Plant Structure and Function

Chapter 1
Plant Tissues
and Their
Functions
DISCLAIMER: This document is a draft and the information contained herein is subject to change as this document is currently undergoing review. The final
version of this teacher’s resource manual will be published as soon as the review has been completed.
1.1 Carbon Sequestration
• Humans release CO2 into the atmosphere by
burning fossil fuels and other plant-derived
materials
• The amount of CO2 in the atmosphere is
increasing exponentially
• Carbon offsets aim to reduce the amount of
CO2 in the atmosphere
• Plants absorb CO2 from the air and
sequester it in their tissues via
photosynthesis
Carbon Sequestration
• Carbon locked in giant sequoia trees can stay
out of the atmosphere for centuries
shoot tip (terminal bud)
lateral bud
flower
node
dermal tissue
leaf
fruit
stem
vascular tissues
ground tissue
SHOOTS
ROOTS
primary root
lateral root
root hairs
root tip
root cap
The Plant Body
• Most plants consist of roots and shoots
– Roots are belowground plant parts
• Absorb water and dissolved minerals
• Store food
• Support the plant
– Shoots are aboveground plant parts
• Stems provide structural support
• Leaves are specialized for photosynthesis
• Flowers are specialized for reproduction
The Plant Body
• All plant parts consist of the same tissues
– Ground tissues: make up most of a plant
– Vascular tissues: distribute water and
nutrients
– Dermal tissues: cover and protect plant
surfaces
vascular tissues ground tissues dermal tissue
Sectioning Plant Tissues
radial tangential transverse
Monocots and Eudicots
• Differences
– Tissue organization
– Number of cotyledons (seed leaves)
• Monocots have one
• Eudicots have two
• Examples of monocots
– Lilies, orchids, grasses, palms
• Examples of eudicots
– Shrubs and trees, vines, tomatoes,
dandelions
1.3 Plant Tissues
• Simple plant tissues
– Consist of one cell type
– Parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma
• Complex plant tissues
– Consist of two or more cell types
– Dermal and vascular tissues
Simple Tissues
• Parenchyma tissue
– Comprised of parenchyma cells
– Photosynthesis, storage, secretion, tissue
repair
• Collenchyma tissue
– Comprised of collenchyma cells
– Pliable structural support
• Sclerenchyma tissue
– Comprised of fibers or sclereids
– Structural support
Complex Dermal Tissues
• Epidermis
– Comprised of epidermal cells and their
secretions
– Secretion of cuticle, protection, control of gas
exchange and water loss
• Periderm
– Cork cambium, cork cells, and parenchyma
cells
– Protective cover on older stems, roots
Complex Vascular Tissues
• Xylem
– Water-conducting tubes
– Comprised of tracheids, vessel elements,
parenchyma cells, sclerenchyma cells
• Phloem
– Sugar-conducting tubes
– Comprised of sieve elements, parenchyma
cells, sclerenchyma cells
Plant Tissues
Vascular tissues
one sieve
cell’s plate
wall of
sieve-tube
pit in cell
wall companion
cell
parenchyma vessel phloem fibers of

of xylem sclerenchyma
1.4 Stems
• Provide support and position leaves for
photosynthesis
• Typically have nodes, which give rise to
new shoots or roots
• Xylem and phloem are organized as
vascular bundles
– Arrangement differs between monocots and
eudicots
Variations on a Stem
• Stolons • Rhizomes
reproductive runners that underground storage stems
grow horizontally that grow parallel to the
surface
• Bulbs • Stem tubers
underground stems encased thick, fleshy storage structures
in layers of scales that form on stolons or
rhizomes
• Corms • Cladodes
Short, thickened Flattened,
underground storage stems photosynthetic stems
that store water
1.5 Leaves
• Specialized for photosynthesis and gas
exchange
• Vary in size, shape, surface
specializations, and internal structure
elliptic palmate lobed pinnatisect
acuminate lobed odd elliptic odd

