Chapter 1

The Foundations of Geometry

1.1. The axiomatic method

Perhaps the most significant contribution to the foundations of mathematics made
by the ancient Greeks was the axiomatic method and the notion of proof. The idea is
this: there are a number of fundamental mathematical truths, called axioms or
postulates, from which other true statements may be derived in a finite number of steps.
The mathematical statements that can be proved are called theorems.
An axiomatic system is a list of primitive (undefined) notions together with a list
of statements (called “axioms”) that are presupposed to be “true.” A theorem is any
statement that can be proved using logical deduction from the axioms. Generally, a
mathematical theory that is generated by the axiomatic method includes:
• Primitive notions: A primitive notion is an undefined concept. It is not defined
in terms of previously defined concepts. In a formal theory, primitive notions
usually include primitive terms and primitive relations.
• System of axioms: A set of propositions that are taken to be true (axioms). These
axioms describe the nature and properties of the primitive notions.
• Derived notions and theorems: A derived notion is a concept defined by previous
notions. A theorem is a statement that has been proved based on previously
established statements, such as other theorems, and generally accepted
statements, such as axioms.
For example, the primitive notions of Hilbert’s axiom system for Euclidean Geometry
are:
• Primitive terms: point, straight line, plane
• Primitive relations: Lies on (Incidence, containment), betweenness, and
congruence.
Here are some of Hilbert’s axioms:
• Axiom I.1: Two given points always determine a straight line.

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 • Axiom I.2: For two distinct points A and B, no more than one straight line passes
through them.
Here is an example of the « committees » axiomatic system :
• Primitive terms: committee, member
• System of axioms:
- Axiom 1: Each committee is a set of three members
- Axiom 2: Each member is on exactly two committees
- Axiom 3: No two members may be together on more than one committee
- Axiom 4: There is at least one committee.
1.2. Model for an axiomatic system
A model for an axiomatic system is a well-defined set of specific notions that
assigns meaning to the undefined terms presented in the axiomatic system in a manner
that is correct with the relations defined in the system. Maybe there are many models
for a given axiomatic system. An axiomatic system that has no model is called an
inconsistent theory. A model is concrete if the meanings assigned to the undefined terms
are objects and relations adapted from the real world. A model is abstract if the
meanings assigned to the undefined terms are objects and relations adapted from
another axiomatic system.
For example, the arithmetic model for Euclidean Plane Geometry includes:
Primitive terms:
• Point: A « point » is an ordered pair of real numbers.
• Straight line: A straight line is a proportional triple of real numbers ( A : B : C )

where 𝐴 and 𝐵 are not both equal to zero.

Primitive relations:
• The point (𝑥; 𝑦) lies on the straight line ( A : B : C ) if 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0.

• The relation « betweenness » is defined as follows: Let ( A : B : C ) be a straight

line and(𝑥! ; 𝑦! ), (𝑥" ; 𝑦" ), (𝑥# ; 𝑦# ) be three points on this line. First, assume that 𝐵 ≠ 0.
The point ( x2 ; y2 ) lies between ( x1; y1 ) and ( x3 ; y3 ) if x1 < x2 < x3 or x1 > x2 > x3 . If B = 0

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then one stipulates that the point ( x2 ; y2 ) lies between ( x1; y1 ) and ( x3 ; y3 ) if y1 < y2 < y3

or y1 > y2 > y3 .
One can prove that these primitive notions satisfy all the axioms of Euclidean plane
geometry.
Here is a model for the Committee axiomatic system:
Members An, Bình, Công, Dung, Giang, Phương
Committees {An, Bình, Công}
{An, Dung, Giang}
{Bình, Dung, Phương}
{Công, Giang, Phương}

