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5-2018

Transforming Development and Disaster Risk

Frank Thomalla
Stockholm Environment Insititute

Michael Boyland
Stockholm Environment Institute

Karlee Johnson
Stockholm Environment Institute

Jonathan Ensor
Stockholm Environment Institute

Heidi Tuhkanen
Stockholm Environment Institute

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Citation Details
Thomalla, Frank; Boyland, Michael; Johnson, Karlee; Ensor, Jonathan; Tuhkanen, Heidi; Swartling, Asa
Gerger; Han, Guoyi; Forrester, John; and Wahl, Darin, "Transforming Development and Disaster Risk"
(2018). Urban Studies and Planning Faculty Publications and Presentations. 206.
https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/usp_fac/206

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Authors
Frank Thomalla, Michael Boyland, Karlee Johnson, Jonathan Ensor, Heidi Tuhkanen, Asa Gerger Swartling,
Guoyi Han, John Forrester, and Darin Wahl

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 sustainability

Article
Transforming Development and Disaster Risk
Frank Thomalla 1,2,3, *, Michael Boyland 1,3 , Karlee Johnson 1,3 , Jonathan Ensor 3,4 ID ,
Heidi Tuhkanen 3,5 ID , Åsa Gerger Swartling 6 ID , Guoyi Han 3,6 , John Forrester 4 and
Darin Wahl 7
1 Stockholm Environment Institute, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; [email protected] (M.B.);
[email protected] (K.J.)
2 Climate and Disaster Risk Research and Consulting (CDRC), Sydney 2176, Australia
3 International Centre of Excellence on Transforming Development and Disaster Risk, Stockholm Environment
Institute and Integrated Research on Disaster Risk (IRDR) Programme, Bangkok 10330, Thailand;
[email protected] (J.E.); [email protected] (H.T.); [email protected] (G.H.)
4 Stockholm Environment Institute, Environment Department, University of York, York YO10 5NG, UK;
[email protected]
5 Stockholm Environment Institute, 10416 Tallinn, Estonia
6 Stockholm Environment Institute, 10451 Stockholm, Sweden; [email protected]
7 College of Urban and Public Affairs: Nohad A. Toulon School of Urban Studies and Planning, Portland State
University, Portland, OR 97201, USA; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +61-(0)497-899-296




Received: 30 March 2018; Accepted: 2 May 2018; Published: 7 May 2018


Abstract: This article focuses on the complex relationship between development and disaster risk.
Development and disaster risk are closely linked as the people and assets exposed to risk, as well as
their vulnerability and capacity, are largely determined by development processes. Transformation
is key to moving from current development patterns that increase, create or unfairly distribute
risks, to forms of development that are equitable, resilient and sustainable. Based on a review of
existing literature, we present three opportunities that have the potential to lead to transformation
in the development-disaster risk relationship: (i) exposing development-disaster risk trade-offs in
development policy and decision-making; (ii) prioritizing equity and social justice in approaches to
secure resilience; and (iii) enabling transformation through adaptive governance. This research aims
to contribute to breaking down existing barriers in research, policy and practice between the disaster
risk reduction, climate change adaptation, and development communities by providing cross-sectoral
opportunities to operationalize theoretical knowledge on transformation. It also helps to clarify the
connections between different global agendas by positioning transformation as a potential bridging
concept to link disconnected policy processes. This paper argues for empirical research to test the
opportunities presented here and further define transformative pathways at multiple scales.

Keywords: transformation; sustainable development; disaster risk; trade-offs; equitable resilience;

adaptive governance

1. Introduction
Disaster risks and impacts are closely tied to development processes and initiatives; development
can increase or decrease the exposure, vulnerability and resilience of societies, while disasters destroy
assets and undo development gains [1]. Risk taking is a natural aspect of development, but there
is a tipping point when tolerable and acceptable risk levels are exceeded, and major disasters can
occur. A background paper to the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development [2] warned that
disaster losses would continue to increase if actors and societies did not shift towards proactive

