Adamson University Radio Wave Propagation & Antennas

Wave Propagation  Every point on a given spherical wavefront may be

 Transfer of electromagnetic waves from one point to regarded as a source of waves from which further
another waves are radiated outward

Isotropic Source Absorption

 Radiates uniformly in all possible direction in space  Source of energy of the electromagnetic waves are
transferred to the atoms and molecules of space
Power Density (Pd)
It is defined as the ration of the transmitter power over the area Interference
at which it is distributed.  Occurs when two waves combine in such a way that
the system performance was degraded (collision)

General Classification of Radio waves

 Ground Waves
It is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from  Space Waves
the source by inverse square law  Sky Waves

Wave Impedance (Zo)

Note: Wave impedance is also called the characteristic

impedance for which the medium is AIR

Relative permeability and permittivity are unitless, and for free

space they are both equal to unity.

Field Strength or Field Intensity

 Is the quality of the electric field at any given point in
volt per meter or a potential of 1 volt induced in an
antenna wire 1 meter long.

E= √(30Pt/r); v/m
Where:
Pt = transmitter power Ground Waves/ Surface Waves Propagation
r = distance between stations (m)  Travel around the curvature of the earth, sometimes
right around the globe
Note: The electric and magnetic field intensities of  Utilizes frequencies below HF range, and losses with
electromagnetic waves are the direct counterparts of voltage increasing frequency
and current in circuits  Progress along the surface of the earth and must be
vertically polarized to prevent short circuiting the
Attenuation (α) electric component.
 Decrease in signal Strength with respect to the  Wave induces current to the ground; some of its
distance travelled energy is lost due to absorption.
 Electromagnetic waves are attenuated as they travel
outward from their source and this attenuation is Field Strength at a distance
proportional to the square of the distance travelled.
E= 120πIht / λd

Voltage at the Receiving Antenna

V= Ehr= 120πIhrht / λd

Where:
120π = characteristic impedance of free space
ht = height of the transmitting antenna
hr = height of the receiving antenna
Reflection of waves
I = antenna current
 The bouncing of waves as it strikes a conductive d = distance from the transmitting antenna
surface λ = wavelength
Refraction of waves Space Waves/ Tropospheric Propagation
 The bending of waves as it passes the boundary of  Travel in the troposphere; the portion of the
two media having different density atmosphere closest to the ground.
 Depend mostly on line-of-sight conditions, a space
Snell’s Law
wave is limited in propagation by the curvature of the
n1sin Ѳ1 = n2sin Ѳ2
earth.
 Utilizes frequencies above HF range
Note: If medium A is less dense than B, the refracted wave
moves towards the normal; if the medium B is less dense than  Energy travelling directly between the antennas is
A, the refracted wave moves away from the normal. attenuated to about the same degrees as in free
space.
Diffraction of waves
 Scattering of waves as it enter a small slot or sharp
edge obstacles

Huygens’ Principle

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Prepared by: Engr. Rex Jason H. Agustin
Adamson University Radio Wave Propagation & Antennas
Sky Waves/ Ionospheric Propagation
 The wave strikes the ionosphere and is refracted back
to the ground.
 Utilizes frequencies in the HF range and sometimes Optimum Working Frequency (OWF)
frequencies just above or below it.

Ionospheric Layers

D-Layer Skip Distance

 The lowest, existing at an average height of 70 km,  The shortest distance from a transmitter, measured
with an average thickness of 10 km along the surface of the earth, at which a sky wave of
 Least important layer in HF propagation fixed frequency will be returned to earth

