EXPERIMENT NO.

1
RESISTORS AND OHM'S LAW
Objective:
➢ To determine the value of a section of resistors using three different
methods:
a. Using the colour code (to give the nominal value)
b. Using digital Ohmmeter
c. Using Ohm’s law
➢ To determine the effect of increased power dissipation on carbon resistor
➢ To recognize how to measure a current in a circuit
➢ To be familiar with how to measure voltage using voltmeter

Apparatus (Equipment):
✓ DC power supply
✓ Digital mustimeter
✓ Resistors 330Ω, 1.5KΩ, 10KΩ
✓ Wire

Theory:
1.The current through a conductor between two places is precisely proportional
to the potential difference across its ends, according to Ohm's Law.

➢ The equation for the law is V = IR, where V is the potential difference, I
is the current, and R is the conductor resistance.
2. Given any resistor its resistance can be found by one of the three methods
a. Using colour code (Nominal value)
b. Direct measurement using Ohmmeter
c. Using Ohm’s law
Colour codes are frequently used to denote resistor values. Practically all leaded
resistors up to one watt in power are colour-band labelled. Several bands
provide the colour coding. Together, they define the tolerance, the resistance
value, and occasionally the dependability or failure rate. There are somewhere
between three and six bands. Two bands, at the very least, represent the
resistance value, and one band acts as a multiplier. The resistance levels, also
known as preferred values, are standardized.

3. The product of voltage across the resistor and current through the resistor
gives power P.
P= VI= I2 R= V2 /R
Heat is produced as a result of the power the resistor has absorbed. Power rating
is determined by the sum. Power dissipation that exceeds the power rating
might physically harm the resistor.
Due to excessive power loss, the resistor heats up and changes in resistance.
Depending on the temperature coefficient, it will either increase or decrease. As
the temperature rises, a carbon resistance is predicted to decline.
The straight-line relationship between V and I will be broken for resistance that
is operated above the power rating.
Procedure:
Resistors Bands
First Second Multiplier Tolerance
1 Yellow Violet Red Gold
2 Brown Black Yellow Gold
3 Brown Red Red Gold

1. First, we used the colour bands of each resistor to determine the nominal
values of the given resistors and recorded the nominal value data accordingly:

Lower value = R nominal – (R nominal ×T)

Upper value = R nominal + (R nominal ×T), where T is tolerance percentage
 Bands and their Significant digit Theoretical Values
(Nominal)
First Second Multiplier Tolerance Lower Value Upper Value
Resistors
1 4 7 100 ±5% 4465Ω 4935Ω
2 1 0 10,000 ±5% 95000Ω 105000Ω
3 1 2 100 5% 1140Ω 1260Ω

2. The actual values were then recorded. We measured the resistance of the
resistors using an Ohmmeter in order to record the real values, and we did so as
follow:
Bands and their Significant digit Measured
Resistors values
First Second Multiplier Tolerance
1 4 7 100 ±5% 4.63k Ω
2 1 0 10,000 ±5% 97.93k Ω
3 1 2 100 ±% 1.18 k Ω

3. After measuring the values of each resistor, we compared the measured

values to the nominal values to make sure they were within the acceptable
range. We then compared the measured values again to determine the highest
percent deviation from nominal value, and we recorded the following
information:
𝑅 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 – 𝑅 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100%
𝑅 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙

Resistors Bands and their Significant digit Measured Nominal %

values values Deviation
First Second Multiplier Tolerance
1 4 7 100 ±5% 4.63k Ω 4.7k Ω -1.49
2 1 0 10,00 ±5% 97.93k Ω 100k Ω -2.07
3 1 2 100 ±5% 1.18 k Ω 1.2k Ω -1.67

4. After computing percent deviation and analysing the results, we discovered

that there is little difference between measured and nominal values, and that
measured values are lower than nominal values.
5. After determining the resistance of each resistor, we measured the voltage
and current in a straightforward circuit that includes an ammeter, a 330-ohm
resistor, and a voltage source. The straightforward circuit was as follows:
 Figure 2
6. Making the right connections was the initial step in this experiment, and we
followed the procedure shown in fig. 2 and then we began supplying a
measured value of potential from the voltage supplier and measuring resistance
and current in the circuit. We repeated the measurement by increasing the volt
supplied and recorded the data. In the table below, we compare the theoretical
values with the real values after recording the values and creating a theoretical
value table to compute the current (I) from the resistor's resistance, which was
100 Ω:
Voltage(V) Current(I) Resistance(R) Power(P)
Measured Theoretical Measured Theoretical Measured Theoretical Measured Theoretical
6.01 6 0.055 0.06 109.3 100 Ω 0.33 0.36
7.02 7 0.067 0.07 104.7 100 Ω 0.47 0.49
9.12 9 0.085 0.09 107.3 100 Ω 0.77 0.81
15.06 15 0.146 0.15 103.2 100 Ω 2.2 2.25
➢ 7. Following the value comparison, the following analysis was
performed on the table above:
VOLTAGE(V) CURRENT RESISTANCE(R) POWER(P)
Relative Error Relative Error Relative Error Relative Error
(%) (%) (%) (%)
0.01 0.005 9.3 0.03
0.02 0.003 4.7 0.02
0.12 0.005 7.3 0.04
0.6 0.04 3.2 0.05