Sustainability 2018, 10, 1458; doi:10.3390/su10051458 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2018, 10, 1458 2 of 12

solutions, and that reducing disaster impacts should be part of sustainable development agendas. On
a global scale, countries with higher income, higher educational attainment, greater openness, and
more comprehensive financial systems are anticipated to experience fewer disaster losses [3]. Yet the
economic and non-economic impacts of disasters are increasing, and the burden of losses, both human
and economic, is being shouldered by the poorest nations already struggling to maintain development
investments [1,4].
One explanation of the trend of increasing risks and impacts is that development and disaster risk
reduction (DRR) decision-making processes occur in silos, conducted by different agencies, institutions
and other actors with differing priorities, perspectives and outlook time horizons. Another is that
development and DRR initiatives are often applied at different scales. The likelihood is that many
intertwined factors are combining such that development is increasingly driving up levels of existential
risk and creating new risks. While both unsustainable development [5] and disaster risk are recognized
as ‘messy’ [6], wicked and complex problems [7], it is increasingly clear that disaster risk will continue
to increase until development, and its relationship with risk, is transformed [1].
Development is most readily positioned as the focus for transformation as it lies at the heart of
many risk determinants. Yet DRR policy and practice must also be addressed. During the Hyogo
Framework for Action 2005–2015 [8] period, global progress was made in the key priority areas of
risk assessment, disaster preparedness, early warning, and response. However, according to national
reporting [1,9], little meaningful advancement occurred in addressing the root causes of risk. In spite
of successful efforts in reducing the human loss from disasters, the DRR sector at large continues
to be overly-focused on short-term preparedness and response efforts [10]. Research suggests that
progress in DRR is restricted by a failure to acknowledge and address how development processes act
as the root causes of disasters [11–13]. The Sendai Framework for DRR 2015–2030 (Sendai Framework)
is attempting to catalyze a shift in priority from risk management to risk reduction [14]. However,
this shift may not represent the necessary transformation in thinking and action that is required for
sustained risk reduction. For example, DRR actors largely fail to consider the trade-offs that underpin
development (and DRR) decision-making processes at all levels [15], and processes of ‘building
resilience’ are often not equipped to tackle issues of social inequity and injustice. However, the specific
DRR and development practices that are required to ‘transform’ need to be better understood [16].
Addressing the underlying drivers of risk inherent in the failures of development and DRR
requires actions that challenge existing structures, power relations, vested interests, and dominant
narratives that persist within systems and maintain and perpetuate poverty, inequality, and
marginalization. Transformation may represent one opportunity, but there is a need to provide greater
clarity of the scientific definition of transformation [17], as well as to generate empirical evidence on
which to base our understanding of transformative policy [18]. This paper explores transformation as
a pathway to achieving equitable, resilient and sustainable development outcomes in society. First, we
present results of a literature review that conceptualizes transformation for linked development and
DRR contexts. Second, we introduce three opportunities for transformation in this context: (i) exposing
development-disaster risk trade-offs in development policy and decision-making; (ii) prioritizing
equity and social justice in approaches to secure resilience; and (iii) enabling transformation through
adaptive governance, each developed through subsequent literature reviews.

2. Conceptualizing Transformation
The discourse on transformation in the fields of development, DRR and climate change
adaptation has been elevated by two recent flagship science-for-policy reports: A Special Report
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on Managing the Risks of Extreme
Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation (SREX) [19], and the United Nations
Office for DRR (UNISDR) 2015 Global Assessment Report on DRR (GAR) [1]. The SREX report
considers transformational change essential to reducing climate and disaster risk, while the GAR
report asserts that risks will continue to rise until development is transformed. The SREX report defines
Sustainability 2018, 10, 1458 3 of 12