E-Layer Skip Zone

 Existing at about 100km in height, with thickness of  The area where no signal can be heard
25km
Fading
 Disappears at night.
 The fluctuation in signal strength at a receiver
 Aid MF surface propagation a little and reflects some
HF waves in daytime
Review Questions:
Es Layer/ Sporadic
 Thin layer of very high ionization density, sometimes
1. An electromagnetic wave consists of _____
making an appearance with the E layer.
A. An electric field only
B. Both electric and magnetic fields
F1 layer
C. A magnetic field only
 Exist at a height of 180km in daytime and combines D. Non-magnetic field only
with the F2 layer at night. Its daytime thickness is
about 20km
2.__________ is the amount of voltage induced in a wave by
 Main Effect is to provide more absorption for HF an electromagnetic wave
waves A. Receive voltage
B. Magnetic induction
F2 layer C. Field strength
 The most important reflecting medium for HF radio D. Power density
waves.
 Approximate thickness is 200km and its height ranges
from 250 to 400km in daytime. 3. What is the lowest layer of the ionosphere?
A. F1
B. F2
C. E
D. D

4. Frequencies in the UHF range propagate by means of

A. Ground waves
B. Sky waves
C. Surface waves
D. Space waves

5. Electromagnetic waves are refracted when they

__________
Virtual Height of an Ionospheric Layer A. Pass into a medium of different dielectric constants
 The height of the projected path of the Sky waves B. Are polarized at right angles to the direction of
 It is measured by sending a wave vertical to the layer propagation
and measuring the time it takes to come back to the C. Encounter a perfectly conducting surface
receiver D. Pass through a small slot in a conducting plane

cT d 6. What is the thickest layer of the ionosphere?

hv  hv  A. F2
2 ; 2 tan i B. F1
Where: C. D
T = round trip propagation in sec D. E
Ɵ = angle of incidence of signal
7. What is the highest frequency that can be sent straight
Critical Frequency (fc) upward and be returned to earth?
 The highest frequency that will be returned down to A. MUF
earth by a certain layer after having been beamed B. Skip frequency
vertically upward C. Critical frequency
D. Gyro frequency
Critical Angle (θc)
 The highest angle of radiation that will return the wave 8. What is the unit of electric field strength?
to the earth at a given density of ionization in the layer A. Volts per square meter
for the frequency or wavelength under consideration B. Volt per square cm
C. Volts per meter
Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) D. Millivolt per watt
 The highest frequency that will be returned down to
the earth at a given distance when beamed at a 9. Velocity of a radio wave in free space
specific angle other than the normal A. 186,000 miles per sec

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Prepared by: Engr. Rex Jason H. Agustin
Adamson University Radio Wave Propagation & Antennas
B. 300 x 106 meters per sec
C. 162,000 nautical mile per sec 21. Find the characteristic impedance of polyethylene, which
D. All of the above has a dielectric constant of 2.3
A. 317 ohms
10. Refers to the direction of the electric field vector in space B. 377 ohms
A. Polarization C. 249 ohms
B. Directivity D. 194 ohms
C. Radiation
D. ERP 22. For an isotropic antenna radiating 100W of power, what is
power density 1000 m from the source?
11. What is the effective radiated power of a repeater with 200 A. 1.99 uW/m^ 2
W transmitter power output, 4 dB feedline loss, 4 dB duplexer B. 7.96 uW/m^ 2
and circulator loss, and 10 dB feedline antenna gain? C. 3.22 uW/m^ 2
A. 2000 W D. 9.17 uW/m^ 2
B. 126 W
C. 317 W 23. Light travels from ethyl alcohol (refractive index of 1.36) to
D. 260 W water (refractive index of 1.33) with an incident angle of 80 o.
Calculate the angle of refraction.
12. As electromagnetic waves travel in free space, only one of A. 74.38 degrees
the following can happen to them B. 80 degrees
A. Absorption C. 56.30 degrees
B. Attenuation D. 10 degrees
C. Refraction
D. Reflection 24. An FM broadcast station has a transmitting antenna
located 50m above average terrain. How far away the signal
13. Groundwave communications is most effective in what could be received by a car radio with an antenna 1.5 m above
frequency range? the ground?
A. 300 kHz to 3 MHz A. 24.3 km
B. 3 to 30 MHz B. 34.2 km
C. 30 to 300 MHz C. 11.73 mi
D. Above 300 MHz D. 17.13 mi