We have given a specific example of the undefined terms, and it is easy to check that
the axioms of the Committee axiomatic system are satisfied.
1.3. Properties of an axiomatic system
1.3.1. Consistency
Consistency is the most essential property of an axiomatic system. An axiomatic
system is consistent if it does not contain both an axiom and its negation. The consistent
axiomatic system will prove either a statement or its negation, but not both. If it did,
then it would contradict itself. You cannot rely on this inconsistent axiomatic system.
An axiomatic system that does not have the property of consistency has no
mathematical value and is generally not of interest. Because of this, this property is a
requirement for an axiomatic system.
Consistency is often challenging to prove. Using a model is one method for showing
that an axiomatic system is consistent. When a concrete model has been exhibited, we
say we have established the absolute consistency of the axiomatic system. Basically,
we believe that contradictions in the real world are impossible. If an axiomatic system
H has a model in a mathematical theory that is consistent, then the axiomatic system H
is also consistent.
1.3.2. Independence
A single axiom (among others) in an axiomatic system is independent (of the others)
if it cannot be proven from the other axioms alone. An axiomatic system is independent

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if every axiom in the system is independent. Independence is not required for an
axiomatic system; consistency is necessary.
Let A be an axiom of an axiomatic system H. One considers the following axiomatic
system H ' :

{}
H ' = H \ { A} È A

Then, one has the proposition: the axiom A is independent in the system H if the
axiomatic system H ' is consistent. In other words, to prove that one axiom is
independent of all the others, one finds a model in which the axiom is false, but all other
axioms are true.
For example, the axiom of parallels (Euclid’s axiom) in Hilbert’s axiomatic system
for Euclidean geometry is independent among others because when one replaces this
axiom with its negation (Lobachevsky’s axiom), one obtains a new axiomatic system
which is consistent (the Poincaré disk is a model for this new axiomatic system).
1.3.3. Completeness
An axiomatic system is complete if every statement using the defined and primitive
(undefined) terms can be proved or disproved by logical deduction. Therefore, no other
independent axiom can be formulated. However, what does it mean for a statement to
be true but not provable? Consider this example:
« There are an infinite number of pairs of primes whose difference is 2 » (Twin Primes
Conjecture).
Some examples of “twin” primes are 3 and 5, 5 and 7, 11 and 13, 101 and 103, etc.
Computers have found very large pairs of twin primes, but so far, no one has been able
to prove this conjecture. A proof may never be found. In fact, in 2004, a proof was
claimed to have been discovered, but a serious flaw in the proof was found, and the
problem remains unsolved.
In 1900, a famous mathematician named David Hilbert set out a list of 23 unsolved
mathematical problems to focus on the direction of research in the 20th Century. Many
of these problems remain unsolved to this day. Hilbert’s Second Problem challenged
mathematicians to prove that mathematics itself could be reduced to a consistent set of

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axioms that was complete. In other words, the problem was to find axioms from which
all mathematical truths could be proven.
In 1930, a mathematician named Kurt Gödel proved the Incompleteness Theorem.
The theorem says that in any “sufficiently complex” consistent axiomatic system, there
must exist true statements that cannot be proven. Here, “sufficiently complex” means
anything robust enough to describe arithmetic (including addition and multiplication,
prime numbers, divisibility, etc.).
So Hilbert’s Second Problem was solved, but certainly not in the way he intended.
By Gödel’s theorem, we now know that mathematics necessarily contains true
statements for which a proof can never be found.

EXERCISES
Exercise 1. Consider the arithmetic model for Euclidean plane geometry. Prove that the
following three axioms are satisfied.
• Axiom 1: For two points A and B there is a straight line passing through them.
• Axiom 2: For each two distinct points A and B, there is exactly one straight line
passing through them.
• Axiom 3: Each straight line contains at least two points. There are at least three
points that do not lie on one straight line.
Exercise 2. Consider Axiom 1 from the Committee axiomatic system. Prove that this
axiom is independent of the other axioms.