transformation as the altering of fundamental attributes of a system, as does the Fifth Assessment
Report of the IPCC [20]. However, the Sendai Framework [14] makes no mention of transformation, and
a UNISDR report on terminology relating to DRR [21] does not define it, implying that the concept is not
clearly articulated nor well-positioned in DRR policy and practice [22]. Yet, a focus on transformation
can serve to highlight the need for systemic change to social systems that create and perpetuate risk
and lead to socially unjust and ecologically unsustainable development outcomes [23–26].
Transformation has a close conceptual relative in resilience. Resilience approaches have advanced
understanding of system dynamics, interconnections, thresholds and feedbacks [27]. The property of
resilience is frequently positioned as innately desirable and the concept has proved malleable to a range
of contexts; it is currently widely adopted in international development policy and strategy. As a result,
many resilience definitions and interpretations have emerged, clouding its meaning, and limiting
its practical use and value in operationalization. Further, a key critique of the resilience narrative is
that it depoliticizes the creation of risk and vulnerability, and may be serving to maintain the status
quo and/or system functionality [28–31]. In response to such resilience critiques, transformation is
increasingly being considered a legitimate and necessary pathway to reducing risk, primarily through
challenging existing systems, institutions and paradigms [24,25].
Building off the need for a recalibration of the development–disaster risk relationship [18], we
consider that transformation has the potential to serve as an attractive proposition as there is general
recognition that at the macro-level the ‘status quo’ is not sufficient to address the environment,
development and risk challenges facing the planet [17], particularly in the context of climate change [23].
In seeking to better conceptualize transformation in linked development–disaster risk contexts, we
review academic literature on transformation in three disciplines, identified through the Web of Science
platform: (i) social-ecological systems (SES); (ii) adaptation to climate change; and (iii) DRR. Building
on the IPCC [19,20] definition as a starting point for understanding transformation, we synthesize
evidence of characteristics, attributes, conditions and outcomes of transformations organized by the
three disciplinary framings. Table 1 summarizes the key findings.
From the SES perspective, transformation entails making new combinations of pre-existing
components, functions or feedbacks of an SES in fundamentally novel ways [32–36]. In this context, a
process of transformation may be enabled by innovation, diversity, governance networks, leadership,
and learning, or triggered by crises or rapidly changing socio-ecological conditions. Key transformative
outcomes include the establishment of SESs that ensure the sustained well-being of humans and
ecosystem services.
Key attributes of transformational adaptation action include radical, non-linear step changes
in the form, structure or functioning of key systems, typically triggered by extreme climate
events [24,25,37–39]. Ref. [40] consider adaptations to be transformative when they occur at a larger
scale or intensity, are new to a particular context or system, or transform or shift place-based systems
to new locations. Long-term, innovative adaptive water management in the Netherlands is considered
transformational [40]. A transformative outcome may occur as a result of incremental adaptations or
following intentional or uncontrolled change when the limits of adaptation are exceeded [41]. Desirable
outcomes are greater justice, equity, long-term resilience, and sustainable development.
Transformative DRR is characterized by changes in structures, goals, perspectives, and/or
governance regimes that alter the pre-existing risk management status quo [12,13,18,42,43]. In this
framing, transformative processes are triggered by major disasters, and positive outcomes are enabled
by inclusive decision-making, self-organizing groups and networks beyond established institutions,
and anticipatory risk planning that goes beyond coping. Desirable outcomes are significant and
sustained risk reduction and sustainable development.
Sustainability 2018, 10, 1458 4 of 12

Table 1. Characteristics, attributes, conditions and outcomes of transformations in SES, adaptation and
DRR contexts.

Transformation
Attributes Conditions Outcomes Key References
Framing
Triggers: Crises; untenable
Recombining existing elements systems; changing
of an SES in fundamentally environmental or
novel ways to create a new SES socio-economic conditions A development
Phases: Prepare for SES change Enablers: Novelty and trajectory and SESs
Social-ecological (window of opportunity); innovation; resilience; all forms that ensure the
System (SES) navigate the transition of capital; diversity of sustained [32–36]
Transformation (selecting, learning and institutions; self-organizing well-being of
adoption); build resilience of the groups and networks; humans and
new regime; institutionalize the leadership; learning platforms; ecosystem services
trajectory; and routinize new strengthening cross-scale
feedbacks relationships in the governance
structure
Triggers: Extreme climate events;
Physical and/or qualitative,
multiple stresses
non-linear radical or step
Enablers: Transdisciplinary
changes in form, structure or
approaches; value- and
meaning-making that include
place-based approaches; deep Greater justice,
changes in regime management
inquiry into structures of equity, long-term
Transformational and functioning, behavior,
meaning-making, power resilience and [24,25,37–41]
Adaptation values and perceptions
relations and root causes of sustainable
Indicators: Adaptations at a
current failures; social networks development
larger scale or intensity; new to
across scales; local leadership
a context or system; or that
and accountability; incentives;
transform places and shift
resources; communications
locations
technologies
A fundamental qualitative Triggers: Major disasters
change, or a change in Enablers: Critical reflexivity and
composition or structure that is inclusion in disaster risk
often associated with changes in decision-making; innovation;
Reduced disaster
goals, perspectives, governance participatory learning;
Transformative risk; enhanced
regimes or initial conditions, self-organizing groups and [12,13,18,42,43]
DRR resilience;
towards a different risk networks beyond established
sustainability
management status quo institutions; narrative analysis;
Pathway characteristics: adaptive co-management;
competition; experimentation; anticipatory planning and
scale effects; lock-in behavior beyond coping

