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Energy Reports 6 (2020) 992–999

www.elsevier.com/locate/egyr

2020 7th International Conference on Power and Energy Systems Engineering (CPESE 2020),
26–29 September 2020, Fukuoka, Japan

Exploring the gaps in renewable energy integration to grid

Oladimeji Joseph Ayamolowo ∗, P.T. Manditereza, K. Kusakana
Department of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering, Central University of Technology, Free State, South Africa
Received 26 October 2020; accepted 11 November 2020

Abstract
The continued integration of diverse renewable energy sources into the power grid has led to a significant decrease in power
system inertia, thus resulting in several challenges in the electric power system such as frequency instability and sharp rise in
rate of change of frequency (rocof). In order to combat these challenges, several technologies such as the use of energy storage
systems, hybrid energy storages system and hybrid systems have been used to provide fast frequency response and regulation.
This paper gives a comprehensive review of these technologies thus highlighting their applications, merits and demerits for
frequency regulation in renewable energy sourced grid. Furthermore, the research reveals that hybridized system provides better
characteristics than singly sourced renewable energy system, therefore the best suited hybrid system can be formed based on
the desired power grid characteristics and specific power requirement. Finally, it was revealed that FESS, SMES and SCES
have similar characteristics, nonetheless, their characteristics is complimentary to that of BESS, CAES and PHES technology,
and so a hybrid combination comprising of BESS and SCES could be best suited for fast frequency response in renewable
energy sourced grid.
⃝c 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 7th International Conference on Power and Energy Systems Engineering (CPESE
2020).

Keywords: Energy storage system (ESS); Renewable energy sources (RES); System inertia; Rate of change of frequency (rocof); Virtual energy;
Synchronous inertia; Inertia constant

1. Introduction

Electric power system has in recent times experienced a gradual but steady drift from conventional synchronous
power generators to the use of renewable energy sources (RES) such as photovoltaic (PV), Wind and Hydro
power systems due to its comparative advantages [1–5]. Conventional fossil fuel fired generators are associated
with increased greenhouse gas emissions, which has led to climate changes and other devastating effect on the
globe [6]. On the other hand, renewable energy sources offers clean energy with zero greenhouse gas (GHGs)
emission because it non reliant on fossil fuel [7–9], therefore most countries around the world are now trying to

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (O.J. Ayamolowo).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2020.11.086
2352-4847/⃝ c 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http:
//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 7th International Conference on Power and Energy Systems Engineering
(CPESE 2020).
O.J. Ayamolowo, P.T. Manditereza and K. Kusakana Energy Reports 6 (2020) 992–999

Nomenclature
RES Renewable energy sources
BESS Battery energy storage system
PHES Pumped Hydro energy storage system
SMES Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage
CSP Concentrated Solar Plant
Li-ion lithium-ion battery
HTWS Hydro-thermal-wind-solar
PFC Power Frequency control
HSS Hydrogen Storage System
ESS Energy storage system
SCES Super capacitor energy storage system
CAES Compressed air energy storage system
FESS Flywheel energy storage system
Rocof Rate of change of frequency
MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking
HESS Hybrid Energy Storage System
AGC Automatic Generation Control
RE Renewable energy

meet increasing electricity demand with RES especially PV and wind, while drifting towards a decarbonized power
sector.
On the other hand, the increasing integration of RES such as photovoltaic systems and wind turbines into
the power grid has led to significant changes in the dynamics of the Electric power system [10–12]. Firstly, the
output of renewable energy sources is intermittent which offers a degree of concern [13]. Also, as more renewable
energy sourced generators are connected to the power grid through the converters, the overall power system inertia
decreases [14,15]. This reduced system inertia has led to decreased power system reliability, grid instability, and
frequency instability issues such as high rate of change of frequency (RoCoF) [16,17].

2. Power system operational metrics

In this section, the various parameters that influence the performance of power system particularly in renewable
energy sourced grid such as rate of change of frequency (rocof) and system inertia will be highlighted.