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1.4. Introduction to Euclid’s Elements
1.4.1. Definitions, axioms, and postulates in Book 1
The Elements consists of thirteen books. Book 1 outlines the fundamental
propositions of plane geometry, including the three cases in which triangles are
congruent, various theorems involving parallel lines, the theorem regarding the sum of
the angles in a triangle, and the Pythagorean theorem. Book 2 is commonly said to deal
with “geometric algebra” since most of its theorems have simple algebraic
interpretations. Book 3 investigates circles and their properties and includes theorems
on tangents and inscribed angles. Book 4 is concerned with regular polygons inscribed
in and circumscribed around circles. Book 5 develops the arithmetic theory of
proportion. Book 6 applies the theory of proportion to plane geometry and contains
theorems on similar figures. Book 7 deals with elementary number theory, e.g., prime
numbers, greatest common denominators, etc. Book 8 is concerned with geometric
series. Book 9 contains various applications of results in the previous two books and
includes theorems on the infinitude of prime numbers, as well as the sum of a geometric
series. Book 10 attempts to classify incommensurable (i.e., irrational) magnitudes using
the so-called “method of exhaustion”, an ancient precursor to integration. Book 11 deals
with the fundamental propositions of three-dimensional geometry. Book 12 calculates
the relative volumes of cones, pyramids, cylinders, and spheres using the method of
exhaustion. Finally, Book 13 investigates the five so-called Platonic solids.
Here are some definitions in Book 1:
1. A point is that of which there is no part.
2. And a line is a length without breadth.
3. And the extremities of a line are points.
4. A straight line is (any) one that lies evenly with points on itself.
5. A surface is that which has length and breadth only.
6. And the extremities of a surface are lines.
…
Remarks:
The terms such as « part », « length », « breadth », « and evently »… have not been
defined yet.

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Here are some axioms in Book 1:
1. Things equal to the same thing are also equal to one another.
2. And if equal things are added to equal things then the wholes are equal.
3. And if equal things are subtracted from equal things, then the remainders are
equal.
4. And things coinciding with one another are equal to one another.
5. And the whole is greater than the part.
And here are some postulates in Book 1:
I. Let it have been postulated to draw a straight line from any point to any point.
II. And to produce an infinite straight line continuously in a straight line.
III. And to draw a circle with any center and radius.
IV. And that all right angles are equal to one another.
V. And that if a straight line falling across two (other) straight lines makes internal
angles on the same side (of itself whose sum is) less than two right angles, then the two
(other) straight lines, being produced to infinity, meet on that side (of the original
straight-line) that the sum of the internal angles is less than two right-angles (and do
not meet on the other side).
1.4.2. Incompleteness of Euclid’s Elements
• Euclid did not recognize the need for primitive (undefined) notions (point, line,
plane) to define other notions.
• Euclid’s system of axioms and postulates is both redundant and insufficient. For
example, the postulate « All right angles are equal to one another » can be proven
from the other axioms and postulates. Furthermore, the system does not contain
axioms of order and continuity.
Although the system of axioms is incomplete, Euclid’s Elements is the most famous
mathematical work of classical antiquity. More than 2,000 years later, Hilbert
introduced a complete axiom system for Euclidean geometry.
1.4.3. About Euclid’s fifth postulate (the parallel postulate)
The parallel postulate, also called Euclid's Fifth Postulate because it is the fifth
postulate in Euclid's Elements, is a distinctive axiom in Euclidean geometry. It states
that, in two-dimensional geometry:

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 If a straight line intersects two straight lines forming two interior angles on the
same side that sum to less than two right angles, then the two lines, if extended
indefinitely, meet on that side on which the angles sum to less than two right angles.
The postulates from I to IV are clearly stated. However, the postulate V seems to
be more complex. This postulate does not explicitly talk about parallel lines; it is only
a postulate related to parallelism. Euclid gave the definition of parallel lines in Book I,
Definition 23, just before the five postulates.
Euclidean geometry is the study of geometry that satisfies all of Euclid's
axioms, including the parallel postulate. A geometry where the parallel postulate does
not hold is known as a non-Euclidean geometry.
Many mathematicians believed the postulate V is a theorem, which means it can be
proven using Euclid’s first four postulates. Many attempts were made to prove the Fifth
Postulate from the other four, many being accepted as proofs for long periods until the
mistake was found. Although the mathematicians had failed to prove the parallel
postulate, the process of proving this postulate led them to some new results, such as
• Giving some propositions which are equivalent to the parallel postulate.
• Discovering non-Euclidean Geometry (hyperbolic geometry and elliptic
geometry).
The independence of the parallel postulate from Euclid's other axioms was finally
demonstrated by Eugenio Beltrami in 1868.
1.5. Hilbert’s Axiom System for Euclidean Geometry
1.5.1. Introduction
Hilbert’s axiom system for Euclidean geometry includes six primitive notions and
twenty axioms. Six primitive notions are:
• Three primitive terms: point, straight line, plane
• Three primitive relations: incidence, betweenness, and congruence.
The system of 20 axioms is arranged in five groups. Each of these groups expresses, by
itself, certain related fundamental facts of our intuition.
• Group I: 8 axioms of incidence
• Group II: 4 axioms of order
• Group III: 5 axioms of congruence

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 • Group IV: 2 axioms of continuity
• Group V: 1 axiom of parallels (Euclid’s axiom).
1.5.2. Group I – Axioms of Incidence
Axiom I.1. Two given points always determine a straight line.
Axiom I.2. For each two distinct points A and B, there exists not more than one straight
line passing through them.
Axiom I.3. Each straight line contains at least two (distinct) points. There are at least
three points that do not lie on one straight line.
Definition 1. Three points A, B, C are said to be collinear if they lie on one straight
line. In contrast, three points A, B, and C are non-collinear.
Axiom I.4. For any three points A, B, and C not lying on one straight line, there is some
plane passing through them. Each plane contains at least one point.
Axiom I.5. For any three non-collinear points, no more than one plane passes through
them.
Axiom I.6. If two distinct points A and B of a straight line 𝑑 lie on a plane a , then
every point of 𝑑 lies on the plane a .
Definition 2. A straight line 𝑑 lies on a plane a if every point of 𝑑 lies on the plane a
Axiom I.7. If two planes have a point A in common, they have at least a second point
B.
Axiom I.8. In the space, there are at least four points not lying on one plane.
Theorem 1. Two distinct straight lines of a plane have either one point or no point in
common.
Proof. Assume that two distinct straight lines a and b have two points in common.
From the axiom (I.2) one deduces that a º b .
Theorem 2. A straight line a not lying on a plane a has not more than one common
point with that plane.
Proof. Assume that the straight line a and the plane a have at least two distinct
common points A and B. Applying the axiom (I.6), we get that the whole line a should
lie on the plane a . However, this contradicts the premise of the theorem a Ë a .
Theorem 3. If two distinct planes have a common point, then their intersection is a
straight line.

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Proof. Let A be a common point of two distinct planes a and b . Let us apply the
axiom (I.7). According to this axiom, these two planes have at least one more common
point. We denote it by B and consider the straight line AB (this straight line exists
according to the axiom (I.1)).
The points A and B lie on the plane a . Let us apply the axiom (I.6) to them. This
axiom says that the line AB in whole, lies on the plane a . Let us repeat these arguments
for the plane b . As a result, we find that the line AB in whole, lies on the plane b .
Thus, the straight line AB is a part of the intersection a Ç b .
The rest is to prove that the intersection of planes a Ç b contains no points other
than those lying on the line AB. If such a point C existed, we would have three points
A, B, and C, not lying on one straight line, and we would have two distinct planes a
b passing through these three points. However, it contradicts the axiom (I.5). The
contradiction shows that the intersection a Ç b coincides with the line AB.
Definition 3. Two straight lines are said to be intersecting if they have one and only
one point in common. That common point is called point of intersection. Two planes
are said to be intersecting if they have one and only one common straight line. That
common straight line is called the line of intersection.
Theorem 4.
i) For a straight line and a point not lying on this straight line, there is precisely
one plane passing through this line and this point.
ii) For a pair of intersecting but not coinciding straight lines, there is exactly one
plane containing both of them.
Proof. Let A be a point, not lying on a straight line a . According to the axiom (I.3),
there are two distinct points B and C on a . Then the points A, B, and C are three points
not lying on one straight line. Due to the axioms (I.4) and (I.5), there is exactly one
plane a passing through A, B and C. Let us apply the axiom (I.6) to the straight line a
and the plane a . From this axiom, we derive that the line a is contained within the
plane a .