Drawing on these insights on transformation from three relevant bodies of literature, in this
paper, we consider the transformation of the relationship between development and disaster risk
to represent a clear break and shift away from current trends of disaster risks being driven up
by development processes that are inequitable, non-risk-informed and unsustainable. Further,
transforming development and disaster risk needs radical changes in the form and function of critical
governance and management systems. While transformations can be forced and unplanned, we are
concerned with initiating and managing deliberate, desirable transformations [24] towards equitable,
resilient and sustainable development. These transformative processes must involve the questioning
of social values, institutions, and technical practices, and can be facilitated through increased adaptive
governance, learning, innovation, and leadership. In an effort to understand how to move towards
these grand, desirable outcomes, we consider three specific opportunities for transformation.

3. Opportunities for Transformation

While the body of research on transformation in complex systems has grown considerably in recent
years, transformation remains somewhat abstract when considering the objective of transforming
development and DRR policy and practice. The challenge is shaping and defining transformative
pathways and action for development and DRR communities of practice. While additional research is
needed to further develop the conceptual underpinnings of transformation, attention must also be
paid to ensuring this knowledge is translated into action. There is currently a gap in identifying clear,
practical entry points for transforming the relationship between development and disaster risk.
Sustainability 2018, 10, 1458 5 of 12

To help address this gap, we conducted three further literature reviews to identify three
opportunities that have the potential to lead to transformation: (1) exposing development-disaster
risk trade-offs in development policy and decision-making [15]; (2) prioritizing equity and social
justice in approaches to secure resilience [44]; and (3) enabling transformation through adaptive
governance [45]. Figure 1 presents a conceptual framework of these three opportunities and how they
relate to one another.
This section aims to provide a brief summary of the three opportunities for transformation. It is
important to note that these are exploratory opportunities, which need to be tested empirically and
refined, and additional analysis of the development-disaster risk system is necessary as an insufficient
understanding of the system dynamics might lead to interventions that are likely to fail. Additionally,
this list is not exhaustive and other opportunities may exist that also have the potential to transform
the development–disaster risk relationship.

Figure 1. A conceptual framework of three opportunities for transforming the relationship between
development and disaster risk.

3.1. Exposing Development-Disaster Risk Trade-Offs in Development Policy and Decision-Making

The disaster risk research community has largely concentrated efforts on understanding the
reduction of existing risks, rather than on how risks are generated in the first place. Consequently, little
attention has been paid to the critical decision-making processes, including in development, that create
the underlying conditions for risk creation or reduction. Ref. [15] argue that the failure to critically
consider development and DRR decision-making means that the inherent trade-offs of development
activities, and their implications for disaster risk, are often overlooked.
A trade-off is defined as a situation in which a decision must be made between two desired aspects
as they cannot both be achieved at the same time [46]. Ref. [15] propose a typology of five interlinked
dimensions of trade-offs in development decision-making that help to highlight the potential cost, or
risks, associated with development decisions. They consider both how risks are perceived, weighted
and prioritized, and the processes through which development and risk trade-offs are conceptualized
and negotiated. The typology was developed based on the insights of a non-systematic review of
the scientific literature, grey literature, and government reports on DRR. The search was performed
using Scopus and Google Scholar and applied various versions of the term “trade-off” with the aim to
determine the extent to which this literature explicitly addresses DRR and development trade-offs.
The typology represents dimensions (aggregation, risk, equity, time, participation) which the trade-offs
identified through the literature review have in common.
The aggregation dimension of trade-offs centers on the prevailing tendency to focus on the
aggregated gains of decisions, while inadequately considering the losses (economic, environmental,
and social), as well as the impacts of those gains and losses at smaller scales. Although economic
Sustainability 2018, 10, 1458 6 of 12

