Physics Year-10

Distance and displacement

Scalar and Vector Quantities

• Scalar quantities have magnitude only.

▪ age 12 years
▪ time 30 s
▪ mass 40 kg
• Vector quantities have both magnitude and direction.
▪ displacement 30 m east
▪ force 5 N south

Distance and Displacement

• In Physics, distance (d) describes how far an object travels.

• Displacement (S) describes the change in position of the object and the direction of
movement.
• Displacement compares the end position with the starting position.
• If you walk 500 m to the shops and 500 m home, the distance travelled is 1000 m.
• Walking to the shops and back home has a displacement of 0 m because the start and
finish is in the same place.

• Distance and displacement are both measured in metres (m).

• Displacement also includes a direction for the movement, for example north or south-east.

Reminder:

Distance: how far an object travels

Displacement: the change in
position and the direction of
movement
The mathematical quantities that are used to describe the motion of objects can be divided into
two categories. The quantity is either a vector or a scalar. These two categories can be
distinguished from one another by their distinct definitions:

• Scalars are quantities that are fully described by a magnitude (or numerical value) alone.
• Vectors are quantities that are fully described by both a magnitude and a direction.
Distance and displacement are two quantities that may seem to mean the same thing yet have
distinctly different definitions and meanings.

• Distance is a scalar quantity that refers to "how much ground an object has covered"
during its motion.
• Displacement is a vector quantity that refers to "how far out of place an object is"; it is the
object's overall change in position.
Displacement-time graphs
Displacement-Time Graphs
• Displacement-time graphs show the change in displacement over a period of time.
• They show the change in position relative to a particular point, usually the starting
position.
• Time is on the x-axis and displacement is on the y-axis.
• We use only use time-displacement graphs when the object is moving in a single plane of
direction
• The steepness of the lines show the speed of the object moving (more steep the line the
faster the object)
• *when do we use it = Displacement-time graphs are used when the movement is in a
single plane of direction, eg north-south, up-down, left-right or forwards-backwards.

Displacement-Time Graphs
• When looking at a displacement-time graph, break the graph into segments and describe
each one separately.
• We can also get a idea of how fast the object was moving
• The graphs axis values should be always a bit more then the max value of the either
time or displacement.
- Sometimes the object may move past its original position.
- For example, when you are throwing a ball between you and a friend and the ball
goes past you if you miss the catch.
- This is shown using negative numbers on
the y-axis.
Displacement Time Graph

The displacement of an object is defined as how far the object is from its initial point. In the
displacement time graph, displacement is the dependent variable and is represented on the y-
axis, while time is the independent variable and is represented on the x-axis. Displacement time
graphs are also known as position-time graphs. There are three different plots for the
displacement time graph, and they are given below:

• The First graph explains that the object is stationary for a period of time such that the
slope is zero, which means that the velocity of the object is zero.
• the Second graph explains the velocity of the object, and hence the slope of the graph
remains constant and positive.
• Third graph explains that the acceleration is constant. The slope of the graph increases
with time.
:

Therefore, the following are the takeaway from the displacement time graph:

• Slope is equal to velocity.

• Constant velocity is explained by the straight line, while acceleration is explained by the
curved lines.
• Positive slope means the motion is in the positive direction.
• Negative slope means the motion is in the negative direction.
• Zero slope means that the object is at rest.
Speed and Velocity
Speed
• Speed measures how fast a moving object is travelling.
• The average speed of an object is defined as the distance travelled per unit of time.
• A speed of 5 metres per second (usually written as m/s or ms-1) means the object travels 5
metres in every second of its motion.
• Speed is a scalar quantity because it has magnitude, but not direction.
Calculating Speed
• Average speed can be calculated by dividing the total distance travelled by the time taken.
• Average speed can be represented by the equation:

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑣 =
𝑡

• Where t represents the time taken.