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 Now let a and b be a pair of intersecting, but not coinciding straight lines.
According to theorem 1, their intersection consists of one point, and we denote this
point by A. According to the axiom (I.3), there is at least a point B Î a distinct from A
and a point C Î b distinct from A. According to the proof above, exactly one plane
passes through point B and the straight line b , and one plane b passes through point
C and the straight line a. Thus, the two planes a b contain three non-collinear points
A, B, and C. From the axioms (I.4) and (I.5), we derive that a º b . Then there is exactly
one plane containing both a and b .

Theorem 5. On each plane, there are at least three points not lying on one straight line.
Proof. Assume that some arbitrary plane ( P ) is given. Applying the axiom (I.4), there

is a point A Î ( P ). According to the axiom (I.8), we can choose a point B Ï ( P ) . Let d

be the straight line passing through A and B. According to the axiom (I.3), there is a
point C Ï d . Then three points A, B and C dot not lie on one straight line.
According to the axiom (I.4), there is a plane ( Q ) passing through A, B and C. Then

the planes ( P ) and ( Q ) have the common point A. Applying the axiom (I.7), we

conclude that, apart from the common point A, there is at least one other common point
D of the planes ( P ) and ( Q ) .

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 According to the axiom (I.8), there exists a point E Ï ( Q ) . Let ( R ) be the plane

passing through E, B and D. The planes ( P ) and ( R ) have a common point D.

According to the axiom (I.7), they have one another common point F, distinct from D.
Thus, the plane ( P ) contains three points A, D and F, not lying on one straight line (if

A, D, and F lie on one straight line then ( R ) º ( BDF ) º ( Q ) . This is a contradiction).

Remark:
• Only the relations « incidence » between a point and a straight line or between a
point and a plane are primitive
• Within the axioms of Group I, we know only that each straight line contains at
least two points, each plane contains at least three non-collinear points, and each
space contains at least four points not lying on a plane.
1.5.3. Group II – Axioms of Order
The primitive relation within this group is the « betweenness ».
Axiom II.1. If a point B lies between the points A and C then three points A, B, and C
are distinct and lie on one straight line. Furthermore, B lies also between C and A.
Axiom II.2. For any two distinct points A and C, there is at least a point B on the
straight line AC such that C lies between A and B.

Axiom II.3. For any three points lying on one straight line, there is not more than one
of them can lie between two others.

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Definition 4. Let A and B be two arbitrary distinct points. According to the axiom (I.1)
they fix the straight line AB.
An open interval ( AB ) (or simply an interval) is the set of all points of the line AB

lying between the points A and B:

( AB ) = { X Î AB : X lies between A and B}

A segment [ AB ] is defined as follows :

[ AB] = { A} È {B} È ( AB ).
A point M lies between A and B is called an interior point of the segment [ AB ] . The

two points A and B are called the ending points of the segment [ AB ] . The interval ( AB )

is called the interior of the segment [ AB ] . The points of the straight line AB not

belonging to the segment [ AB ] constitute the exterior of the segment [ AB ] .

Axiom II.4. (Pasch’s axiom). Let A, B and C be three points not lying on one straight
line and let a be a straight line on the plane ( ABC ) not passing through any of these

three points. If the line a intersects the segment [ AB ] , then it necessarily intersects

either the segment [ BC ] or the segment [ AC ].