growth is important for development, it can cause detriment to social and environmental well-being
and can also increase the number of assets exposed to disaster risk, potentially worsening disaster
losses [47].
The risk dimension of trade-offs focuses on multiple risks (hazard and non-hazard-related),
including interacting risks, that must be considered within decision-making, the prioritization of
those risks in the face of limited resources, and differential risk prioritization by policymakers and
wider society. The tendency to prioritize more immediate risks or sudden onset hazards means that
risks associated with slower onset hazards may be ignored, leading to unexpected and potentially
catastrophic impacts in the future.
The equity dimension of trade-offs focuses on the uneven distribution of benefits, losses and risks
from development-related decisions across different groups. There is currently a failure to balance the
needs of different groups and a lack of equity which can be improved by strengthening knowledge
on vulnerable groups, the high-risk areas they inhabit and the underlying drivers of their risk and
vulnerability [1].
The time dimension of trade-offs relates to assessing the benefits and losses of a development
decision in the short-term versus the long-term, as well as the short time frame in which decisions
must often be made, especially in post-disaster processes. Intergenerational equity, in terms of
social, environmental or economic well-being, has not been sufficiently considered in development
decision-making processes. The uncertain conditions that will be created by development decisions
in the long-term, and whether future generations will be able to cope with this uncertainty, are
rarely considered.
The participation dimension of trade-offs deals with who is included or excluded and whose
interests are prioritized in decision-making processes. Limited participation and low accountability in
high-level decision-making can perpetuate risk-creating norms and practices by decision-makers who
are usually less affected by disaster impacts. More participatory decision-making can lead to better
development and DRR outcomes, however a trade-off exists as it can impact efficiency and increase
the time required for policy change. For decision makers, there may also be political trade-offs related
to sharing power and altering the status quo.
The typology by [15] is an initial organizing and diagnostic framework intended to enable
further exploration of trade-offs, and to better understand the multidimensionality of decision-making
processes in development and its interlinkages to the creation and reduction of disaster risks.
Improving knowledge on decision-making processes can support the identification of ‘intervention
spaces’ for transformative action that support the integration of risk into development decision-making.

3.2. Prioritizing Equity and Social Justice in Approaches to Secure Resilience

Resilience has gained popularity as a key principle within both the DRR and development
communities, making it a potential entry point for transforming the relationship between the two. We
understand resilience to be a system property and thus communities, individuals, or other actors or
organizations can undertake actions that change the system and thereby alter resilience. However,
actions in one part of the system may have unintended consequences at other temporal or spatial
scales, enhancing the resilience of a particular group or community at a particular time, while eroding
that of others. We refer to deliberate resilience interventions as attempting to ‘secure’ resilience when
they involve actions that intend to build (increase) or maintain resilience, without suggesting that
communities or other actor groups do not have resilience prior to the intervention. Importantly,
resilience has been criticized for its failure to address social vulnerability and for disregarding issues of
equity and power. The resilience discourse is frequently associated with incremental change, failing to
tackle risk-creating development logics or leading to an unfair distribution of risk across a population.
Therefore, understood, resilience can lead us to underestimate or overlook the nature and magnitude
of the changes required within a system to ensure equitable outcomes.
Sustainability 2018, 10, 1458 7 of 12

Consideration of equity and social justice forces consideration of transformation as part of

approaches that look to use resilience in practice. Resilience interventions generally do not thoroughly
assess whose resilience should be secured and if and how such efforts actually tackle the root causes
of disaster risk for the most vulnerable groups. The concept of equitable resilience requires us to
consider overcoming or rejecting the dominant narratives that exist within a system when they fail to
address the inequitable distribution of costs and benefits, including risk distribution. This requires
understanding how power is held and exercised, and which actors or processes can create “winners”
and “losers” [48]. By addressing the inequities in resilience interventions, possibilities can open up for
whole-scale transformation within disaster risk and development.
Ref. [44] conducted a review of the literature connecting resilience to climate change adaptation,
development and DRR to examine how equity and power are conceptualized in current research.
The search terms resilience and equity, equality, power, agency, justice, ethics, or human rights were
applied to peer-reviewed publications from the period 2005-2015 that appeared in the Social Sciences
Citation Index of the Web of Science platform. The findings reveal four key elements that need to be
considered if interventions are to work towards equity and social justice: (1) recognizing subjectivities;
(2) ensuring inclusion and representation; (3) working across scales (geographical and temporal) and
levels of governance; and (4) promoting system(s) transformation when existing arrangements degrade
well-being or increase risks for sections of society.
Subjectivity draws attention to the ways in which groups become socially differentiated due to
cultural, racial, ethnic, gender or other social attributes, and how this shapes disaster risk. Subjectivities
can shape how people interpret experiences and information, including those related to disaster
risk, and whether or not people take action to reduce their risk. They can drive the construction
of inequitable socio-political entitlements, creating vulnerability for excluded groups. Similarly,
subjectivities can lead to differential resilience. For example, individuals may use their subjectivities
to harness opportunities to secure their resilience, while the subjectivities of others may repress their
capacity to engage with such opportunities.
Inclusion highlights the notion of inclusion of diverse social groups based on different social
groupings, including gender, age, ethnicity, disability and sexuality, that influence resource distribution
and human-environment relationships (e.g., [49–51]). It confronts the power and inclusion imbalances
that exist between different stakeholders in decision-making processes at multiple scales, which may
lead to exclusion of certain groups and hinder transformation [52–54].
Scale acknowledges the importance of geographical and temporal scales in resilience and systems
thinking. It is important to understand cross-scale interactions and the scales on which different actors
operate, as implications for resilience may be scale-specific, e.g., securing resilience only at the local
level, or in the short term. Scale can also contribute to exclusion, for example as those living far from
the geographic, political or social core may be marginalized. Thus, to achieve equitable resilience,
subjectivities, inclusion and scale must be jointly understood, with transformation, or the possibility
for transformation, as the last stage of the four-step process.