• The units for speed depend on the units used for distance and time, eg. kilometres per
hour (km/h), metres per second (m/s)

Velocity
• Velocity can be though of as speed in a particular direction.
• It is calculated using displacement rather than distance.
• Velocity is a vector quantity because it has both magnitude and direction.
• The direction of velocity is the same as the direction of the object’s displacement.
Calculating Velocity
• Average velocity can be calculated by dividing the displacement by the time taken.
• Average velocity can be represented by the equation:

𝑠
𝑣𝑎𝑣 =
𝑡
• Where v is velocity, s is displacement and t is time. (av is just average) ** this “s” is
different from the speed formula
• The units for velocity depend on the units used for displacement and time.

Velocity refers to the rate at which an object changes its position in a specific direction
over a certain period of time. It is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude
(speed) and direction. In physics, velocity is typically represented by the symbol "v."

Speed is a scalar quantity that refers to "how fast an object is moving." Speed can be
thought of as the rate at which an object covers distance.Velocity is a vector quantity
that refers to "the rate at which an object changes its position."

Average Speed versus Instantaneous Speed

• Instantaneous Speed - the speed at any given instant in time.

• Average Speed - the average of all instantaneous speeds; found simply by a distance/time ratio.

You might think of the instantaneous speed as the speed that the speedometer reads at any given instant
in time and the average speed as the average of all the speedometer readings during the course of the trip.
Since the task of averaging speedometer readings would be quite complicated (and maybe even
dangerous), the average speed is more commonly calculated as the distance/time ratio.
 Reminder:
Acceleration
Acceleration Velocity: how fast an object moves
in a particular direction
• Acceleration is defined as the rate of change in
velocity.
• It describes how the velocity of an object is changing over a period of time.
• Acceleration is a vector - it has both size and direction since it is calculated using velocity
which is also a vector quantity
• Acceleration is measured in meters per second per second.
• It shows how the velocity in m/s changes every second
• Acceleration can be written as m/s/s or m/s2
• An acceleration of 5 m/s2 means the velocity of an object changes 5 m/s in every second
of its motion.

Calculating Acceleration
• Acceleration can be calculated by dividing the change in velocity by the time.
• Acceleration is represented by the equation:

𝑣−𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡
• Where v is the final velocity, u is the initial velocity and t is time.
• The units for acceleration depend on the units used for velocity and time.
Change in Velocity
• When working out the change in velocity of an object, the initial velocity (u) is always
subtracted from the final velocity (v).

𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 𝑣 − 𝑢

• For example, if an object accelerates from 3 m/s to 9 m/s, the change in velocity is 6 m/s.
9 m/s – 3 m/s = 6 m/s
Change in Velocity
• Sometimes the change in velocity is a negative number.
• This happens when the object is decelerating.
• For example, when a car changes velocity from 60 km/h to 40 km/h, its change in
velocity is : – 20 km/h.
40 km/h – 60 km/h = -20 km/h
Acceleration is a vector quantity that is defined as the rate at which an object changes its
velocity. An object is accelerating if it is changing its velocity.
Acceleration has to do with changing how fast an object is moving. If an object is not changing
its velocity, then the object is not accelerating
The data at the right are representative of a northward-moving
accelerating object. The velocity is changing over the course of
time. In fact, the velocity is changing by a constant amount - 10
m/s - in each second of time. Anytime an object's velocity is
changing, the object is said to be accelerating; it has an
acceleration.

Reminder:

v = final velocity
u = initial velocity
Velocity-Time Graphs
Velocity-Time Graphs
• Velocity-time graphs show the change in velocity over a period of time.
• Time is on the x-axis and velocity is on the y-axis.
• Velocity-time graphs are useful when describing motion
• They can be used to determine the:
• velocity at a point in time
• acceleration of the object
• displacement of the object

Velocity-Time Graphs
• The gradient of the graph shows the
change in velocity (acceleration) of the object.
• An positive slope shows an increase in velocity.
• A negative slope shows a decrease in velocity.
• A horizontal line shows a constant velocity.

