3 | Mathematics in the Modern World 1

Unit 3: PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING

3. 0 Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made

about mathematics and mathematical concepts.
b. Solve problems involving patterns and recreational problem using Polya’s
method.
c. Organize one’s method and approach for solving problems.
d. Write clear logical proofs.

3.1 Introduction
Most of us, if not all, do experience having problems. It could be in any area
of our life. It could be financial, relationships, academic or work-related problems.
Problems exist when we are in a situation that we need to resolve something but no
solution is at hand. Each problem is different. One’s problem may not be a problem for
another. For instance, one person may experience a problem of finding money to buy some
food but, for some, it is not a problem. It is not because they have so much money, but
because they have already solved that problem beforehand.

Problem solving is the process of finding and providing solutions to a particular

problem. It requires practical knowledge about a particular situation. In mathematics,
problem solving is a mathematical process. It includes examining the question to find the
key ideas, choosing an appropriate strategy, doing the math, finding the answer and then
re-checking.

This unit will help you improve your improve your problem solving skills. Thus,
this aims to make you a better problem solver.

3.2 Problem Solving and Reasoning

3.2.1 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

In mathematics, reasoning is a critical skills which enables you to reflect on

solutions to problems and determine whether or not they make sense. Reasoning is the
process of using existing knowledge to draw conclusions, make predictions, or construct
explanations. This topic covers the two methods of reasoning, the inductive and deductive
reasoning to form a conclusion.

Let’s do something!
Consider the following procedure: Pick a number, multiply by 5, add 4 to the product,
divide the sum by 2, and subtract 2.
Example:
Pick a number: 4
Multiply by 5: 4 x 5 = 20
Add 4 to the product: 20 + 4 = 24
Divide the sum by 2: 24 / 2 = 12
Subtract 2: 12 – 2 = 10 C. M. D. Hamo-ay
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Repeat the procedure using several different numbers and use inductive
reasoning to make a conjecture about the relationship between the original number
and the resulting number.

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general conclusion based on the

examination of specific examples. The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is a
conjecture since it may or may not be correct.

In unit 1, you have already used this method of reasoning in solving problems on
patterns of numbers. When you examine a list of numbers and predict the next number in
the list according to some pattern you have observed, you are using inductive reasoning.

Example 3.1:
Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each list.
a. 2, 5, 11, 20, 32, ? b. 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, ?

Solution:
a. For us to be able to predict the next number, let us examine the difference between
terms. From 2 to 5, the difference is 3. From 5 to 11, the difference is 6, from 11 to 20, the
difference is 9. From 20 to 32, the difference is 12. It can be observed that the differences are
increasing by 3. Therefore, the difference from 32 to the next number is 15. We can now
conclude that the next number is 47.

b. In this number list, we can observe that the succeeding term is twice the preceding
term. 1 x 2 = 2, 2 x 2 = 4, 4 x 2 = 8, 8 x 2 = 16. Thus, we can say that the next term is
16 x 2 = 32.

Example 3.2:
Use inductive reasoning to solve an application. Use the data below and by
inductive reasoning, answer the following questions.

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Solution:
a. Based on the table, for every 0.1 increase in the magnitude of an earthquake, the
height of the tsunami also increases by 4 meters. Using the data, we can make a conjecture
that if an earthquake has a magnitude of 6.5, the maximum height of the tsunami could be
28 meters.

b. No, because based on the data, when the magnitude of the earthquake is 5.8, there
could be a possibility that there will be no tsunami anymore.

Practice 3.1:
Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each list. a. 7, 10, 8, 11, 9 12 ?
b. 21, 9, 21, 11, 21, 13, 21 ?

Practice 3.2:
Use the data below and by inductive reasoning, answer the following questions. The
table below shows the number of days a group of hotel cleaners worked and the number of
rooms they cleaned in high rise hotel building.

Counterexample

As mentioned earlier, conclusions based on inductive reasoning are not always

correct. Let us take a look at the following example.

