PEOPLE AND EARTH’S ECOSYSTEMS

Week 2 – 3

ECOLOGY
 It is the scientific study of interactions among organisms and between organisms and their
environment or surroundings (Realuyo & Martinez, 2015)
 According to German biologist Ernst Haeckel, ecology comes from the Greek word “oikos”
meaning “house or household” and “logos” meaning “the study of”
 Defined as science or study of the environment, a branch of biology that deals with the
relationships of organisms with each other and the environment.
 The scope of ecology varies, ranging from the study of the individual organism to populations,
communities, ecosystems, biomes, and the entire biosphere.
 Scientists who study ecology are called ecologists who are interested in how interactions affect
the distribution and abundance of organism.
 Ecologists are trying to predict how communities will change through time and to understand
what factors influence community properties such as species number, abundance of
individuals, and species interaction.
 In the concept of ecology, natural and man-made disasters are part of it since it result in
changes in the environment.
THE BIOSPHERE
 Contains the combined portions of the earth in which all life exists, including land, water, and
atmosphere. (Realuyo, 2006)
 made up of the parts of the Earth where life exists. (nationalgeographic.org)
THREE TYPES OF THE EARTH’S SPHERES
 Lithosphere – solid layer of the Earth
 Atmosphere – a layer of air on the Earth that stretches above the lithosphere.
 Hydrosphere – refers to the Earth’s water surface on the surface, on the ground and on air.
BIOMES
 Are major communities of organisms that have a characteristic appearance that is distributed
over a wide land area defined largely by regional variations in climate (Raven, J., n.d.)
 Divisions of the biosphere (classzone.com)
 It is a major type of ecosystem with its own temperature, ranges, rainfall and different types of
organisms.
THE ECOLOGICAL LEVELS
The ecological levels are described from smallest to largest organism.

TERMS TO REMEMBER!
 Species-level – A group of organisms so similar to one another that they can breed and
produce offspring.
 Population – or groups of species living in the same area
 Community – groups of different populations that live together in a defined area
 Ecosystem – the interaction of living organisms and non-living that live in a particular place
 Biome –a group of ecosystems that have the same climate and dominant communities. These
are widespread terrestrial ecosystems.
 Biosphere – it is the highest level of organization
ECOSYSTEMS
 Comes from two Greek words: “oikos” meaning home and “systema” means the system
 Is a community of biological organisms plus the non-living components with which the
organisms interact. This is also called biocenosis.
 Is a geographic area where plants, animals, and other organisms, as well as weather and
landscapes, work together to form a bubble of life.
 Is the environment of life. It is a self-sustaining, structural, and functional unit of the biosphere.
 Can be natural or artificial, land-based or water-based (e.g. forest, pond, aquarium, etc.)
 Fundamental unit of nature
 Different ecosystems are often separated by geographical barriers, like deserts, mountains, or
oceans, or are isolated otherwise, like lakes or rivers.
 As these borders are never rigid, ecosystems tend to blend into each other. As a result, the
whole earth can be seen as a single ecosystem, or a lake can be divided into several
ecosystems, depending on the scale.
 The ecosystem is an open system. It receives energy from an outside source (the sun), as
input, fixes and utilities the energy, and ultimately dissipates the heat into space as output.
 An ecosystem has a physical environment, or factors, biological components, and interactions
between them.
 Any ecosystem is characterized by a set of abiotic and biotic factors, and functions.
 Within an ecosystem, all living things have a habitat or the physical area in which they live.
 The habitat of an organism may include many different areas. For Example, a mouse can be
seen in a field, garden or even in a house.
 Animals that migrate will have different habitats during different seasons. Some birds that live
in a place during summer spend the winter in some other place.

STRUCTURE AND COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM

 The structure of ecosystem is made up of
two components known as biotic and abiotic.
 The organism interacts with both components.
 The energy is distributed in the environment.
 COMPONENTS OF THE ECOSYSTEM
BIOTIC ABIOTIC
 Are all living creatures in the ecosystem  Involves all non-living things present in the
such as plants, animals, microorganisms, environment.
and aquatic plants

 These biotic components are classified as  It includes sun, soil, water, minerals,
producers, consumers, and decomposers climate, rocks, temperature and humidity.
 The components mentioned function
together to enable the ecosystem to work
for energy and nutrition cycles.
 SUN’S RAYS – primary source of energy
 The ecosystem’s temperature changes
have an impact on the types of plants that
may flourish there.

