INTRODUCTION TO COMPONENTS OF A

COMPUTER SYSTEM
COMPUTER MEMORY-:Computer memory is just like the human
brain. It is used to store data/information and instructions. It is a data storage unit
or a data storage device where data is to be processed and instructions required
for processing are stored. It can store both the input and output can be stored
here.
Characteristics of Computer Memory
• It is faster computer memory as compared to secondary memory.
• It is semiconductor memories.
• It is usually a volatile memory, and main memory of the computer.
• A computer system cannot run without primary memory.
Types of Computer Memory
In general, computer memory is of three types:
• Primary memory
• Secondary memory
• Cache memory
1. Primary Memory
It is also known as the main memory of the computer system. It is used to store
data and programs or instructions during computer operations
Primary memory is of two types:
• RAM (Random Access Memory): It is a volatile memory. Volatile memory
stores information based on the power supply. If the power supply fails/
interrupted/stopped, all the data and information on this memory will be
lost. RAM is used for booting up or start the computer. It temporarily
stores programs/data which has to be executed by the processor. RAM is of
two types:
• S RAM (Static RAM): S RAM uses transistors and the circuits of this memory
are capable of retaining their state as long as the power is applied. This memory
consists of the number of flip flops with each flip flop storing 1 bit. It has less access
time and hence, it is faster.
• D RAM (Dynamic RAM): D RAM uses capacitors and transistors and
stores the data as a charge on the capacitors. They contain thousands of
memory cells. It needs refreshing of charge on capacitor after a few
milliseconds. This memory is slower than S RAM.
• ROM (Read Only Memory): It is a non-volatile memory. Non-volatile memory
stores information even when there is a power supply failed/
interrupted/stopped. ROM is used to store information that is used to operate the
 system. As its name refers to read-only memory, we can only read the programs and
data that is stored on it. It contains some electronic fuses that can be programmed for
a piece of specific information. The information stored in the ROM in binary format.
It is also known as permanent memory. ROM is of 3 typeS.
• PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): This read-only memory is
modifiable once by the user. The user purchases a blank PROM and uses
a PROM program to put the required contents into the PROM. Its content
can’t be erased once written.
• EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): EPROM is an
extension to PROM where you can erase the content of ROM by exposing
it to Ultraviolet rays for nearly 40 minutes.
• EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory): Here the written contents can be erased electrically. You can
delete and reprogramme EEPROM up to 10,000 times. Erasing and
programming take very little time, i.e., nearly 4 -10 ms(milliseconds). Any
area in an EEPROM can be wiped and programmed selectively.
2. Secondary Memory
It is also known as auxiliary memory and backup memory. It is a non-volatile memory and
used to store a large amount of data or information. The data or information stored in
secondary memory is permanent, and it is slower than primary memory. A CPU cannot
access secondary memory directly. The data/information from the auxiliary memory is first
transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
• It is a slow memory but reusable.
• It is a reliable and non-volatile memory.
• It is cheaper than primary memory.
• The storage capacity of secondary memory is large.
• A computer system can run without secondary memory.
• In secondary memory, data is stored permanently even when the power is off.
Types of Secondary Memory
1. Magnetic Tapes: Magnetic tape is a long, narrow strip of plastic film with a thin,
magnetic coating on it that is used for magnetic recording. Bits are recorded on tape as
magnetic patches called RECORDS that run along many tracks. Typically, 7 or 9 bits are
recorded concurrently. Each track has one read/write head, which allows data to be
recorded and read as a sequence of characters. It can be stopped, started moving forward
or backward, or rewound.
2. Magnetic Disks: A magnetic disk is a circular metal or a plastic plate and these plates
are coated with magnetic material. The disc is used on both sides. Bits are stored in
magnetized surfaces in locations called tracks that run in concentric rings. Sectors are
typically used to break tracks into pieces.
Hard discs are discs that are permanently attached and cannot be removed by a single
user.
3. Optical Disks: It’s a laser-based storage medium that can be written to and read. It is
reasonably priced and has a long lifespan. The optical disc can be taken out of the
computer by occasional users.
Types of Optical Disks
CD – ROM
• It’s called compact disk. Only read from memory.
• Information is written to the disc by using a controlled laser beam to burn pits on the
disc surface.
• It has a highly reflecting surface, which is usually aluminium.
• The diameter of the disc is 5.25 inches.
• 16000 tracks per inch is the track density.
• The capacity of a CD-ROM is 600 MB, with each sector storing 2048 bytes of data.
• The data transfer rate is about 4800KB/sec. & the new access time is around 80
milliseconds.
WORM-(WRITE ONCE READ MANY)
• A user can only write data once.
• The information is written on the disc using a laser beam.
• It is possible to read the written data as many times as desired.
• They keep lasting records of information but access time is high.
• It is possible to rewrite updated or new data to another part of the disc.
• Data that has already been written cannot be changed.
• Usual size – 5.25 inch or 3.5 inch diameter.
• The usual capacity of 5.25 inch disk is 650 MB,5.2GB etc.
DVDs
• The term “DVD” stands for “Digital Versatile/Video Disc,” and there are two sorts of
DVDs:
• DVDR (writable)
• DVDRW (Re-Writable)
• DVD-ROMS (Digital Versatile Discs): These are read-only memory (ROM) discs
that can be used in a variety of ways. When compared to CD-ROMs, they can store a
lot more data. It has a thick polycarbonate plastic layer that serves as a foundation for
the other layers. It’s an optical memory that can read and write data.
• DVD-R: DVD-R is a writable optical disc that can be used just once. It’s a DVD that
can be recorded. It’s a lot like WORM. DVD-ROMs have capacities ranging from 4.7
to 17 GB. The capacity of 3.5 inch disk is 1.3 GB.
3. Cache Memory
It is a type of high-speed semiconductor memory that can help the CPU run faster.
Between the CPU and the main memory, it serves as a buffer. It is used to store the data
and programs that the CPU uses the most frequently.
Advantages of Cache Memory
• It is faster than the main memory.
 • When compared to the main memory, it takes less time to access it.
• It keeps the programs that can be run in a short amount of time.
• It stores data in temporary use.
Disadvantages of Cache Memory
• Because of the semiconductors used, it is very expensive.
• The size of the cache (amount of data it can store) is usually small.
Q.3: Explain any four differences between RAM and ROM?
Answer:
RAM ROM