14. The shortest distance measured along the earth’s surface

that a skywave is returned to earth ANTENNA
A. MUF  A structure that is generally a metallic object, often a
B. Quarter-Wavelength wire or group of wires, used to convert high frequency
C. Skip distance signals into electromagnetic waves and vice versa.
D. Skip zone
FIELDS OF AN ANTENNA
15. What do you call the gigantic emissions of hydrogen from
the sun? INDUCTION FIELD
A. Solar flares  Considered to extend out from the antenna to a
B. SIDs distance of πD2/8λ
C. Kennelly-Heaviside
D. Sun spots RADIATION FIELD
 Considered to extend out from a distance of 2D2/λ
16. Two directional antennas are pointed so that their beams
intersect in the troposphere RADIATION PATTERN
A. Sky wave  A line drawn to join points in space which have equal
B. Surface wave field intensity due to the source.
C. Microwave
D. Troposcatter Major Lobe – the direction of maximum radiation
Minor Lobe – the direction of minimum radiation
17. Super refraction Null – the direction with radiation intensity equal to zero.
A. Ducting
B. Troposcatter DIRECTIVE GAIN
C. Skywave  The ratio of the power density in a particular direction
D. Space wave of one antenna to the power density that would be
radiated by an isotropic antenna.
18. Ducting occurs in which region of the atmosphere?
A. Stratosphere DIRECTIVITY, D
B. Troposphere  Maximum directive gain
C. Ionosphere
D. Ozone layer POWER GAIN
 Overall gain considering losses and efficiency
19. States that power density is inversely proportional to the
distance from its source G=ηD
A. Principal or Reciprocity
B. Inverse Square Law ANTENNA RESISTANCE
C. Huygen’s Principle The ratio of the applied voltage to the flowing current
D. Faraday’s Law
1. RADIATION RESISTANCE, Rr
20. Which ionosphere layer has an average height of 225 km The ratio of the power radiated by the antenna to the square of
at night? the current at the feedpoint.
A. D layer
B. E layer 2. LOSS RESISTANCE, Rd
C. F1 layer Antenna and ground resistance
D. F2 layer

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Prepared by: Engr. Rex Jason H. Agustin
Adamson University Radio Wave Propagation & Antennas
ANTENNA EFFICIENCY
 The ratio of the power radiated by the antenna to the 6. Antenna supported by insulators seems electrically longer
power delivered at the feedpoint than its physical length due to
a. image
η=Rr / Rr + Rd b. reflection
c. end effect
EFFECTIVE RADIATED POWER (ERP) d. broadside effect
 The product of the power fed to an antenna and its
power gain. 7. The ratio of the power radiated by the antenna to the total
input power.
ERP = Total Radiated Power x Power Gain a. power gain
b. directive gain
EFFECTIVE ISOTROPIC RADIATED POWER (EIRP) c. antenna efficiency
 The power radiated by an antenna in its favored d. radiation efficiency
direction, taking the gain of the antenna into account
as referenced to an isotropic radiator 8. An antenna has a radiation resistance of 72 ohms, a loss
resistance of 8 ohms, and a power gain of 16. What efficiency
ERP = Total Radiated Power x Power Gain and directivity does it have.
a. 90% and 17.78
BANDWIDTH b. 10% and 17.78
 The operating frequency range of an antenna c. 90% and 14.4
d. 10% and 14.4
FRONT TO BACK RATIO
 Ratio of the power at the optimum direction of the BASIC TYPES OF ANTENNAS
antenna to that of the power 180 degrees from the
optimum direction ISOTROPIC ANTENNA
 A standard reference antenna, radiating equally in all
BEAMWIDTH directions, so that the radiation pattern is spherical.
 Angular separation between two half power points in
a major lobe of an antenna radiation pattern ELEMENTARY DOUBLET
 A theoretical antenna shorter than a wavelength used
POLARIZATION as a standard to which all other antenna
 Space orientation of the waves that the antenna characteristics can be compared
radiates
HALF WAVE DIPOLE
PRINCIPLE OF RECIPROCITY  Length is λ/2 and radiation pattern is a toroid
 The characteristics of antennas, such as impedance (bidirectional)
and radiation pattern are identical, regardless of use
for reception or transmission.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Device that converts high frequency current into