FUNCTION OF ECOSYSTEM
 The ecosystem’s function is to maintain its various parts working together. It is a natural
process of transfer of energy in different biotic and abiotic elements of the world.
 Ecosystems maintain all the important ecological processes, including nutrient cycling.
 Ecosystems have different functional units which are production, decomposition, energy flow,
and nutrient cycling
 Food chains
 Development and evolution

FUNCTIONAL UNITS OF THE ECOSYSTEM

 PRODUCTION - Any ecosystem must have a consistent supply of solar energy to survive and
function. Primary production is influenced by the types of plants that live there. Green leaves
act as food preparators, while roots draw nutrients from the soil. Herbivores consume the
plants, which then provide food for carnivores.
 DECOMPOSITION – It is the breakdown of complex organic matter by decomposers into
inorganic components such as carbon dioxide, water, and nutrients. The decomposers
break down garbage and dead organic material. The primary decomposers in many
ecosystems are fungi and bacteria.
 ENERGY FLOW - Radiant energy from the sun is the primary source of energy in all
ecosystems. The ecosystem’s autotrophic, or self-sustaining creatures utilize the energy of
the sun. Plants use the sun’s energy to change carbon dioxide and water into simple,
energizing carbohydrates. The more complex chemical substances, like proteins, lipids, and
starches are produced by autotrophs.
 Energy goes unidirectional from the sun to producers, herbivores, and carnivores.
Decomposers convert the dead autotrophs and heterotrophs into nutrients, which are energy
sources for plants.

 NUTRIENT CYCLING - Chemical substances known as nutrients are substances that
organisms need for growth and the maintenance of life. A vast range of chemical compounds
is created when bio-elements interact. The organisms catch them, concentrate and combine
them in different ways in their cells, and release them during metabolism and death.
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystems can be small or large and can be classified into two types:
1. Terrestrial Ecosystem
2. Aquatic Ecosystem

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
 This includes oceans, rivers, seas, lakes, springs, and other water bodies that are part of the
aquatic biomes.
 Two-thirds of the earth’s surface is made up of aquatic domains.
 The aquatic ecosystem includes plants, fishes, amphibians, coral reefs, huge sea creatures,
and insects.
An aquatic ecosystem is divided into 2 types:
 Freshwater Ecosystem
 Aquatic Ecosystem

FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEM
 Freshwater ecosystems have low salinity levels providing a good environment for a variety of
plants and animals.
 The sizes of freshwater resources range from small ponds to very large rivers.
 Freshwater resources vary from one another in terms of how they travel.
 While some freshwater bodies are constantly moving, like rivers, others remain still, like ponds.
MARINE ECOSYSTEM
 Marine ecosystem has high levels of dissolved salt
 It comprises the deep ocean, the open ocean, and the coastal marine ecosystems. Each of
these has unique biological and physical properties.
 The ecosystem’s exposure to the sun, the amount of oxygen and nutrients that are dissolved in
the water, the distance from land, the depth, and the temperature are all significant abiotic
factors.
BRACKISH WATER ECOSYSTEM
 Brackish water occurs when the fresh water from the river or lake meets the salty water of the
sea.
 Examples of brackish waters are estuaries, lagoons, marshes
TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM
A terrestrial ecosystem refers to an ecosystem of diverse land surfaces.
1. Forest
2. Grasslands
3. Tundra
4. Deserts
 These terrestrial ecosystems are climate-dependent.
 Other types of terrestrial ecosystems include rainforests, savannas, temperate deciduous
forests, and taiga.
FOREST ECOSYSTEM
 A forest ecosystem is a term used to describe a region that is covered in trees, creating
several canopy layers.
 A variety of animal species live in dense tree covers and tropical rainforests. Forests are home
to about 300 million different plant and animal species.
 A forest is a type of ecosystem that includes tropical rainforests, plantation forests, and
temperate deciduous forests.
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
 It has a dry environment that permits relatively little vegetation.
 Primarily, different species of grasses, are what define the grassland ecosystem.
 In this environment, grass and herbs predominate. The ecosystem of grasslands is significant
to the animal kingdom.
 It is one of the most widespread of all major vegetation in the world. They occupy about 20% of
the land on the surface of the earth.
 Grasslands are found in both tropical and temperate regions where rainfall is not enough to
support the growth of trees. They are also found in areas consisting of well-defined hot, dry,
warm, and rainy seasons.
TUNDRA
 Tundra has extreme environmental conditions like that of the polar region.
 The location is typically windy, blanketed in snow, and devoid of trees. Its environment is
constantly covered in absolutely frozen dirt. Small ponds are formed when the snow melts.
Some lichens can flourish in such ponds.
DESERTS
 Deserts are unproductive land surfaces with extreme temperature swings and inadequately
maintained species.
 One of the driest land regions on the globe. A desert receives an extremely small amount of
rainfall. Because of this, there is less vegetation.
 The desert ecosystem’s plants and animals have learned the skill of surviving extreme
environments.
SAVANNA
 Tropical grassland with scattered trees, seasonal rainfall (e.g. Africa, South America, Australia)
 It is the transition between tropical rainforest and desert.

TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FORESTS

 Temperate deciduous forests are most notable because they go through four seasons: Winter,
Spring, Summer, and Fall. Leaves change color (or senesce) in autumn, fall off in the winter,
and grow back in the spring; this adaptation allows plants to survive cold winters.
 The average daily temperatures range between -30°C (-22°F) and 30°C (86°F) with a yearly
average of 10°C (50°F). Hot summers and cold winters are typical in this biome.
 Many different kinds of trees, shrubs, and herbs grow in deciduous forests such as oak, maple,
beech, hickory, and chestnut. There are also several different kinds of plants like mountain
laurels, azaleas, and mosses that live on the shady forest floor where only small amounts of
sunlight get through.
 Located in the Eastern United States, Canada, Europe, China, and Japan
TAIGA
 Taiga is also known as the boreal (meaning northern) forest region occupies about 17% of
Earth’s land surface in the circumpolar belt of the far Northern Hemisphere.
 It is characterized predominantly by a limited number of conifer species (e.g. pine, spruce,
larch, fir, and to a lesser degree by some deciduous genera such as birch, and poplar. These
trees reach the highest latitudes of any trees on Earth.
 Plants and animals are adapted to short growing seasons of long days that vary from cool to
warm. Winters are long and very cold, the days are short, and a persistent snowpack is known.
 The soil beneath the taiga often contains permafrost—a layer of permanently frozen soil
 Permafrost is soil or earth material that remains below 0 °C (32 °F) for at least two years. The
surface, or active, layer of permafrost thaws in the warm season and freezes in the winter, but
the soil below the active layer remains continuously frozen. Because the plant rooting zone is
restricted to the active layer, nutrient supply is limited and secure anchoring for roots is lacking.
  Some trees and other plants of the taiga (especially black spruce [Picea mariana] and
tamarack [Larix laricina] in North America and larches in Siberia) can grow on permafrost if
the active layer is sufficiently deep, but several species are eliminated from permafrost.
TERMS TO REMEMBER
 FOOD CHAIN – is a linear sequence of organism through which energy pass as one organism
eats another.
 FOOD WEB – consists of many interconnected food chains and is a more realistic
representation of consumption relationships in an ecosystem.
 AUTOTROPHS – also known as PRODUCERS, who make their own organic molecules
(nutrients and energy)
 HETEROTROPHS – or CONSUMERS, who get organic molecules by eating other organisms.
 TROPHIC LEVEL – is the level of an organism in the food chain which describes the level of
energy transfers that separate it from the basic input of the food chain.
 OMNIVORES – are living things that eat both plants and animals.
ENERGY FLOW
 The chemical energy of food is the main source of energy required by all living organisms. This
energy is transmitted to different trophic levels along the food chain. This energy flow is based
on two different laws of thermodynamics:
1. The first law of thermodynamics, states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, it can only change from one form to another. (Law of conservation of
energy)
2. The second law of thermodynamics, that states that as energy is transferred more
and more of it is wasted (second law of energy)
 The energy flow in the ecosystem is one of the major factors that support the survival of such a
great number of organisms.
 The primary source of energy is solar energy.
 Humans receive less than 50 per cent of the sun’s effective radiation on earth. Effective
radiation, means the radiation, which can be used by plants to carry out photosynthesis.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is the process by which green
plants and certain other organisms transform light
energy into chemical energy. During
photosynthesis in green plants, light energy is
captured and used to convert water, carbon dio
xide, and minerals into oxygen and energy-rich
organic compound.

