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Math 101: Lecture 4

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M. K. Vemuri

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Wednesday, 23 August, 2023
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Announcement

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The next tutorial will be held at 9:00AM on Monday, 28 August

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(in the same classroom).

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Recall

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We proved the Monotonic Sequence Theorem last time:
Theorem

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If a sequence {an } is both bounded and monotonic, then {an }
converges. Further:

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1. If {an } is bounded above and increasing, then

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lim an = sup{an | n ∈ N}.
n→∞
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2. If {an } is bounded below and decreasing, then
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lim an = inf{an | n ∈ N}.

n→∞
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Monotonic Sequence Theorem (contd)

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Example

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Let {zn } be the sequence defined by z1 = 1 and zn+1 = 2zn for

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all n ∈ N. It can be shown by Induction that {zn } is an increasing
sequence and zn ≤ 2 for all n ∈ N. Therefore {zn } is a convergent
sequence. e
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Subsequences

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Definition

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Let {an } be a sequence of real numbers and let n1 , n2 , · · · , nk , · · ·
be a strictly increasing sequence of natural numbers. Then the

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sequence {ank } given by

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an1 , an2 , · · · , ank , · · ·

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is called a subsequence of {an }.
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Example
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Let an = n1 . Let {nk } be the sequence of even numbers, i.e.,

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nk = 2k. Then ank = 2k defines a subsequence of {an }.
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Subsequences (contd)

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Theorem

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If a sequence {an } converges to a real number a, then any
subsequence {ank } of {an } also converges to a.

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Proof.
Let ε > 0 be given. Since {an } converges to a, there exists a

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natural number N such that

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|an − a| < ε
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for all n ≥ N. Since {nk } is a strictly increasing sequence of
natural numbers, it can be shown by Induction that nk ≥ k. It
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follows that if k ≥ N then nk ≥ N. Hence

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|ank − a| < ε
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for all k ≥ N. Therefore the subsequence {ank } converges to a.

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Divergence Criteria

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If a sequence {an } of real numbers has either of the following

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properties, then {an } is divergent.
1. {an } has two convergent subsequences whose limits are not

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equal.
2. {an } is unbounded.

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Examples
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1. The sequence {(−1)n } is divergent as the subsequences {a2n }
and {a2n−1 } converge to 1 and −1 respectively.
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2. The sequence { n} is divergent as it is unbounded.
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Monotone Subsequence Theorem

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Theorem

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Every sequence of real numbers has a monotonic subsequence.

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Proof.
Left as as exercise. e
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The Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem

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Theorem
A bounded sequence of real numbers has a convergent
subsequence.

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Proof.

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Let {an } be a bounded sequence of real numbers. It follows from
the monotone subsequence theorem that {an } has a monotonic
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subsequence {ank }. Since {an } is bounded, therefore {ank } is also
bounded. It follows from the monotonic sequence theorem that
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{ank } is a convergent subsequence of {an }.

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Cauchy Sequences

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Definition

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A sequence {an } of real numbers is said to be a Cauchy sequence
if for every ε > 0 there exists a natural number N such that for all
natural numbers n, m ≥ N,

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m
|an − am | < ε.

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The significance of the concept of Cauchy sequence lies in the
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main theorem of this section, which asserts that a sequence of real
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numbers is convergent if and only if it is a Cauchy sequence. This
will give us a method of proving a sequence converges without
knowing the limit of the sequence.
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Cauchy Sequences (contd)

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Examples

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▶ The sequence { n1 } is a Cauchy sequence. Let ε > 0. By the
Archimedean property of R, there exists a positive integer H

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such that H > 2/ε. Then, if m, n ≥ H, we have
1/n ≤ 1/H < ε/2 and similarly 1/m < ε/2. Therefore, it

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follows that if m, n ≥ H, then

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− ≤ + < ε/2 + ε/2 = ε.
n m n m
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We conclude that { n1 } is a Cauchy sequence.

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Cauchy Sequences (contd)

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▶ Let {xn } be the sequence defined by

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1
x1 = 1, x2 = 2, xn = (xn−1 + xn−2 ) , for n ≥ 2.
2

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1
It can be shown by Induction that |xn+1 − xn | = 2n−1
. If
m > n, then

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|xm − xn | ≤ |xm − xm−1 | + |xm−1 − xm−2 | + · · · + |xn+1 − xn |

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1 1 1
= m−2 + m−3 + · · · + n−1
2 2 2
= n−1
1 e

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+
1
+ · · · + 1

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2 2m−n−1 2m−n−2
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1
< n−2 .
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Let ε > 0. By the Archimedean property of R, there exists a

natural number N such that 1/2N < ε/4. If m > n ≥ N, then
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it follows that |xm − xn | < ε . Therefore {xn } is a Cauchy

sequence.
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Cauchy Sequences (contd)

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Lemma
If {an } is a convergent sequence, then {an } is a Cauchy sequence.

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Proof.

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Let a = limn→∞ an and let ε > 0. There exists a natural number N
such that if n ≥ N, then

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|an − a| < ε/2.
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Thus, if n, m ≥ N then
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|an − am | ≤ |an − a| + |am − a| < ε/2 + ε/2 = ε.

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Therefore {an } is a Cauchy sequence.

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Cauchy Sequences (contd)

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Lemma
A Cauchy sequence of real numbers is bounded.

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Proof.

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Let {an } be a Cauchy sequence and let ε = 1 . By the definition of
a Cauchy sequence, there exits a natural number N such that if

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n, m ≥ N then,
|an − am | < 1.
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By the triangle inequality, we have |an | < |aN | + 1 for all n ≥ N.
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Let
M = sup{|a1 | , |a2 | , . . . , |aN−1 | , |aN | + 1}.
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Then |an | ≤ M for all n.

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Cauchy Convergence Criterion

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Theorem
A sequence of real numbers is convergent if and only if it is a

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Cauchy sequence.
Proof.

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We have already seen that a convergent sequence is a Cauchy
sequence. Conversely, let {an } be a Cauchy sequence. By the

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previous lemma, {an } is bounded. Therefore, by the
Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem, there is a subsequence {ank } of {an }
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that converges to some real number a. We claim that {an }
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converges to a.
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Since {an } is a Cauchy sequence, given ε > 0, there exists a
natural number N such that if n, m ≥ N then
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|an − am | < ε/2.

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Cauchy Convergence Criterion (contd)

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Since the subsequence {ank } converges to a, there exists a natural
number M such that if k ≥ M then

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|ank − a| < ε/2.

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Let L = max{M, N}. If n ≥ L, then
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|an − a| ≤ |an − anL | + |anL − a| < ε/2 + ε/2 = ε.
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