electromagnetic waves.
a. antenna
b. loudspeaker
c. microphone
d. lightning arrester NON-RESONANT ANTENNA
 One in which there are no standing waves
2. A polar diagram or graph representing field strengths or  Radiation pattern is directional
power densities at various angular positions relative to an
 Standing waves are suppressed by the use of a
antenna.
correct termination to ensure that no power is
a. Venn Diagram
reflected, so that only a forward traveling wave will
b. Figure 8 pattern
exist.
c. Lissajous figure
d. Radiation Pattern
LONG WIRE ANTENNA
 Lengths in the order of several wavelengths
3. Refers to the orientation of the electric field radiated from an
antenna.  When an antenna is 2 or more wavelengths long, it
a. radiation provides gain and a multilobe radiation pattern.
b. polarization
c. beamwidth RHOMBIC ANTENNA
d. bandwidth  Non-resonant antenna used for long distance sky
wave transmission or reception of horizontally
4. Pertains to a wire structure placed below the antenna and polarized waves over distances from 200 to over 3000
erected above the ground which is a form of capacitive miles at frequencies from 4 to 22 MHz.
grounding system.
a. image RESONANT ANTENNA
b. counterpoise  Standing waves exist, caused by the presence of both
c. antenna orientation a reflected traveling wave and the forward wave.
d. polarization  Antenna whose length is a multiple of λ/4’s

5. What is the technique used to electrically increase the MARCONI ANTENNA

antenna length?  Grounded Quarter Wavelength antenna
a. loading  Quarter Wavelength antenna used for frequencies
b. using image antenna below 2 MHz; omnidirectional
c. using antenna arrays
d. increasing antenna height
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Prepared by: Engr. Rex Jason H. Agustin
Adamson University Radio Wave Propagation & Antennas

FOLDED DIPOLE
 Single antenna which consists of 2 elements, one is
fed directly and the other coupled conductively at the
ends.
ANTENNA ARRAY
LOG PERIODIC ANTENNA
 A radiating system consisting of individual radiators or
 Main feature is frequency independence for both
elements placed close together so as to be within
radiation resistance and pattern
each other’s induction field
 Bandwidths of 10:1 are achievable with ease
DRIVEN ELEMENT
 Element of an array connected to the output of the
transmitter

PARASITIC ELEMENT
 Radiation not directly connected to the output of the
transmitter

REFLECTOR
 A parasitic element longer than the driven element
and close to it reduces signal strength in its own
direction and increases it in the opposite direction. Log‐Periodic Design

DIRECTOR 1 Rn L
 A parasitic element shorter than the driven one from   n
which it receives energy; tends to increase radiation  Rn 1 Ln 1
in its own direction
R2 R3 R4 1 L2 L3 L4
BROADSIDE ARRAY      
 Simplest array which consists of a number of dipoles R1 R2 R3  L1 L2 L3
of equal size, equally spaced along a straight line with
all dipoles fed in the same phase from the same UHF AND MICROWAVE ANTENNAS
source.
PARABOLIC ANTENNA
 All waves coming from the source and reflected by
the parabola will travel in the same distance by the
time they reach the directrix, no matter from what
point on the parabola they are reflected.