Calculating Displacement Using Velocity-Time Graphs

• The area under a velocity-time graph is equal to the displacement of the object.
• Displacement is calculated using the formula: s = t x v
• The blue rectangle on the graph is the area under the graph.
• To find its area, we multiply length by height.
• In this case, the length is the time and the height is the velocity, so we end up with
time x velocity, which is how displacement is calculated.
• The area of regular shapes can be used to calculate displacement.
Constant Velocity versus Changing Velocity

• Consider a car moving with a constant, rightward (+) velocity - say of +10 m/s. As learned
in an earlier lesson, a car moving with a constant velocity is a car with zero acceleration.

If the velocity-time data for such a car were graphed, then the
resulting graph would look like the graph at the right. Note
that a motion described as a constant, positive velocity results
in a line of zero slope (a horizontal line has zero slope) when
plotted as a velocity-time graph. Furthermore, only positive
velocity values are plotted, corresponding to a motion with
positive velocity.

Now consider a car moving with a rightward (+), changing velocity - that is, a car that is moving
rightward but speeding up or accelerating. Since the car is moving in the positive direction and
speeding up, the car is said to have a positive acceleration.

If the velocity-time data for such a car were graphed,

then the resulting graph would look like the graph at the
right. Note that a motion described as a changing,
positive velocity results in a sloped line when plotted as a
velocity-time graph. The slope of the line is positive,
corresponding to the positive acceleration. Furthermore,
only positive velocity values are plotted, corresponding to
a motion with positive velocity

The velocity vs. time graphs for the two types of motion - constant velocity and changing velocity
(acceleration)

Positive Velocity Positive Velocity

Zero Acceleration Positive Acceleration
If the acceleration is zero, then the slope is zero (i.e., a horizontal line). If the acceleration is
positive, then the slope is positive (i.e., an upward sloping line). If the acceleration is negative,
then the slope is negative (i.e., a downward sloping line). This very principle can be extended to
any conceivable motion.

Positive Velocity versus Negative Velocity

• the velocity would be positive whenever the line lies in the positive region (above the x-
axis) of the graph. Similarly, the velocity would be negative whenever the line lies in the
negative region (below the x-axis) of the graph.
• a positive velocity means the object is moving in the positive direction; and a negative
velocity means the object is moving in the negative direction. So one knows an object is
moving in the positive direction if the line is located in the positive region of the graph
(whether it is sloping up or sloping down). And one knows that an object is moving in the
negative direction if the line is located in the negative region of the graph (whether it is
sloping up or sloping down). And finally, if a line crosses over the x-axis from the positive
region to the negative region of the graph (or vice versa), then the object has changed
directions.

Speeding Up versus Slowing Down

• Speeding up means that the magnitude (or numerical value) of the velocity is getting large.
For instance, an object with a velocity changing from +3 m/s to + 9 m/s is speeding up.
Similarly, an object with a velocity changing from -3 m/s to -9 m/s is also speeding up. In
each case, the magnitude of the velocity (the number itself, not the sign or direction) is
increasing; the speed is getting bigger. Given this fact, one would believe that an object is
speeding up if the line on a velocity-time graph is changing from near the 0-velocity point
to a location further away from the 0-velocity point. That is, if the line is getting further
away from the x-axis (the 0-velocity point), then the object is speeding up. And conversely,
if the line is approaching the x-axis, then the object is slowing down.
Analysing a Changing Velocity Motion

• The velocity-time data for this motion show that the car has an acceleration value of 10
m/s/s. (In Lesson 6, we will learn how to relate position-time data such as that in the
diagram above to an acceleration value.) The graph of this velocity-time data would look
like the graph below. Note that the line on the graph is diagonal - that is, it has a slope.
The slope of the line can be calculated as 10 m/s/s. It is obvious once again that the
slope of the line (10 m/s/s) is the same as the acceleration (10 m/s/s) of the car.