It stands for Random access memory. It stands for read only memory.

It is the fastest memory. It is slower memory as compare to RAM.

It is volatile memory. It is non-volatile memory.

In this memory, data will erase when the In this memory, data will not erase even if
power is off the power is off

Processor
A processor is an integrated electronic circuit that performs the calculations that run a computer. A
processor performs arithmetical, logical, input/output (I/O) and other basic instructions that are passed
from an operating system (OS). Most other processes are dependent on the operations of a processor.

Processors are found in many modern electronic devices, including PCs, smartphones, tablets,
and other handheld devices. Their purpose is to receive input in the form of program instructions
and execute trillions of calculations to provide the output that the user will interface with.

A processor includes an arithmetical logic and control unit (CU), which measures capability in
terms of the following:

• Ability to process instructions at a given time.

 • Maximum number of bits/instructions.
• Relative clock speed.
Input and Output Devices
An input/output device, often known as an IO device, is any hardware that
allows a human operator or other systems to interface with a computer.
Input/output devices, as the name implies, are capable of delivering data
(output) to and receiving data from a computer (input). An input/output (I/O)
device is a piece of hardware that can take, output, or process data. It receives
data as input and provides it to a computer, as well as sends computer data to
storage media as a storage output.

Input Devices
Input devices are the devices that are used to send signals to the computer for
performing tasks.
• Keyboard Devices
• Pointing Devices
• Composite Devices
• Game Controller
• Visual Devices
• Audio Input Devices

Keyboard

The keyboard is the most frequent and widely used input device for entering data
into a computer. Although there are some additional keys for performing other
operations, the keyboard layout is similar to that of a typical typewriter.
Generally, keyboards come in two sizes: 84 keys or 101/102 keys but currently
keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are also available for Windows and the
Internet.
Mouse
The most common pointing device is the mouse. The mouse is used to move a
little cursor across the screen while clicking and dragging
A mouse is an input device that lets you move the mouse on a flat surface to
control the coordinates and movement of the on-screen cursor/pointer.
The left mouse button can be used to select or move items, while the right mouse
button when clicked displays extra menus.
Joystick

A joystick is a pointing device that is used to move the cursor on a computer

screen. A spherical ball is attached to both the bottom and top ends of the stick.
In a socket, the lower spherical ball slides. You can move the joystick in all four
directions.
The joystick’s function is comparable to that of a mouse. It is primarily used in
CAD (Computer-Aided Design) and playing video games on the computer.

Track Ball

Track Ball is an accessory for notebooks and laptops, which works on behalf of
a mouse. It has a similar structure to a mouse. Its structure is like a half-inserted
ball and we use fingers for cursor movement. Different shapes are used for this
like balls, buttons, or squares.
Light Pen
A light pen is a type of pointing device that looks like a pen. It can be used to
select a menu item or to draw on the monitor screen. A photocell and an optical
system are enclosed in a tiny tube. When the tip of a light pen is moved across a
monitor screen while the pen button is pushed, the photocell sensor element
identifies the screen location and provides a signal to the CPU.