Remarks :
• By the axiom (II.1), we know that the relation « betweenness » only has meaning
for three distinct points that are on one straight line.
• By the axiom (II.2), we know that for a given segment [ AC ], there always exists

a point B lying outside this segment.

• We know until now that each straight line contains at least three points.
Theorem 6. For every segment [ AB ] , there exists a point C lying between A and B.

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Proof. According to the axiom (I.3), there is a point D not lying on the straight line AB.
Let us apply the axiom (II.2) to the points B and D. It yields the existence of a point E
such that D lies between B and E. By the axiom (II.2), there is a point F such that A lies
between E and F.

We apply Pasch’s axiom to the points A, B, E, and the straight line FD. According
to this axiom, the line FD should cross the segment [ AE ] or the segment [ AB ] . Assume

that the line FD crosses the segment [ AE ] at some its interior points I. According to the

axiom (I.2), we conclude that the line FD coincides with the line FE. This means that
D º E . This is a contradiction. Therefore, the straight line FD crosses the segment [ AB]
at a point C.
Theorem 7. For any three distinct points A, B and C lying on one straight line, at least
one of them lies between two others.
Proof. Let A, B, and C be three arbitrary points lying on a straight line d . Assume that
the point A does not lie between B and C, and also assume that the point C does not lie
between A and B. Let us prove that B lies between A and C.

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 According to the axiom (I.3), there is a point D not lying on the straight line d .
Then, we apply the axiom (II.2) to the points B and D and find a point E such that D
lies between E and B.
Let us apply successively Pasch’s axiom to:
• three points B, E, C and the straight line AD, we get that AD intersects the
segment [ EC ] at a point F lying between E and C;

• three points A, B, E and the straight line CD, we get that the line CD intersects
the segment [ AE ] at a point G lying between A and E;

• three points A, E, F and the straight line CG, we conclude that CG intersects the
segment [ AF ] at the point D lying between A and F;

• three points A, F, C and the straight line ED, we get that ED intersects the
segment [ AC ] at the point B lying between A and C.

Corollary 1. From the axioms (II.2), (II.3), the theorems 6 and 7 we derive that :
a) For any segment [ AB ] there are always some its interior points and exterior

points.
b) For any three points A, B and C lying on one straight line, exactly one of them
lies between two others.
Theorem 8. Let A, B, C and D be a group of four points. Assume that the point B lies
between A and C, while the point C lies between B and D. Then both points B and C lie
between the points A and D.
Proof. The proof is left as an exercise for the reader.
Theorem 9. Let A, B, C and D be a group of four points. If the point B lies between A
and C and the point C between A and D, then B lies between A and D, and C lies between
B and D.
Proof.
a) C lies between B and D
Let d be a straight line passing through four points A, B, C and D. Applying the
axiom (I.3), we choose a point E Ï d . According to the axiom (II.2), there is a point F
such that the point E lies between F and D. Let us apply successively Pasch’s axiom to :

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 • three points A, E, D and the straight line FC, we get that FC intersects the
segment [ AE ] at a point G lying between A and E;

• three points A, E, B and the straight line FC, we get that FC intersects the
segment [ BE ] at a point H lying between B and E;

• three points B, E, D, and the straight line FC, we conclude that C lies between B
and D.

b) B lies between A and D

First, we prove that the straight line BE does not intersect the segment [ AF ] . Let’s

apply Pasch’s axiom to:

• Three points F, C, D, and the straight line BE. According to this axiom, BE
intersects the segment [ FC ] at a point H, lying between F and C.

• Three points A, F, C, and the straight line BE, we get that BE does not
intersect the segment [ AF ].

Finally, applying Pasch’s axiom to three points A, F, D, and the straight line BE, we
conclude that BE intersects the segment [ AD] at point B lying between A and D.

Theorem 10. If a point B lies between two other points A and C, then the segments [ AB ]

and [ BC ] are subsets of the segment [ AC ].

Proof. Applying the theorem 9.

