing information to the packets identifying the destination computer.
 Transmit the data over the network.

The receiving computer must in turn carry out the following steps to correctly receive and
interpret the message.
 Accept the data from the network.
 Remove the transmitting information that was added by the transmitting computer
 Reassemble the packets of data into the original message.

Each computer needs to perform the same steps the same way so that the data will arrive and
reassemble properly. If one computer uses a protocol with a different set of steps then the two
computers will not be able to communicate with each other. Example of protocol is TCP/IP: Is a
protocol for use in the internet. It can also be used as a communications protocol in a private
network (either an intranet or an extranet

Network Topologies
A topology is the geographical layout of the computers and their cable connections. There are
three main network topologies: star, ring and bus.

Star Topology
A star network is one in which all wiring is done from a central point (the server or hub or
concentrator) and whose cables form a star topology. Signals are transmitted from the sending
computer through the hub to all the computers on the network. In this topology, the failure of one
computer will not affect the entire network. Has the greatest cable lengths of any topology (and
thus uses the most amount of cable).

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Advantages
 Easy to add new workstations
 Centralized control
 Centralized network/hub monitoring

Disadvantages
 Hub failure cripples all workstations connected to that hub
 Hubs are slightly more expensive than thin-Ethernet of bus network

Bus Network
 In bus networks, the computers can be disconnected from the network without affecting
the network.
 In a bus topology, computers are connected to a single cable segment called a trunk (also
called backbone or segment) that connects all the computers in the network in a single-
line.
 Only one computer at a time can send data.
 The signal is sent to the entire network and travels from one end of the cable to the other.

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Advantages
 Easy to implement
 Low Cost

Disadvantages
 Limits on cable length and Workstation numbers
 Difficult to isolate network faults
 Main cable fault affects all workstations
 As the number of workstations increase, the speed of the network slows down

Ring Network
A ring network is one in which the cables inter-connect the computers into the form of a circle of
cable. Messages are transmitted from computer to computer, flowing in a single direction
through a closed loop. Each computer operates independently so that if one fails, communication
through the network is not interrupted.

Features (Ring Network)

 The token is a signal that passes around the ring
 Workstations/computers connect to the ring & can communicate to each other.
 Ring network transmits data by token passing. Data are passed along the ring from one
computer to another and always flow in one direction.
 Faulty workstations can be bypassed
 more cabling required than bus
 the connectors used tend to cause a lot of problems

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Advantages
 Cable failures affect limited users
 Equal access for all users
 Each workstation has full access speed to the ring
 As workstation numbers increase performance diminishes slightly

Disadvantages
 Costly Wiring
 Difficult Connections
 Expensive to set up.

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