Scanner
A scanner is an input device that functions similarly to a photocopier. It’s
employed when there’s information on paper that needs to be transferred to the
computer’s hard disc for subsequent manipulation. The scanner collects images
from the source and converts them to a digital format that may be saved on a
disc. Before they are printed, these images can be modified.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

An Optical Mark Reader is a device that is generally used in educational

institutions to check the answers to objective exams. It recognizes the marks
present by pencil and pen.
Optical Character Reader (OCR)
OCR stands for optical character recognition, and it is a device that reads printed
text. OCR optically scans the text, character by character turns it into a machine-
readable code, and saves it to the system memory.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

It is a device that is generally used in banks to deal with the cheques given to the
bank by the customer. It helps in reading the magnetic ink present in the code
number and cheque number. This process is very fast compared to any other
process.
Bar Code Reader
A bar code reader is a device that reads data that is bar-coded (data that is
represented by light and dark lines).Bar-coded data is commonly used to mark
things, number books, and so on. It could be a handheld scanner or part of a
stationary scanner. A bar code reader scans a bar code image, converts it to an
alphanumeric value, and then sends it to the computer to which it is connected
Web Camera
Because a web camera records a video image of the scene in front of it, a
webcam is an input device. It is either built inside the computer (for example, a
laptop) or attached through a USB connection. A webcam is a computer-
connected tiny digital video camera. It’s also known as a web camera because it
can take images and record video.

Digitizer

Digitizer is a device that is used to convert analog signals to digital signals. it

converts signals into numeric values. An example of a Digitizer is Graphic Tablet,
which is used to convert graphics to binary data.

Microphone

The microphone works as an input device that receives input voice signals and
also has the responsibility of converting it also to digital form. It is a very common
device that is present in every device which is related to music.

Output Devices
Output Devices are the devices that show us the result after giving the input to a
computer system. Output can be of many different forms like image, graphic
audio, video, etc. Some of the output devices are described below.
Monitor
Monitors, also known as Visual Display Units (VDUs), are a computer’s primary
output device. It creates images by arranging small dots, known as pixels, in a
rectangular pattern. The amount of pixels determines the image’s sharpness.
MONITER ARE TWO TYPES-:
• Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor: Pixels are minuscule visual elements
that make up a CRT display. The higher the image quality or resolution, the
smaller the pixels.
• Flat-Panel Display Monitor: In comparison to the CRT, a flat-panel
display is a type of video display with less volume, weight, and power
consumption. They can be hung on the wall or worn on the wrist.
• Flat-panel displays are currently used in calculators, video games, monitors,
laptop computers, and graphical displays.

Television

Television is one of the common output devices which is present in each and
every house. It portrays video and audio files on the screen as the user handles
the television. Nowadays, we are using plasma displays as compared to CRT
screens which we used earlier.
Printer
Printers are output devices that allow you to print information on paper. There are
certain types of printers which are described below.
• Impact Printers
• Character Printers
• Line Printers
• Non-Impact Printers
• Laser Printers
• Inkjet Printers

Speakers

Speakers are devices that produce sound after getting a command from a
computer. Nowadays, speakers come with wireless technology also like
Bluetooth speakers.
Projector

Projectors are optical devices that have the work to show visuals on both types
of screens, stationary and moving both. It helps in displaying images on a big
screen. Projectors are generally used in theatres, auditoriums, etc

Plotter

Plotter is a device that helps in making graphics or other images to give a real
view. A graphic card is mandatorily required to use these devices. These are the
pen-like devices that help in generating exact designs on the computer.

Braille Reader

Braille Reader is a very important device that is used by blind users. It helps
people with low vision or no vision to recognize the data by running their fingers
over the device to understand easily. It is a very important device for blind
persons as it gives them the comfort to understand the letters, alphabets, etc
which helps them in study.

Video Card

A video Card is a device that is fitted into the motherboard of the computer. It
helps in improvising digital content in output devices. It is an important tool
that helps people in using multiple devices.

Headphones

Headphones are just like a speaker, which is generally used by a single person
or it is a single-person usable device and is not commonly used in large areas.
These are also called headsets having a lower sound frequency.
OPERATING SYSTEM
An operating system (OS) is the program that, after being initially
loaded into the computer by a boot program, manages all of the other
application programs in a computer. The application programs make
use of the operating system by making requests for services through a
defined application program interface (API).
Operating System lies in the category of system software. It basically manages
all the resources of the computer. An operating system acts as an interface
between the software and different parts of the computer or the computer
hardware.