Parabolic Antenna Beamwidth

70
ENDFIRE ARRAY 
 Physical arrangement is the same as that of the D
broadside array. The magnitude of the current in each
element is still the same as in every other element, Parabolic Antenna Power Gain
but there is now a phase difference between these
 D 
2
currents.
G   
  
9. Calculate the beamwidth between nulls of a 1m paraboloid
reflector used at 6GHz.
a. 3.5˚
b. 7˚
c. 1.75˚
d. 14˚
TURNSTILE ARRAY
 Consists of two horizontal, half wave antennas 10. Calculate the gain of the paraboloid reflector in the
mounted at right angles to each other previous problem.
a. 9600
YAGI UDA ANTENNA b. 2400
c. 1600
 An array consisting of a driven element and one or
d. 2800
more parasitic elements arranged collinearly and
close together.
HELICAL ANTENNA
 Broadband VHF and UHF antenna which is used
when it is desired to provide circular polarization
characteristics
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Adamson University Radio Wave Propagation & Antennas
 Consists of a loosely wound helix, backed up by a c. parasitic and director
ground plane, which is simply a screen made of d. driven and parasitic
chicken wire
17. Indicate the antenna that is not wideband.
Power Gain of a Helical Antenna a. discone
  D  2 NS 
b. folded dipole
Ap dB   10 log 15
c. helical
 
     
d. Marconi

18. One of the following is not an omnidirectional antenna

3‐dB Beamwidth a. halfwave dipole
b. log periodic antenna
52

D   
c. discone
NS  d. Marconi

19. One of the following consists of non-resonant antennas

HORN ANTENNA
a. rhombic
 Ideal as primary feed antenna for parabolic reflectors b. folded dipole
and lenses c. end fire array
d. broadside array
DISCONE ANTENNA
 A combination of a disk and a cone in close proximity 20. Audio signals are not propagated directly to space
 Characterized by an enormous bandwidth for both because:
input impedance and radiation pattern a. to do so will entail additional costs.
b. the signal will be highly attenuated
LOOP ANTENNA c. they will require antennas that are too long
 Used for direction finding, because they do not radiate d. the signal that will be propagated will be too weak
in a direction at right angles to the plane of the loop.
21. Which of the following antenna types is not designed for
PHASED ARRAY transmitting at 10 Ghz
 Group of antennas, connected to one transmitter or a. horn antenna
receiver, whose radiation beam can be adjusted b. dish antenna
electronically without physically moving parts. c. Zepp antenna
d. helical antenna
REVIEW QUESTIONS
22. Which of the following is not a reason why most half-wave
11. A non-resonant antenna that is capable of operating antennas are mounted horizontally at low frequencies?
satisfactorily over a relatively wide bandwidth, making it ideally a. physical construction is easier
suited for HF transmission. b. more cost-effective
a. end-fire array c. mounting is easier
b. rhombic d. support is easier
c. broadside array
d. log periodic 23. This is used to keep the receiver audio turned off until an
RF signal appears at the receiver input.
12. Antenna that is independent of their radiation resistance a. limiter
and radiation pattern to frequency. It has bandwidth ratios of b. squelch
10:1 or greater. c. bleeder
a. loop antenna d. filter
b. helical
c. Yagi Uda antenna 24. At the ends of a half-wave antenna, what values of current
d. Log periodic antenna and voltage exist compared to the remainder of the antenna?
a. minimum voltage and maximum current
13. A half wave antenna b. minimum voltage and minimum current
a. Hertz c. equal voltage and current
b. Marconi d. maximum voltage and minimum current
c. Parabolic
d. Vertical Monopole 25. A dipole antenna has an efficiency of 85%. Calculate its
gain in decibels.
14. Antenna which is used very frequently but almost entirely a. 1.34 dBi
as a reception antenna and is usually found at the back of b. 3.14 dBi
table radios. c. 3.41 dBi
a. loop antenna d. 1.43 dBi
b. folded antenna
c. rhombic
d. log periodic TO GOD BE THE GLORY!

15. One of the special purpose antennas which has broadband

VHF and UHF that is ideally suited for applications for which
radiating circular rather than horizontal or vertical polarized
electromagnetic waves are required.
a. loop antenna
b. phased array
c. folded dipole
d. helical

16. What are the two types of antenna elements?

a. driven and reflector
b. director and reflector

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Prepared by: Engr. Rex Jason H. Agustin