Example 3.3:
11 x 1 x 101 = 1111 11 x 2 x 101 = 2222
11 x 3 x 101 = 3333 11 x 4 x 101 = 4444
11 x 5 x 101 = ? 11 x 6 x 101 = ?

Based on the data, we can say that 11 x n x 101 = nnnn. We can say that when
n = 5, the answer is 5555. And when n = 6, the answer is 6666. But what if n = 10, or
11, or 12, can we say that 11 x n x 101 = nnnn is still true? Let’s take a look.

Example 3.4:
11 x 10 x 101 = 11110
11 x 11 x 101 = 12221

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The result shows that the equation 11 x n x 101 = nnnn is only true if n is a
single-digit number. A statement is true when it is true to all. The fact that we found
an example that shows that the equation is not true to all, therefore, the statement is
false.

Any case that makes a statement false is called counterexample. Example 3.3 is
an example of counterexample as it disproved that the equation 11 x n x 101 = nnnn is
true.

Example 3.5:
Verify that each of the following statements is not true by finding a
counterexample.
𝑦
a. 𝑦 2 > 𝑦 b. 𝑦 = 1

Solution:
Please take note that we only need one counterexample to prove that the statement
is false.

a. If 𝑦 = 1, then 12 > 1. Since 1 is not greater than 1, we have found a

counterexample.
0
b. b. For 𝑦 = 0, we have 0 = 1, which is wrong. Thus, the statement is false.

Practice 3.3:
Verify if the following statements are false statements.
a. |𝑧| = 0 b. √𝑥 2 = 𝑥

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning is the opposite of inductive reasoning. It is the process of

reaching a conclusion by applying general assumptions, procedures, or principles.

In Activity 3.1, you were asked to make a conjecture on the relationship between the
original number and the resulting number following the procedure given. The example
given is an example of inductive reasoning where we try specific examples for us to make a
conclusion. This time, we are going the other way around. We will see how deductive
reasoning can be applied in making conclusion on the said example.

Example 3.6:
Consider the following procedure: Pick a number, multiply by 5, add 4
to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 2.

Solution:

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Based on the result, we can conclude that the procedure produces a number
that is 5/2 times the original number.

Inductive Reasoning vs Deductive Reasoning

Determine whether each of the following arguments is an example of inductive or

deductive reasoning.
a. Two-thirds of the students at this college receive student aid. Therefore, two-thirds
of college students receive student aid.
b. Since all squares are rectangles, and all rectangles have four sides, so all squares
have four sides.
c. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums, every other year. Last year the
tree did not produce plums, so this year the tree will produce plums.

Solution:
a. This argument uses a specific example to come up with a conclusion, so this is an
example of inductive reasoning.
b. This argument started with a general assumption, this is an example of deductive
reasoning.
c. In this argument, the conclusion was based on the specific observations on the tree
for the past 10 years, so it is an example of inductive reasoning.

Solve a Logic Puzzle

Reasoning can be applied in solving a logic puzzle, whether it is inductive or

deductive. Let us try to solve this logic puzzle. Try to challenge yourself. Each of four best
friends, Andrea, Marillac, Mary, and Paula has a different program (BSN, BSEE, BSAS, and
BEED). From the following clues, identify the program of each person.

1. Andrea enrolled 1 day ahead of her friend whose program is BSAS and 1 day
late than her friend whose program is BSEE.
2. The BSAS student and Marillac enrolled at the same time.
3. The BSEE student and Mary are both of the same age.
4. Marillac, who was the last to enroll, is not a BEED student.

Solution:
To understand the situation better, the use of a table in determining their programs is highly advised.

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(Let’s call this clue 5)

BSEE student (Andrea enrolled 1 day late than her friend)

Andrea
BSAS student (Andrea enrolled 1 day ahead of her friend)

Combining this with clue 2: (Let’s call this clue 6)

BSEE student (Andrea enrolled 1 day late than her friend)

Andrea
Marillac and BSAS student (Marillac and BSAS student enrolled at the same time)

It can be seen from this illustration that Marillac is also not enrolled in the BSEE
program, therefore, Marillac is a BSN student, based on clue 6.