Functions of the Operating System

• Resource Management: The operating system manages and allocates
memory, CPU time, and other hardware resources among the various
programs and processes running on the computer.
• Process Management: The operating system is responsible for starting,
stopping, and managing processes and programs. It also controls the
scheduling of processes and allocates resources to them.
• Memory Management: The operating system manages the computer’s
primary memory and provides mechanisms for optimizing memory usage.
• Security: The operating system provides a secure environment for the user,
applications, and data by implementing security policies and mechanisms
such as access controls and encryption.
• Job Accounting: It keeps track of time and resources used by various jobs
or users.
• File Management: The operating system is responsible for organizing and
managing the file system, including the creation, deletion, and
manipulation of files and directories.
• Device Management: The operating system manages input/output devices such as
printers, keyboards, mice, and displays. It provides the necessary drivers and interfaces
to enable communication between the devices and the computer.
• Networking: The operating system provides networking capabilities such as
establishing and managing network connections, handling network protocols, and
sharing resources such as printers and files over a network.
• User Interface: The operating system provides a user interface that enables users to
interact with the computer system. This can be a Graphical User Interface (GUI), a
Command-Line Interface (CLI), or a combination of both.
• Backup and Recovery: The operating system provides mechanisms for backing up
data and recovering it in case of system failures, errors, or disasters.
• Virtualization: The operating system provides virtualization capabilities that allow
multiple operating systems or applications to run on a single physical machine. This
can enable efficient use of resources and flexibility in managing workloads.
• Performance Monitoring: The operating system provides tools for monitoring and
optimizing system performance, including identifying bottlenecks, optimizing resource
usage, and analyzing system logs and metrics.
• Time-Sharing: The operating system enables multiple users to share a computer
system and its resources simultaneously by providing time-sharing mechanisms that
allocate resources fairly and efficiently.
• System Calls: The operating system provides a set of system calls that enable
applications to interact with the operating system and access its resources. System calls
provide a standardized interface between applications and the operating system,
enabling portability and compatibility across different hardware and software
platforms.
• Error-detecting Aids: These contain methods that include the production of dumps,
traces, error messages, and other debugging and error-detecting methods.
For more, refer to Functions of Operating System.
Objectives of Operating Systems
Let us now see some of the objectives of the operating system, which are mentioned below.
• Convenient to use: One of the objectives is to make the computer system more
convenient to use in an efficient manner.
• User Friendly: To make the computer system more interactive with a more
convenient interface for the users.
• Easy Access: To provide easy access to users for using resources by acting as an
intermediary between the hardware and its users.
• Management of Resources: For managing the resources of a computer in a better
and faster way.
• Controls and Monitoring: By keeping track of who is using which resource,
granting resource requests, and mediating conflicting requests from different programs
and users.
• Fair Sharing of Resources: Providing efficient and fair sharing of resources between
the users and programs.
Types of Operating Systems
• Batch Operating System: A Batch Operating System is a type of operating system
that does not interact with the computer directly. There is an operator who takes similar
jobs having the same requirements and groups them into batches.
• Time-sharing Operating System: Time-sharing Operating System is a type of
operating system that allows many users to share computer resources (maximum
utilization of the resources).
• Distributed Operating System: Distributed Operating System is a type of operating
system that manages a group of different computers and makes appear to be a single
computer. These operating systems are designed to operate on a network of computers.
They allow multiple users to access shared resources and communicate with each other
over the network. Examples include Microsoft Windows Server and various
distributions of Linux designed for servers.
• Network Operating System: Network Operating System is a type of operating
system that runs on a server and provides the capability to manage data, users, groups,
security, applications, and other networking functions.
• Real-time Operating System: Real-time Operating System is a type of operating
system that serves a real-time system and the time interval required to process and
respond to inputs is very small. These operating systems are designed to respond to
 events in real time. They are used in applications that require quick and deterministic
responses, such as embedded systems, industrial control systems, and robotics.
• Multiprocessing Operating System: Multiprocessor Operating Systems are used in
operating systems to boost the performance of multiple CPUs within a single computer
system. Multiple CPUs are linked together so that a job can be divided and executed
more quickly.
• Single-User Operating Systems: Single-User Operating Systems are designed to
support a single user at a time. Examples include Microsoft Windows for personal
computers and Apple macOS.
• Multi-User Operating Systems: Multi-User Operating Systems are designed to
support multiple users simultaneously. Examples include Linux and Unix.
• Embedded Operating Systems: Embedded Operating Systems are designed to run
on devices with limited resources, such as smartphones, wearable devices, and
household appliances. Examples include Google’s Android and Apple’s iOS.
• Cluster Operating Systems: Cluster Operating Systems are designed to run on a
group of computers, or a cluster, to work together as a single system. They are used for
high-performance computing and for applications that require high availability and
reliability.
.
Examples of Operating Systems
• Windows (GUI-based, PC)
• GNU/Linux (Personal, Workstations, ISP, File, and print server, Three-tier
client/Server)
• macOS (Macintosh), used for Apple’s personal computers and workstations
(MacBook, iMac).
• Android (Google’s Operating System for smartphones/tablets/smartwatches)
• iOS (Apple’s OS for iPhone, iPad, and iPod Touch)