Energy is also consumed by the autotrophs at cellular level for the reactions related to:
1. growth
2. development
3. maintenance and
4. reproduction
AUTOTROPHS (PRODUCERS) VS. HETEROTROPHS (CONSUMERS)
 AUTOTROPHS – self- feeders, can make their own food.
 Autotrophs form the base of food chains and food webs, and the energy they capture
from light or chemicals sustains all the other organisms in the community. They are of
two types:
1. PHOTOAUTOTROPHS – such as plants, use energy from sunlight to make organic
compounds—sugars—out of carbon dioxide in photosynthesis. Other examples of
photoautotrophs include algae and cyanobacteria.
2. CHEMOAUTOTROPHS use energy from chemicals to build organic compounds out of carbon
dioxide or similar molecules. This is called CHEMOSYNTHESIS. For instance, there are
hydrogen sulfide-oxidizing chemoautotrophic bacteria found in undersea vent communities
where no light can reach.

 HETEROTROPHS - also known as other-feeders, can't capture light or chemical energy to

make their own food out of carbon dioxide. Instead, heterotrophs get organic molecules by
eating other organisms or their byproducts. Animals, fungi, and many bacteria are
heterotrophs.

FOOD CHAIN
 At the base of the food chain lie the primary producers. The primary producers are autotrophs
and are most often photosynthetic organisms such as plants, algae, or cyanobacteria.
 The organisms that eat the primary producers are called primary consumers. Primary
consumers are usually herbivores, and plant-eaters, though they may be algae eaters or
bacteria eaters.
 The organisms that eat the primary consumers are called secondary consumers. Secondary
consumers are generally meat-eaters—carnivores.
 The organisms that eat the secondary consumers are called tertiary consumers. These are
carnivore-eating carnivores, like eagles or big fish.
 Some food chains have additional levels, such as quaternary consumers— carnivores that eat
tertiary consumers. Organisms at the very top of a food chain are called apex consumers.

TROPHIC LEVEL OF THE FOOD CHAIN

Each of the categories is called a trophic
level, and it reflects how many transfers of
energy and nutrients—how many
consumption steps—separate an
organism from the food chain's original
energy source, such as light
DECOMPOSERS
 These are organisms that break down dead organic material and wastes.
 DECOMPOSERS are sometimes considered their own trophic level. As a group, they eat dead
matter and waste products that come from organisms at various other trophic levels; for
instance, they would happily consume decaying plant matter, the body of a half-eaten squirrel,
or the remains of a deceased eagle. In a sense, the decomposer level runs parallel to the
standard hierarchy of primary, secondary, and tertiary consumers.
 Fungi and bacteria are the key decomposers in many ecosystems; they use the chemical
energy in dead matter and wastes to fuel their metabolic processes.
 DETRITIVORES—detritus eaters or debris eaters. These are usually multicellular animals
such as earthworms, crabs, slugs, or vultures. They not only feed on dead organic matter but
often fragment it as well, making it more available for bacterial or fungal decomposers.
 Decomposers as a group play a critical role in keeping ecosystems healthy. When they break
down dead material and wastes, they release nutrients that can be recycled and used as
building blocks by primary producers.
FOOD WEB
 FOOD WEB - a graph that shows all the trophic—eating-related—interactions between various
species in an ecosystem.
 In food webs, arrows point from an organism that is eaten to the organism that eats it. As the
food web shows, some species can eat organisms from more than one trophic level.
ENERGY TRANSFER EFFICIENCY LIMITS FOOD CHAIN LENGTHS
 Energy is transferred between trophic levels when one organism eats another and gets the
energy-rich molecules from its prey's body. However, these transfers are inefficient, and this
inefficiency limits the length of food chains.
 When energy enters a trophic level, some of it is stored as biomass, as part of organisms'
bodies. This is the energy that's available to the next trophic level since only energy stored as
biomass can get eaten. As a rule of thumb, only about 10% of the energy that's stored as
biomass in one trophic level—per unit time—ends up stored as biomass in the next trophic
level—at the same unit time. This 10% rule of energy transfer is a good thing to commit to
memory.
 As an example, let's suppose the primary producers of an ecosystem store
20,000kcal/m22squared/year of energy as biomass. This is also the amount of energy per year
that's made available to the primary consumers, who eat the primary producers. The 10% rule
would predict that the primary consumers store only 2,000 kcal/m22squared/year of energy in
their own bodies, making energy available to their predators—secondary consumers—at a
lower rate.
 This pattern of fractional transfer limits the length of food chains; after a certain number of
trophic levels—generally three to six, there is too little energy flow to support a population at a
higher level.