2.1. Rate of change of frequency (Rocof)

Rate of change of Frequency (Rocof) can be defined as the measure of frequency deviation within 100 ms to
200 ms after the occurrence of fault or after a sudden imbalance between generated power and load demand [10,18].
High rocof is a challenge of concern in power system as it could led to cascaded loss of generators [19]. Rocof is
also closely related with system inertia, as a power system with small inertia is associated with high rate of change
of frequency (RoCoF). Therefore, it can be said that frequency stability can only be ensured in a power grid with
adequate system inertia [19].
The ROCOF after a loss of generation can be expressed as in Eq. (1).
∆P ∗ f
R OC O F = (1)
2S ∗ H
where, S is the rated apparent power, f is the system frequency, H is the inertia constant and ∆P is the change in
power of the system.
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2.2. Power system inertia

System inertia can be defined as the resistance inherent in the power system to changes in frequency by means
of the kinetic energy that is stored in its rotating masses [9]. System inertia plays a vital role in resisting frequency
deviations in power system. Previously, generators in the power system were mainly synchronous, therefore the
inertia offered by these synchronous machines is called synchronous inertia [15,20]. However, as technology
advanced, inertia could also be obtained in renewable energy sources connected with energy storage system and
converters; this type of inertia is called artificial or virtual inertia.

2.3. System inertia constant

The inertia constant H can be defined as the time in seconds taken by an electric plant to generate a rated nominal
power, from its stored kinetic energy at rated angular speed. The kinetic energy of the synchronous generator can
be expressed as in Eq. (2):
1
E K E = J ωm2 (2)
2
where, J is the total moment of inertia in Kg m2 , ω m is the rated mechanical angular velocity in rad/s, and E KE
is the kinetic energy stored in its rotating mass.
The inertia constant of the synchronous generator, H , during steady state can therefore be estimated using the
swing equation as in Eq. (3);
EK E 1
2
J ω2 m J ωm2
H= = = (3)
Sb Sb 2Sb
where J is the total moment of inertia in Kg m2 , W m is the rated mechanical angular velocity in rad/s, and S b is
the selected base apparent power in MVA.
During system disturbance, the imbalance in power is reflected in the rate of change of kinetic energy stored in
the generator as shown in Eq. (4).
d 1 2
( J ω ) = Pm − Pe (4)
dt 2 m
where the imbalance in power (Pm–Pe) causes an acceleration or deceleration of the rotor, Pm is the mechanical
power applied on the rotor, while Pe is the electrical power of the rotor.
For a power system comprising of several synchronous generators with different ratings, the total inertia constant
Hsys can also be expressed as in Eq. (5)
∑n ∑n
i=1 Hi Si E K Ei
HT otal = ∑n = i=1 (5)
i=1 Si ST otal
where, Hi is the inertia constant of the individual synchronous generators, Si is the generation capacity of the
individual generators, n is the total number of power plants, Htotal is the inertia constant of the whole power system,
and Stotal is the total generation capacity of all generators.

3. Characteristics of synchronous inertia contributing machines to the power grid

This section explains the concept of synchronous inertia and further highlights on the characteristics of various
synchronous generators used for providing natural inertia in the power grid.

3.1. Synchronous inertia

Synchronous inertia is provided by conventional synchronous generators. These generators provide frequency
regulation ( f r ) as the stored kinetic energy in their rotating masses opposes changes in frequency in the power
grid [1]. The response to a sudden power imbalance in the power grid varies based on the individual characteristics
of the synchronous machines such as hydro generator , thermal generators and wind turbine [21]. This section will
consider the merit and demerit of the various types of synchronous inertia contributing generators in the power grid.
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3.2. Sources of synchronous inertia in power system