The differences between the measured voltage, current, resistance, and power
levels and the theoretical values for each data point are represented by these
absolute and relative errors. Relative errors describe these discrepancies as a
percentage of the theoretical values, allowing you to judge the relative accuracy
of your measurements. Absolute errors give you an idea of how far the
measurements deviate from the theoretical values.
Discussion:
The main goals of our experiment were to fully comprehend how resistor values
are determined and to employ Ohm's law in real-world situations. Here is a
thorough explanation of each experiment component:
Determine the value of the resistor: In order to visually distinguish resistor
values, we started by using the resistor colour coding. The resistors' nominal
values were indicated by the colour code, and we were able to verify them by
further Ohmmeter readings. The correctness and dependability of the color code
and our measuring technique were confirmed by our data, which showed a very
modest percent deviation from the nominal values, often less than 1 percent.
These results show the usefulness of the colour code as a rapid and accurate
approach for resistor value determination.
 Conclusion:
As a result, we discovered that using the resistor colour coding was a crucial
step in precisely identifying each resistor's value. The data in the table plainly
reveals that, as our experiment showed, all of the resistors we chose easily fell
within the tolerance range indicated by the colour code. Our measurements
repeatedly showed little absolute and relative errors, confirming the accuracy of
both our experimental design and measurement methods.
It's also important to point out that the values we discovered using a digital
musltimeter matched the outcomes of our hand calculations made using the
colour code exactly. This highlights the consistency and correctness of our
methodology as well as the dependability and precision of the colour code
system for identifying resistor values.
EXPIRMENT 2: Kirchhoff’s Laws

Objective:
To verify Kirchhoff’s Voltage and Current Laws experimentally.
Apparatus:
➢ DC power supply
➢ Digital multimeter
➢ Resistors 330Ω, 100Ω, 220Ω
➢ Wire
Theory:
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) states that all voltages entering and leaving a
node must have an algebraic sum of zero.
Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) states that all currents entering and leaving a
node must have an algebraic sum of zero.
Series Connections: When components are linked in series, they share the same
"electrical channel" and experience the same electric current, which is the same
as the network's current. The total of the voltages across each component makes
up the voltage throughout the network.
Parallel connections: are electrical paths that branch, dividing the current such
that only a portion of it passes through each branch. In a parallel circuit, the
voltage, or potential difference, between each branch is the same, but the
currents differ.
Voltage divider rule:
V1= Vs (R1/ (R1 + R2 + R3))
Current divider rule:
I2= I1 (R2 + R4 / (R2 + R3 + R4))
Procedure:
First, we linked the sets of four resistors that were provided to us with the
voltage source as indicated below:
2. We measured the actual values of the resistors and we were left with the
following data: And the actual value of voltage was 15.23 v
Resistor R1 R2 R3 R4
Nominal 220 470 330 330
Value(ohm)
Ohmmeter 217.36 473.4 332.35 327.67
Reading

We started measuring voltage and current across each resistor by supplying 15

volts from the voltage source after connecting the device as illustrated, and we
recorded the values and we analysed KVL and KCL for loop EACBE and loop
ACBA and confirmed that Kirchhoff’s law applies for our circuit.

Voltages:
Voltage VAB VCB VBE VAC VEA
Theory 4.50 3.2 12.34 4.5 3.98
Experiment 4.83 3.034 12.53 4.5874 4.151
% Error 7.33% 5.18% 1.59% 1.94% 4.29%

Current:
Current I1 I2 I3 I4 I5
Theory 0.033 0.009660 0.023410 0.009660 0.033070
Experiment 0.032 0.008 0.022 0.008 0.031
%Error 3.125% 17.18% 6.02% 17.18% 6.25%
 Discussion:
In order to experimentally validate Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) and
Kirchhoff's Current Law, we carried out this experiment (KCL).
Comprehension and evaluating electrical circuits require a thorough
understanding of these fundamental laws.
Establishing Kirchhoff's Laws: As per the provided circuit schematic, we first
connected a circuit with resistors and a voltage source. We evaluated the
suitability of KVL and KCL for our circuit by measuring the voltage and
current across each resistor. Kirchhoff's laws applied to the circuit under
inquiry, according to our observations. These basic principles of electrical
circuit analysis are so significantly verified by this.
Analysis of Percentage Errors: We computed the theoretical resistance,
voltage, and current values for each resistor based on the applied voltage in
order to further assess our findings. We were able to evaluate the precision of
our measurements by contrasting these theoretical values with our measured
values. The percentage errors that resulted gave information on how far our
experimental data deviated from the theoretical values.
 Conclusion:
In conclusion, our experiment effectively proved the practical application of
Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) in actual
circuits, as well as their successful verification. We were able to learn a lot
about the precision of our data and the validity of Kirchhoff's principles in
describing electrical processes through careful observations and analysis.
 References:
Smith, J. (2023). "Experimental Investigation of Ohm's Law, Kirchhoff's Laws,
and Their Applications in Circuit Analysis." Journal of Electrical Engineering,
vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 123-137.
Johnson, A. (2022). "Understanding Ohm's Law: A Comprehensive Analysis."
Electric Circuits Review, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 45-58.
Brown, M., & Wilson, L. (2021). "Kirchhoff's Current Law: Practical
Applications in Circuit Design." Proceedings of the International Conference on
Electrical Engineering, pp. 256-263.
Chen, S., & Lee, T. (2020). "Kirchhoff's Voltage Law and Its Verification in
Complex Networks." IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems, vol. 15, no. 4,
pp. 789-802.