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3.2.2 Problem-Solving with Patterns

One of the problem-solving strategies that is often used in math is look for a pattern
as mathematical patterns can be found everywhere – in nature, numbers and in shapes.
When a pattern is established, it is easy to predict what comes next.

Sequence

A sequence is an ordered list of numbers than follows a pattern. In Unit 1, you have
been introduced to number sequence and how to predict the next term by looking at its
pattern. Without looking at the next page, answer the following activity.

Terms of a Sequence

An ordered list of numbers such as 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, ... is called a sequence. The
numbers in a sequence that are separated by commas are the terms of the sequence.

In the above sequence, 5 is the first term, 14 is the second term, 27 is the third term,
44 is the fourth term, and 65 is the fifth term.

The three dots “...” indicate that the sequence continues beyond 65, which is the last written
term. It is customary to use the subscript notation an to designate the nth term of a
sequence. Applying the notation in the sequence above, 𝑎1 = 5, 𝑎2 = 14, 𝑎3 = 27, and so
forth.

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In finding the next terms of a sequence, we often construct a difference table,

which shows the differences between successive terms of the sequence. This technique
will help you determine the next term especially in sequences where the pattern is not
easily observable.

Example 3.7:
The following table is a difference table for the sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, ...

Each of the numbers in row (1) of the table is the difference between the two closest
numbers just above it (upper right number minus upper left number). The differences in
row (1) are called the first differences of the sequence. In this case, the first differences are
all the same. Thus, if we use the above difference table to predict the next number in the
sequence, we predict that 14 + 3 = 17 is the next term of the sequence. This prediction might
be wrong; however, the pattern shown by the first differences seems to indicate that each
successive term is 3 larger than the preceding term.

Example 3.7: The following table is a difference table for the sequence 5, 14, 27, 44,
65, ...

In this table, the first differences are not all the same. In such a situation it is often
helpful to compute the successive differences of the first differences. These are shown in
row (2). These differences of the first differences are called the second differences. The
differences of the second differences are called the third differences. To predict the next
term of a sequence, we often look for a pattern in a row of differences.

Practice 3.4:
Use a difference table to predict the next term in the sequence
2, 7, 24, 59, 118, 207, …

3.2.1 Problem-Solving with Patterns

Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy

One of the most recent mathematicians to make a study on problem solving

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was George Polya (1887-1985). He was born in Hungary and moved to the United States in
1940. He designed a four-step method to solve all kinds of problems. This includes the
following:

Step 1: Understand the problem

To understand fully the problem, Polya taught to teachers to ask questions such
as:
• Do you understand all the words used in stating the problem?
• What are you asked to find or show?
• Can you restate the problem in your own words?
• Can you think of a picture or diagram that might help you understand the problem?
• Is there enough information to enable you to find a solution?

Step 2: Devise a plan

Polya mentions that there are many reasonable ways to solve problems. The skill at
choosing an appropriate strategy is best learned by solving many problems. A partial list of
strategies is included:

• Guess and check Make an orderly list • Draw a picture

• Eliminate the possibilities • Consider special cases
• Solve a simpler problem • Work backwards
• Use symmetry • Use direct reasoning
• Use a model • Use a formula
• Look for a pattern • Solve an equation
• Be ingenious

Step 3: Carry out a plan

This step is usually easier than devising the plan. In general, all you need is care and
patience, given that you have the necessary skills. Persist with the plan that you have
chosen. If it continues not to work, discard it and choose another.

Step 4: Review the solution

Polya mentions that much can be gained by taking the time to reflect and look back
at what you have done, what worked, and what did not. In other words, you to have to
examine the solution you obtained. Doing this will enable you to predict what strategy to
use to solve future problems.