Here, various generators which contribute synchronous inertia to the power grid is explained as synchronous
inertia could be sourced from both fossil fuel driven generators and renewable energy generators.
Thermal Generators: These are the most common and widely used type of synchronous machines used for power
generation. They provide synchronous inertia and can deliver fast frequency response for an average time of 15 min
in case of system contingencies. Its inertia constant lies between 2 to 9 s. However thermal generators are associated
with pollution (GHGs emission) which causes harmful effect on the environment [1,2,10,22].
Synchronous Condensers: Synchronous condensers are free spinning unloaded synchronous machines with its
prime mover removed and having zero real power output. Its inertia constant lies between 1 to 3 s. It provides
synchronous inertia and also reactive power compensation in power system. However, synchronous condenser has
high maintenance cost, and contribute to environmental noise pollution.
AC Wind Turbine: AC wind turbines are connected directly to the power grid, and they provide a source of
synchronous inertia during power imbalance. These machines provide a fast frequency response in power system
and offer a clean source of energy, their inertia constant lies between 2 to 6 s [2].
Concentrated Solar Power (CSP): CSP is a promising renewable energy technology which offers a clean source
of energy and adds natural inertia to the power grid. They are also cost effective generators which supports RES
integration to grid and are often used in a hybridized form such as CSP-BIO plants, CSP-TES, and CSP-PV in
order to provide frequency response in a power system [23]. Nonetheless, they are limited by their slow frequency
response and high cost of installation [24].
Pumped hydroelectric energy storage: This is a mechanical energy storage system used to provide synchronous
inertia, voltage regulation and reactive power support to the grid. PHES has high power ratings and high energy
density with an average inertia constant of between 2 and 4 s, however, they are limited by their high cost of
installation, small associated inertia and slow frequency response [25,26].
Compressed air energy storage (CAES): This is a promising mechanical energy storage system whose energy
depends on the potential energy of pressurized air. CAES is considered a viable ESS because of its high efficiency,
high energy density, high power ratings, long life span as it also supports large-scale integration of RES to the grid.
It also has Inertia constant of between 3–4 s and provides voltage regulation in power system. Nevertheless, this
technology is limited by its complexity in construction, geographical constraint and high cost of installation [27].
Flywheel Energy Storage System (FESS): This is an efficient electro-mechanical energy storage system used to
provide fast frequency response within a short response time. FESS has the advantages of high efficiency, high
inertia constant, low GHGs emissions, high power density and long life cycle [28]. However, they are limited
by their low energy density, and limited energy storage capacity, thus they not suitable for applications requiring
continuous power delivery for long period of time. Table 1 shows the detailed characteristics and applications of
various generators and energy storage system that contribute synchronous inertia in power system.

4. Contribution of energy storage technologies and hybrid system to power system stability in renewable
energy sourced grid

This section introduces the concept of Virtual Synchronous generation (VSG) and further explains various energy
storage technologies, hybrid energy storage technologies, and hybrid system used in providing virtual inertia in
renewable energy sourced power grid.

4.1. Virtual synchronous generation

This concept is used for providing artificial or virtual inertia into a power system by using an inverter, and
energy storage system (ESS) with a suitable control mechanism. VSG concept simply mimics the dynamics of
synchronous generators with rotating mass, while the kinetic energy in the rotating mass of synchronous generators
is compensated for by the energy stored in energy storage system (ESS) [32].
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Table 1. Characteristics and applications of synchronous inertia generators.

Energy storage system Merits Demerits Application Hybridized Refs.
Form
Concentrated Solar Can be used at night High cost of installation, Large power application, CSP-TES, [23,24,29,
Power (CSP) unlike PV complex construction, Supports RE integration CSP-PV, 30]
slow frequency response CSP-BIO

Pumped hydroelectric Has higher energy rating, Slow frequency response, Large scale power rated WIND- [27]
energy storage: (PHES) higher power rating, lower efficiency applications, RE PHES
lower cost per kW, long Curtailment, Spinning
discharge times reserves, voltage stability,
power–frequency control
Compressed air energy Has higher energy rating, Slow frequency response, Large scale power rated HTWS– [27]
storage (CAES): higher power rating, long lower efficiency applications, RE CAES
discharge times, lower Curtailment
cost per KW
Flywheel Energy Storage Fast frequency response, Low-energy density, high Space Aircraft, light rail FESS– [31]
System (FESS): longer life span (15–20 capital cost (5000 systems, power and BESS,
years), high efficiency $/kWh) frequency stability, power FESS–
(85%), high power quality improvement, RE CAES,
density (1000–2000 curtailment WIND–
W/L) FESS,
PV-FESS

4.2. Virtual inertia provision by renewable energy sources

Renewable energy sources such as PV and DC wind turbine have been used to provide virtual inertia and
frequency regulation in power system. PV system do not inherently provide system inertia because they have
no rotating mass and are only connected to the grid through power electronics converters. However, they can be
made to provide frequency regulation when operated in deloading mode [33]. This technique is however limited
because it provides slow frequency response with a delay of between 50 and 100 ms, and it is less economically
viable compared to BESS connected PV system [34]. On the other hand, like PV system, DC Wind turbines do
not inherently provide system inertia, and can also be operated in deloading mode in order to provide frequency
regulation. Nonetheless, they are limited due to the variability of wind speed and low inertia constants of between
2 to 6 s [2].