3.3. Enabling Transformation through Adaptive Governance

While adaptive governance has been extensively theorized in relation to natural resource
management [55], it has also been applied in resilience research to analyze the social, institutional,
economic and ecological aspects of multilevel governance that contribute to building social-ecological
resilience [56]. Using a qualitative content analysis approach [57], we conducted a comprehensive
literature review of over 180 scientific articles and grey literature publications to identify and synthesize
relevant studies and findings on adaptive governance and adaptive co-management, as they relate to
DRR [58]. The literature review involved five steps, including question definition, study and search
protocol, search and screen results, analysis, and presentation of results as suggested by [59].
Adaptive governance recognizes that interactions between people and ecosystems are inherently
unpredictable and that governance needs to be adaptable to changing knowledge and circumstances
Sustainability 2018, 10, 1458 8 of 12

and to promote experimentation and innovation. Ref. [45] explored the potential for adaptive
governance to transform the relationship between development and disaster risk, considering its
ability to deal with uncertainty and complexity.
By adopting an adaptive governance framing, Ref. [45] identified key enabling components for
transformation within development and DRR systems. These characteristics, adapted from [60],
are: (1) polycentric and multi-layered institutions characterized by, for example, collaborative
co-management that involves power-sharing, cross-sectoral institutional linkages, and institutional
diversity; (2) participation and collaboration, including social capital, knowledge-pooling, and public
participation processes; (3) self-organization and networks which can involve formal and informal,
multi-level bridging organizations; and (4) social learning and system innovation, which can be
characterized by, for example, shared learning, public learning, and triple-loop learning. While the
presence of these components alone does not necessarily mean a transformation will occur, they can
provide the conditions needed to enable transformation.
Some of the major strengths in adaptive governance exist in its ability to engage in
retrospective- and forward-thinking, which jointly constitute important aspects for disaster
resilience-building [61–64]. It is, therefore, an approach that facilitates holistic evaluations of multiple
hazards, human vulnerabilities and exposure, options to reduce disaster risks, and capacity gaps based
on past experience and plausible future scenarios. To explore opportunities for transformation in the
DRR policy sphere, Ref. [45] used the conceptual underpinnings of adaptive governance to assess
the potential of the Sendai Framework to integrate these transformative governance characteristics.
The value placed on learning within adaptive governance makes it useful for dealing with (and
reducing) uncertainties, in which novel approaches and experimentation are required [65]. The Sendai
Framework recognizes the usefulness of such innovative approaches in dealing with complex disaster
risks. For example, it recommends using disaster risk modelling to consider different scenarios and
better address the complexity of the systems involved.
Another key strength of adaptive governance is its openness and adaptability; it does not favor a
particular organizational or administrative structure. Instead, it promotes iterative, context-specific
problem-solving processes that can respond to new insights and changing conditions [66]. An adaptive
governance approach can help foster experimentation and innovation which may boost the potential
to alleviate some of the long-standing tensions between development and DRR.
While there are numerous opportunities for synergies between adaptive governance and DRR,
namely through the Sendai Framework, several challenges exist in terms of translating these synergies
into concrete action plans. Some of the challenges highlighted by [45] include unequal power
relations, including across different scales and communities of practice, and achieving flexibility
and adaptability, particularly within rigid and hierarchical government structures that suppress
interventions supporting transformation.
In summary, this section has introduced potential opportunities for transformation through
the exploration of trade-offs in development decision-making and the prioritization of equity and
social justice in resilience-building. Adaptive governance can enable the transformation of the
development–disaster risk relationship. While further investigation is needed to define specific
pathways for transformations to occur within development and DRR systems, these exploratory
transformation opportunities provide initial entry points for future research. Each of these
opportunities intends to unpack the ‘locked-in’ development and disaster-risk relationship from
different, yet complementary, perspectives. Future research will need to enhance the theoretical
understanding of where and how transformations can occur in the development–disaster risk system;
which types of transformations have the potential to significantly reduce disaster risk and contribute
to sustainable development; and how they may be achieved in practice, at different scales.
Sustainability 2018, 10, 1458 9 of 12