bipinnate pinnate
odd pinnate
Specialized Leaves
stem
lateral bud
blade
node
petiole
sheath
blade
node
Leaf Anatomy
• Mesophyll
– Photosynthetic parenchyma with air spaces
– Composes bulk of the leaf
• Leaf veins
– Vascular bundles of leaves
• Epidermis
– Outermost tissue of a leaf, one cell thick
– Outgrowths can form hairs, scales, spikes,
etc.
– Secrete waxy cuticle that slows water loss
Eudicot Leaf Anatomy
epidermis
palisade mesophyll
spongy mesophyll
xylem
vascular
tissue phloem
epidermis stomata
1.6 Roots
• Take up water and mineral ions from the
soil
• Anchor a plant
• Sometimes used for storage
Fibrous Root System (Monocots)
• Adventitious and lateral roots
• Vascular cylinder divides cortex and pith
Taproot System (Eudicots)
• Primary root and lateral branches
• Central vascular cylinder
Root Anatomy
• Vascular cylinder (stele)
– Column of vascular tissue
– Runs lengthwise through center of root
• Endodermis
– Outer boundary of vascular cylinder
– Help control which solutes are taken into plant’s
vascular system
• Pericycle
– Layer of cells just inside root endodermis
– Can give rise to lateral roots
1.7 Primary Growth
• Lengthening of plant roots and shoots
• Production of leaves
• Originates in apical meristems (regions of
undifferentiated cells)
Primary Growth in Shoots
apical meristem in
terminal bud
immature leaf
protoderm
procambium
ground meristem
hai
r
apical meristem
in lateral (axillary) bud
procambiu
m
ground tissue
M. I. Walker/Science
Source
protoderm
procambium dermal tissue
Cell Enlargement vascular tissue
ground tissue
ground meristem
apical meristem Cell Differetiationn

in root tip
procambium
root cap
ground meristem
Cell Division protoderm

apical meristem
root cap
A A longitudinal cut through the center of a root tip of onion B Dividing cells of root apical meristem give rise to protoderm, ground
(Allium), a monocot. Labels indicate where procambium meristem, and procambium, which differentiate into dermal tissue, ground
is giving rise to the vascular cylinder; protoderm, to the epidermis; tissue, and vascular tissue. Regions of cell division, differentiation, and
ground meristem, to the root cortex. enlargement are indicated.
(A) © Ed Reschke/Photolibrary/Getty Images; (B) © Cengage Learning; (in text) Michael Clayton/University of Wisconsin, Department of Botany.
1.8 Secondary Growth
• Thickening of shoots and roots

• Production of wood
• Two types of lateral meristems:
– Vascular cambium
– Cork cambium
Secondary Growth at Vascular Cambium
Structure of Wood
bark
secondary phloem
sapwood heartwood vascular periderm (includes
new xylem) (old xylem) cambium cork cambium, cork,
some phloem, and
new parenchyma)
left, © 2016 Cengage Learning; right, Science Photo Library/SuperStock.
pith
endodermis
primary xylem
wood secondary xylem
vascular
phloem
bark
cork cambium
paeriderm parenchyma
collenchima
cork
1.9 Tree Rings and Old Secrets
• Tree rings form from seasonal growth
– Early wood: large-diameter, thin-walled
xylem in spring
– Late wood: small-diameter, thick-walled
xylem in summer
• Each band signifies one year
Tree Rings
vessel in direction of
xylem growth
earl lat earl lat earl lat earl lat earl

y e y e y e y e y
Data from Tree Rings
Data from Tree Rings
1587–158 1606–161
9 2
1.10 Reproductive Structures
• Flowers
– Specialized reproductive structures of
angiosperms
– Develop at the tips of reproductive shoots
• Flower parts are modified leaves
– Calyx: outer whorl of sepals
– Corolla: inner whorl of petals
Male vs. Female Flower Parts
• Male
– Stamens: consist of a filament with an anther at
the tip
– Anthers: contain pollen sacs in which male
gametophytes are produced
Male vs. Female Flower Parts
• Female
– Carpels: consist of an ovary, stigma, and often a
style
– Ovary: enlarged base of carpel in which one or
more ovules form
– Ovule: structure in which female gametophytes
are produced
– Stigma: upper part of carpel; receives pollen
Flower Structure
Flower Anatomy
Variations in Flower Structure
Solitary, Elongated Composite, with many Incomplete,

irregular blossom inflorescence individual florets with no petals
Lady’s slipper orchid Hyacinth Daisy Eucalyptus
(Paphiopedilum) (Hyacinthus orientalis) (Gerbera jamesonii) (Eucalyptus robusta)
Imperfect Flowers
Begonias
Female blossom Male blossom