Analysing a Two-Stage Motion

• Consider the motion of a car that first travels with a constant velocity (a=0 m/s/s) of 2
m/s for four seconds and then accelerates at a rate of +2 m/s/s for four seconds. That is,
in the first four seconds, the car is not changing its velocity (the velocity remains at 2
m/s) and then the car increases its velocity by 2 m/s per second over the next four
seconds. The velocity-time data and graph are displayed below. Observe the relationship
between the slope of the line during each four-second interval and the corresponding
acceleration value.
Determining slops in a velocity time graph

• The slope of the line on a velocity versus time graph is equal to the acceleration of the
object. If the object is moving with an acceleration of +4 m/s/s (i.e., changing its velocity
by 4 m/s per second), then the slope of the line will be +4 m/s/s. If the object is moving
with an acceleration of -8 m/s/s, then the slope of the line will be -8 m/s/s. If the object
has a velocity of 0 m/s, then the slope of the line will be 0 m/s. Because of its importance,
a student of physics must have a good understanding of how to calculate the slope of a
line. In this part of the lesson, the method for determining the slope of a line on a velocity-
time graph will be discussed.

The line is sloping upwards to the right. But mathematically, by how much does it slope
upwards for every 1 second along the horizontal (time) axis? To answer this question we must
use the slope equation.
Determining the Area on a velocity time Graph

• For velocity versus time graphs, the area shown by the line and the axes represents the
displacement. The diagram below shows three different velocity-time graphs; the shaded
regions between the line and the time-axis represent the displacement during the stated
time interval.

1. The shaded area is representative of the displacement during from 0 seconds to 6 seconds.
This area takes on the shape of a rectangle can be calculated using the appropriate equation.

2. The shaded area is representative of the displacement during from 0 seconds to 4 seconds.
This area takes on the shape of a triangle can be calculated using the appropriate equation.

3. The shaded area is representative of the displacement during from 2 seconds to 5 seconds.
This area takes on the shape of a trapezoid can be calculated using the appropriate equation.

The method used to find the area under a line on a velocity-time graph depends upon whether
the section bound by the line and the axes is a rectangle, a triangle or a trapezoid. Area formulas
for each shape are given below.

Rectangle Triangle Trapezoid

Area = b • h Area = ½ • b • h Area = ½ • b • (h1 + h2)
Newton’s 1st Law of Motion
A force is any push or pull that happens when two objects interact. Forces can make objects:
• Change speed
• Change direction
• Change shape
Newton’s 1st Law
• Newton’s 1st Law states that:
• An object will not change its motion unless acted on by an external
unbalanced force. (an object at rest will stay at rest, an object in motion will
stay in motion, unless an external unbalance force acts upon it)
• In other words: things like to keep doing what they’re already doing.
• For example, a plant at rest (not moving) on a table will stay at rest until an
external force moves it.
• An ice hockey puck sliding on the ice will keep sliding until it is stopped by an
external force.

Inertia
• Newton’s 1st Law is also called the Law of Inertia.
• Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist changes to its motion.
• If the object is at rest, it ‘wants’ to stay at rest.
• Likewise, if it is moving, it ‘wants’ to keep moving.
• When you are moving in a car and it brakes, the friction of the brakes stops the car, but
does not stop you.
• Your body keeps moving forward until stopped by your seatbelt.
Inertia
• An object with a larger mass has more inertia than an object with a smaller mass.
• A bowling ball has more inertia than a netball because it has more mass.
• They are a similar size, but it takes more force to move the bowling ball than the netball
because it has more mass.
• It also takes more force to stop the bowling ball once it is moving than it would take to
stop a netball moving at the same speed.
•
The resistance of the object to any change in its motion, including a change in direction
objects with less mass is easier to change its motion then an object with a greater mass.
Greater mass, needs a greater force to change its motion, less mass requires less force to
change its motion.
When, an object is in motion, it will remain in motion unless it is acted upon by an
external unbalanced force. When an object is at rest, it will remain in rest unless it is
acted upon by an unbalanced force

Reminder:

An object will not change its motion unless acted on by an external unbalanced force.

Newton's first law of motion states that "An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion
stays in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an
unbalanced force." Objects tend to "keep on doing what they're doing." In fact, it is the natural
tendency of objects to resist changes in their state of motion. This tendency to resist changes in
their state of motion is described as inertia.
Inertia: the resistance an object has to a change in its state of motion.
In physics, forces are interactions that can cause objects to accelerate (change their state of
motion) or deform. Forces can be categorized into two main types: balanced forces and
unbalanced forces.