4. Conclusions
Development and disaster risk are closely interconnected. In this paper, we argue that
transformations are needed to move towards equitable, resilient and sustainable development
trajectories. As a boundary concept, transformation’s utility is in challenging dominant values and
goals in current development practice, examining the underlying failures of development and DRR,
and calling for radical policy changes. We have outlined three opportunities for realizing such
transformations via analysis of the trade-offs that are associated with development or DRR decision
making; through an explicit focus on securing equitable resilience through development or DRR
interventions; and through the application of adaptive governance to transform development and
DRR systems.
Transformation cuts across the development, DRR, and climate change adaptation sectors.
By breaking down an abstract concept into ‘operational’ opportunities for enabling transformation,
our findings can contribute to overcoming the barriers in research, policy and practice that currently
exist between these communities of practice. We propose that identifying multi-stakeholder and
cross-sectoral opportunities for transformation can help clarify the connections between different
global policies and frameworks associated with these respective communities of practice, including
the Sustainable Development Goals, the Sendai Framework, and the Paris Agreement. Defining and
operationalizing transformative pathways allows the potential contributions from different sectors
and policy arenas to be identified and negotiated, positioning transformation as a binding concept that
can link often disjointed development, DRR, and adaptation actors and policy processes.
By bringing together disparate fields we propose a multi-disciplinary research agenda that can
help to ensure successful outcomes of the Sendai Framework and refocus development and risk
reduction efforts towards support for those most vulnerable to disaster risks. Many observers are
of the view that more radical, transformative changes in policy and decision-making are necessary
to address the complex challenges that are changing our world. However, empirical evidence of
transformation in action is urgently needed to create the basis for guidance on processes that would
lead to a substantial reduction in disaster-related losses and damages. Further research that focuses on
testing and refining the opportunities presented in this paper, among others, is urgently needed to
enhance understanding of what types of transformations are possible and how they may be achieved
in practice.

Author Contributions: F.T., M.B., and K.J. provided the overall framing, review of the transformation literature,
and synthesis of research insights for the paper. H.T. and G.H. conducted the analysis of development disaster
risk trade-offs in development policy and decision-making. J.E. and J.F. undertook the analysis on prioritizing
equity and social justice in approaches to secure resilience. Å.G.S. analyzed the role of adaptive governance in
enabling transformation, and D.W. contributed to the review of the Social-Ecological Systems (SES) literature
on transformation.
Acknowledgments: The work presented in this article is an output of SEI’s initiative Transforming Development
and Disaster Risk (TDDR). TDDR seeks to integrate disaster risk reduction with equitable, resilient and sustainable
development by transforming the complex relationship between development and disaster risk. Its goal is to
improve understanding of how risks are created and how they accumulate, recognizing that disaster risk and
development are closely interlinked. For more information on TDDR, please visit www.sei.org/projects-and-
tools/projects/sei-initiative-on-transforming-development-and-disaster-risk. The authors would like to thank
Albert Salamanca of the Stockholm Environment Institute for his tremendous efforts in coordinating and guiding
the work of the TDDR and express their gratitude to Mark Pelling of King’s College London and Marion Davis of
the Massachusetts Immigrant and Refugee Advocacy Coalition for their valuable comments on an earlier draft of
the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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