4.3. Virtual inertia provision by energy storage sources and hybrid energy storage technology

Energy Storage system can also be made to provide virtual inertia with appropriate control strategy. This provides
a viable compensation for the lack of kinetic energy in renewable energy sources (RES), and it is also used to provide
fast frequency regulation in case of sudden power imbalance in renewable energy sourced grid. Different types of
energy storage system such as BESS, SCES, and SMES are often used based on their unique characteristics in
renewable energy sourced grid in order to ensure adequate virtual inertia. Table 2 gives comparative characteristics,
merits, demerits and applications of BESS, SCES, SMES, Hydrogen Storage System(HSS) and their respective
hybridized form. It should be noted that FESS, SMES and SCES have similar characteristics, nonetheless, their
characteristics is complimentary to that of BESS, hence a hybridized energy storage system is often preferred.
The combination of SCES and BESS (lithium-ion) gives the best desirable qualities needed to provide fast inertia
response, especially in renewable sourced power system [10]. Other hybridized energy storage system include BES–
SMES, BES–FES, BES–SCES–FCES [12]. The hybridized energy storage system has higher power density, higher
energy density, longer life cycle life, lower cost with faster response than singly sourced energy storage system.
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Table 2. Comparison between BES, SCES, FES and SMES.

Energy storage system Merits Demerits Application Hybridized Refs.
form
BESS (Lithium-ion) Small charging current, Short life span (3 years), Electric vehicles (EV), WIND-PV- [36]
High energy density, high cost, Low energy Hybrid Electric Vehicles BESS–
high efficiency, fast density (HEV), AGC, PFC and SCES,
response LFC in Microgrid, BESS–
spinning reserves, SMES,
damping control HSS–BESS,
WTG–
BESS
Superconducting Faster ramp rate, high Lower energy rating and Power smoothing and BESS– [37]
Magnetic Energy Storage power density, longer life lower power rating, high peak shaving devices SMES,
(SMES): span cost of installation, SCES–
SMES
Super Capacitor Energy High power density, fast Short discharge duration HVDC systems, BESS– [38]
Storage (SCES): frequency response, Power–Frequency SCES,
lower cost per KW Control (PFC) HYDROGEN–
SCES
Fuel cell Higher efficiency, high Technology is still under Electric vehicles (EV) WT-PV-FC, [36]
Hydrogen Storage energy density, low development and Hybrid Electric HSS–BESS
System (HSS) emission Vehicles (HEV)

4.4. Virtual inertia in hybrid system

The combination of renewable energy sources and energy storage systems has been used to support frequency
regulation and provide system inertia in renewable energy sourced grid using the concept of virtual synchronous
generator (VSG). Various hybrid systems are thus formed comprising of different renewable energy sources (RES)
and energy storage system (ESS) with a suitable control mechanism in order to provide more virtual inertia in the
power grid compared to single renewable energy source. For example, wind turbine connected BESS, wind turbine
connected SCES, PV power plant connected BESS, PV power plant connected SCES, and Wind-PV connected
BESS. In HVDC systems, SCES are usually installed at the dc-link of converters which are used as energy storage
sources for inertia emulation [10].
Furthermore, Other authors have investigated the use of a combination of synchronous generator and energy
storage system in order to improve system stability in power grid. For example, BESS connected synchronous
condenser [33] and variable inertia flywheel (VIF) connected Diesel synchronous generator in [20,35] for providing
system inertia using a suitable control scheme, however these configurations are limited because of the production
of GHGs emissions [33].

5. Conclusion
This paper highlights the importance of system inertia in power system stability and further presents a
comprehensive review of various system inertia contributors (synchronous generators, renewable energy sources
and energy storage systems) used in renewable energy sourced grid. The characteristics (merit and demerits) and
applications of various types of synchronous generators and energy storage system such as BESS, FESS, SCES,
CAES, SMES, PHES, HSS and FESS were also presented. Furthermore, characteristics of hybridized energy storage
system such as BES–SCES, BES–FES, and BES–SCES were highlighted, while hybrid system such as wind turbine
connected BESS, wind turbine connected SCES, PV power plant connected BESS, PV power plant connected SCES,
and Wind-PV connected ESS were also discussed in detail. Finally, it can be observed that hybridized system
provides better characteristics than single renewable energy system, therefore the best suited hybrid system can be
formed based on the desired power grid characteristics and specific power requirement. It should also be noted that
FESS, SMES and SCES have similar characteristics; nonetheless, their characteristics are complimentary to that of
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O.J. Ayamolowo, P.T. Manditereza and K. Kusakana Energy Reports 6 (2020) 992–999

BESS, PHES and CAES technology, so the hybrid combination comprising of BESS and SCES could be considered
best suited for fast frequency response in renewable energy sourced grid.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could
have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the National Research Foundation (NRF) with grant number 117792.

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