1. Balanced Forces:

• When two or more forces acting on an object cancel each other out, resulting in a net
force of zero, the forces are considered balanced.
• In a situation with balanced forces, the object will remain at rest if it was initially at rest,
or it will continue moving at a constant velocity (constant speed and direction) if it was
already in motion.
• Essentially, balanced forces do not cause any changes in the object's state of motion.
• Example: If you push an object to the right with a force of 10 Newtons, and at the same
time, someone else applies an equal force to the left, the object will not move.

2. Unbalanced Forces:

• Unbalanced forces occur when the net force acting on an object is not zero. This can
happen in one of two scenarios:
• Two forces of unequal magnitude are acting on the same object.
• A single force is acting on an object with no opposing force.
• In a situation with unbalanced forces, the object will accelerate in the direction of the
stronger force.
• The acceleration will be directly proportional to the net force applied and inversely
proportional to the mass of the object (as described by Newton's second law of motion,
F = ma
• Example: If you push an object to the right with a force of 15 Newtons, and no force is
acting in the opposite direction, the object will accelerate to the right.

It's worth noting that even if forces are balanced, an object can still be in motion if it was already
moving. This is because an object in motion tends to stay in motion (in a straight line at a
constant speed) unless acted upon by an unbalanced force (as described by Newton's first law of
motion).

In summary, balanced forces result in no change in motion, while unbalanced forces cause
acceleration.
Newtons 2nd law of motion
Net Force
• The net force on an object is the sum of all the forces acting on the object.
• Forces in the same direction are added together.
• Forces in the opposite direction are subtracted.
• Net force is a vector quantity, so needs to be written with a direction.

Newton’s 2nd Law

• Newton’s 2nd Law states that an object’s acceleration is dependent of two variables:
• The net force acting on the object and the object’s mass
- Acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net external force and
indirectly proportional to its mass. This means that if you increase the force applied
to an object, its acceleration will increase. Conversely, if you increase the mass of the
object, its acceleration will decrease for the same applied force.
• The relationship between force, mass and acceleration can represented by the equation

Fnet = m x a
• Where: Fnet = force in Newtons (N)
m = mass in kilograms (kg)
a = acceleration in metres per second per second (m/s2)
 • The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force acting on the object.
• As the force acting on the object increases, the acceleration of the object is increased.
• More force = more acceleration.
• The acceleration of an object indirectly proportional to the mass of the object.
• As the mass of the object increases, the acceleration of the object is decreased.
• Doubling the mass, halves the acceleration.

Mass and Weight

• In our everyday language, we often use the term ‘weight’ to indicate how much mass
something has in kilograms.
• In physics, weight force is acceleration due to gravity acting on an object.
• Since weight is a force it is measured in Newtons (N).
• On Earth, the acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s2
• An object with a mass of 20 kg will have a weight of 196 N.

Mass:
Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object. It's a fundamental property of an object
and remains constant regardless of its location. Mass is usually measured in kilograms (kg) in
the International System of Units (SI). In simpler terms, it's the "stuff" that makes up an object
and gives it inertia, which is the resistance to changes in motion.

Weight:
Weight is the force exerted on an object due to gravity. It depends on both the mass of the object
and the strength of the gravitational field it's in. Weight is a measure of the gravitational pull on
an object's mass. The formula to calculate weight is:

W = mxg
Newtons 3rd law of Motion
Action-Reaction Forces
• Isaac Newton realised that forces always occur in pairs.
• If a tennis ball is hit by a racquet, the racquet applies a force to the ball and the ball
accelerates forward.
• This is called an action force.
• However, the ball also exerts a force back onto the racquet, which you can feel as you hit
the ball.
• This is called a reaction force.
Newton’s 3rd Law
• Newton’s 3rd Law states that:
• For every action force there is an equal and opposite reaction force.
• For example, a sprinter pushes on the starting blocks, which is the action force.
• The reaction force is the starting blocks pushing back on the sprinter, propelling them
forwards.

How does Newton’s 3rd Law apply in the

following situation?