(no stamens) (no carpels)
1.11 Flowers and Their Pollinators
• Pollination
– The arrival of pollen on a receptive stigma
• Pollination vector
– Environmental agent that transfers pollen
grains from one plant to another
• Pollinator
– Animal pollination vectors such as insects or
birds
• Nectar
– Sweet fluid that rewards pollinators
UV-Reflecting Patterns
What we see
What bees see
Evening primrose
(Oenothera biennis)
Pollination Syndromes
Examples of Pollinators
Birds Mammals Insects
Flower-Pollinator Coevolution
1.12 A New Generation Begins
• Life cycle of flowering plants is dominated
by the sporophyte
– Sporophyte
• Diploid, spore-producing plant body
– Gametophyte
• Haploid, gamete-producing structure
– Megaspore
• Haploid spore that gives rise to an egg-producing
gametophyte
– Microspore
• Haploid spore that gives rise to a pollen grain
Flowering Plant Life Cycle
Double Fertilization
• Flowering plants undergo double
fertilization
– Pollen tube that reaches and penetrates
female gametophyte releases two sperm
cells
• One sperm cell fuses with the egg and forms
diploid zygote
• Second sperm cell fuses with endosperm mother
cell and forms a triploid cell
• This triploid cell gives rise to endosperm
(nutritive tissue in seeds of flowering plants)
pollen sac an ovule
anther ovary
(cutaway view) wall
ovary
Sporophyte (2n )
seedling
a cell in the pollen sac
seed
Meiosis in Diploid Diploid Meiosis in
anther Haploid Haploid ovary
pollen
microspores (n) tube
megaspores (n)
endosper m
mother cell
(n + n)
egg (n)
sperm (n)
Double
fertilization
stigma
style
pollen tube
sperm cells
male female
gametophyte gametophyte
1.13 Flower Sex
• Species-specific
molecular
signals
stimulate pollen
germination and
guide pollen
tube growth to
the egg
Pollen Tube Growth
1.14 Seed Formation
• After double fertilization
– The zygote develops into an embryo
– The endosperm becomes enriched with
nutrients
• Seed
– a mature ovule that consists of an embryo
sporophyte, its food reserves, and a seed coat
Seed Formation
many
ovules
inside ovary
wall
embry
o
endosper integument
m herein is subject to changesas this document is currently undergoing review. The final
DISCLAIMER: This document is a draft and the information contained
Seed Formation
Embryonic Development
• As an embryo is developing, the parent
plant transfers nutrients to the ovule
– Monocots use nutrients in endosperm
– Eudicots use nutrients in cotyledons,
transferred from the endosperm
• Humans also get nutrition from seeds
(grains)
– Embryo (germ) contains protein and vitamins
– Endosperm contains mostly starch
1.15 Fruits
• Mature ovary of a flowering plant, often
with accessory parts; encloses a seed or
seeds
• Adapted for specific dispersal vectors
such as wind, water, or animals
• Categorized by tissue of origin,
composition, and whether it is dry or
fleshy
Fruit Development
tissue
derived from
ovary wall
carpel wall
seed
enlarged
receptacle
Ways to Classify Fruits
True Fruits
• Consist only of the ovary wall and its

contents
These images (cherry and
pea pod) need to be
replaced without the gray
background (embedded
images from pg 492).
Cherry Pea pod

– True fruit – True fruit
– Simple fruit – Simple fruit
– Fleshy drupe – Dehiscent dry
fruit
Accessory Fruits
• Floral parts, such as petals, sepals,

stamens, or receptacle, expand with
developing ovary
Strawberry Blackberry Pineapple

– Accessory fruit – Accessory fruit – Accessory fruit
– Aggregate of – Aggregate of – Multiple fruit
many individual many small, formed by fusion of
dry indehiscent fleshy drupes many small, fleshy
fruits berries
Wind-Dispersed Fruits
Water-Dispersed Fruits
Animal-Dispersed Fruits
Dry, Dehiscent Fruits

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Chapter 1

radial tangential transverse

parenchyma vessel phloem fibers of

acuminate lobed odd elliptic odd

procambium dermal tissue

Cell Enlargement vascular tissue

apical meristem Cell Diﬀeretiationn

Cell Division protoderm

• Thickening of shoots and roots

earl lat earl lat earl lat earl lat earl

Solitary, Elongated Composite, with many Incomplete,

Female blossom Male blossom

What bees see

Birds Mammals Insects

• Consist only of the ovary wall and its

Cherry Pea pod

• Floral parts, such as petals, sepals,

Strawberry Blackberry Pineapple

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