Example 3.8:
Apply Polya’s Strategy (Making an organized list A basketball team won two out of their
last four games. In how many different orders could they have two wins and two losses in
four games?

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Solution:

Understand the Problem. There are many different orders. The team may have won
two straight games and lost the last two. Or may the other way around. Or they
alternately won and lost their last four games. There are many possibilities.

Devise a Plan. We will make an organized list of all the possible orders. This is to ensure
that all possible orders will only be listed once.

Carry Out the Plan. As the situation states, there must be two wins and two losses, so each
order in our list must have two W’s and two L’s.

1. WWLL (Winning the first two games and losing the last two games)
2. WLWL (Alternately winning and losing their last four games)
3. WLLW (Won the first, lost the next two, and won the last)
4. LWWL (The next three order are the opposite of the first three orders)
5. LWLW
6. LLWW

Review the Solution. Looking at the organized list, we are confident that there are only six
orders as we already have listed all the possibilities and there are no duplicates.

Example 3.9: Apply Polya’s Strategy (Guess and Check)

When you are not sure how to start, you can use the guess and check technique until
you come up with the correct answer.

Mary Joy bought books and CDs as gifts. Altogether she bought 12 gifts and spent
P840. The books cost P60 each and the CDs cost P90 each. How many of each gift did she
buy?

Solution:

Understand the Problem. The situation tells us that the total number of gifts is 12 and spent
a total of P840 pesos. Our task is to find how many CDs and books were bought for that
amount considering the price for each item.

Devise a Plan. This problem can be solved algebraically. But if you are not into algebra,
you can solve this problem by making guess until you come up with the right answer.

Carry Out the Plan. Let us make our first guess using an equal number for each item.

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Review the Solution. By comparing the result of our guesses to the statement of the
problem, our third guess satisfies the condition that Mary Joy bought 12 gifts for an amount
of P840.

Example 3.9: Apply Polya’s Strategy (Use of Logical Reasoning)

The following problem does not involve numbers. It can be solved by using logical
reasoning.

Paula has a dog, a horse, a bird, and a cat. Their names are Uno, 2D, Thirdy, and 4G.
Thirdy and 2D cannot fly or be ridden. The bird talks to Uno. 2D runs from the dog. What
is each pet’s name?

Solution:

Understand the Problem. The situation says that there are four pets and we are asked to
find the name of each.

Devise a Plan. We can use a table to make an analysis based on the clues given. We can
mark the table with X indicating that the name does not belong to the pet, and Y indicating
that it is the names pet.

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Answer: Uno is the bird, 2D is the cat, Thirdy is the dog, and 4G is the bird.

Review the Solution. The reasons in the table are clear and do not conflict with each other,
thus, we are confident that the answer is correct.

3.3. References

Airth, M. (n.d.). Reasoning in Mathematics: Inductive and Deductive

Reasoning. Retrieved from Study.com:
https://study.com/academy/lesson/reasoning-in-mathematicsinductive-and-
deductive-reasoning.html#partialRegFormModal

Aufmann, R.N., Lockwood, J.S., Nation R.D., Clegg, D.K., and Epp, S.S.
(2018). Mathematics in the Modern World. Philippine Edition. Sampaloc, Manila:
Rex Books Store, Inc.

Bradford, A. (2017, July 25). Deductive Reasoning vs Inductive Reasoning.

Retrieved from Live Science: https://www.livescience.com/21569- deduction-vs
induction.html

Quintos, R. T. et al. (2019). Mathematics in the Modern World. Plaridel,

Bulacan: St. Andrew Publishing House.

Polya’s Problem Solving Technique. (n.d). Retrieved from scimath.unl.edu:

Retrieved from
https://scimath.unl.edu/conferences/documents/K2ProblemSolvers.pdf

3.4. Acknowledgment

The images, tables, figures and information contained in this module were
taken from the references cited above.

C. M. D. Hamo-ay