A book resting on a table exerts its

weight force onto the table. The table
exerts an equal force on the book.

Newton's Third Law of Motion, often referred to as the "action-reaction" law, states that for every
action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. In simpler words, when one object pushes or
pulls on another object, the second object pushes or pulls back with the same amount of force in
the opposite direction.
Potential and kinetic Energy
Energy can be classified into two main forms:
• Potential energy is energy stored in objects, for example a drawn bow.
• Kinetic energy is the energy in moving objects, for example the arrow moving
through the air after it is released.

Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE)

• Gravitational potential energy (GPE) is energy stored in objects above the Earth’s surface.
• Anything that is raised up from the surface
Factors Affecting GPE
• An object gains more potential energy as it is raised higher above the Earth’s surface.
• Gravitational potential energy depends on an object's mass.
• Objects with more mass have more GPE.

70 90
kg kg
Kinetic Energy (KE)
• Kinetic energy (KE) is the energy possessed by moving objects.
Factors Affecting KE
• The kinetic energy of an object is determined by the velocity of the object.
• Objects traveling at a higher velocity have more kinetic energy.
• The kinetic energy of an object is also determined by the mass of the object.
• Objects with a larger mass have more kinetic energy.

Energy Changes in Falling Objects

Reminder: Law of
• When an object is held at a height off the ground, it has its
Conservation of Energy
maximum gravitational potential energy.
GPE → KE Energy cannot be created or
destroyed, only transferred
GPE can turn into KE or transformed.

• As it falls and loses height, and has less gravitational potential

energy.
• The energy is transformed into kinetic energy in the moving object.
• When the object reaches the ground all of its gravitational potential energy has been
transformed into kinetic energy.
Potential and Kinetic Energy Calculations
Measuring Energy
• The amount of energy possessed by an object is measured in Joules (J).
• The unit is named after an English physicist, James Prescott Joule, who studied
heat and energy.
• 1 Joule is the energy needed to move an object a distance of 1 m, using 1 Newton
of force.
Calculating Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE)
• When an object is lifted to a height, the object gains GPE.
• The larger the mass and height, the more energy the object gains.
• Gravitational potential energy can be calculated using the formula:
• GPE = m x g x h
• GPE = mgh
• Where m is mass in kilograms
g is gravity (9.8 m/s2)
h is height in metres

Calculating Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE)

• The triangle symbol is delta and means “change in”

• In the formula for GPE, it specific meaning is “change in height”
Calculating Kinetic Energy (KE)
• The energy of motion, is kinetic energy.
• The larger the mass and the velocity, the more energy the object has.
• Kinetic energy can be calculated using the formula:
• KE = ½ m x v2
• KE = ½ mv2
•
Where, m is mass in kilograms
v is velocity in m/s
Law of Conservation of Energy
• Energy is always conserved: it cannot be created or destroyed, it can only be
transferred or transformed.
• The total energy before the transformation is equal to the total energy after the
transformation.
• If a phone battery can hold 2500 J of chemical energy and you could measure the
amount of light, sound, kinetic and heat energy the phone produced from that
charge, it would all add up to 2500 J.
Law of Conservation of Energy in Falling Objects
• When an object falls, the gravitational potential energy before it is dropped is equal
to the kinetic energy when it reaches the ground.
• The gravitational potential energy is transformed into kinetic energy as it falls.
• At any point in the object’s fall: Energytotal = GPE + KE
Work and Power
Work
• Work is done whenever a force moves an object.
• Work is a measure of the energy used to move the object.
• If the object does not move, no work is done on the object.
• Work is measured in Joules (J).
Work
• Work is a measure of the energy used to move an object.
• The work done depends on the size of the force and the distance the object
moves.
• Work can be represented by the equation:
W=Fxs
• Where:
W is work in Joules (J)
F is force in Newtons (N)
s is displacement in metres (m)

Power
• In physics, power is the rate at which work is being done
• It shows how fast energy is being used.
• Power is measured in Watts (W).
• Power can be represented by the equation:
W
P= t

• Where:
P is power in watts (W)
W is work in joules (J)
t is time in seconds (s)