Theorem 11. Each straight line contains infinitely many points.
Proof. Let d be a straight line in the plane. According to the axiom (I.3), there are at
least two distinct points A and B on d .

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 • Construction of the interior points of the segment [ AB ]

According to theorem 6, there is at least a point C lying between A and B, and there
is also a point D lying between A and C. Let us apply theorem 9 to four points A, B, C,
and D. From this theorem we derive that D is an interior point of the segment [ AB ] and

D does not coincide with C. Applying the theorem 6, there is at least a point E lying
between A and D. Clearly, the point E does not coincide with D and C. According to
theorem 9, we get that E lies between A and B. Using the same reasoning above, we
can conclude that there are infinitely many points lying between A and B.
• Construction of the exterior points of the segment [ AB ]

According to the axiom (II.2), there is a point C ' Î d such that B lies between A and
C ' , and there is also a point D ' Î d such that C ' lies between A and D ' . The point D '

is outside of the segment éë AC ' ùû and D ' does not coincide with C ' . Then, the point D '

is outside of the segment [ AB ] . Using the same reasoning above, we can conclude that

there are infinitely many exterior points of the segment [ AB ] . Thus, the theorem has

been proven.
1.5.4. Group III – Axioms of Congruence
The primitive relation within this group is the « congruence », including the congruence
of segments and angles.
Axiom III.1. If [ AB ] is a segment and éë A' x ) is a ray (a half-line) beginning at a point

A' then there is a point B ' on this ray such that AB = A' B' . For every segment [ AB ] ,

we always have AB = BA .
Axiom III.2. If A' B' = AB and A'' B'' = AB then A' B' = A'' B'' .
Axiom III.3. Let [ AB ] and éë A' B' ùû be two segments. Let C be a point lying between A

and B, while C ' be a point lying between A' and B ' . If AC = A'C ' and CB = C ' B ' then
AB = A' B' .
Axiom III.4. Let Ð ( x, y ) be an angle and (a ) be a half-plane whose boundary is a

straight line d containing a ray x ' . Then, there is a unique ray y ' within the half-plane

(a ) , emanating from the endpoint of the ray ( )

x ' such that Ð x' , y ' = Ð ( x, y ) .

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For every angle Ð ( x, y ) , we have

Ð ( x, y ) = Ð ( x, y )
Ð ( x, y ) = Ð ( y, x )

Axiom III.5. Let DABC and DA' B 'C ' be two triangles. If the conditions
AB = A' B' , AC = AC
' '
, ÐBAC = ÐB' AC
' '

are fulfilled, then we have

ÐABC = ÐA' B 'C ' and ÐACB = ÐAC
' ' '
B.
Remarks :
• The axiom (III.1) does not confirm the uniqueness of the point B ' satisfying the
condition AB = A' B' , while the existence of the ray y ' within the axiom (III.4) is
unique.
• The axiom (III.1) does not confirm that AB = AB , while the reflexivity
Ð ( x, y ) = Ð ( x, y ) is stated within the axiom (III.4).

Theorem 12.
1) If AB = A' B' then AB = B' A'
2) The binary relation of congruence for segments is an equivalence relation
(reflexive, symmetric, and transitive).
Theorem 13. Let [ AB ] be segment and A' be a point. Then, on the ray éë A' x ) beginning

at the endpoint A' , there exists one and only one point B ' such that A' B' = AB .
Proof. Assume that on the ray éë A' x ) there are two points B1' and B2 ' such that A' B1' = AB

and A' B2' = AB . Let éë A' y ) be an another ray beginning at the point A' . Let C be a point

on the ray éë A' y ). Let us consider two triangles D CA' B1' and D CA' B2' . We have

ÐA' = ÐA'
'
AC = AC
'

A' B1' = A' B2'

According to the axiom (III.5), we have ÐACB

'
1 = ÐACB2 . From the axiom (III.4)
' ' '

and the theorem 1, we deduce that B1' = B2' .

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Definition 9. Two triangles D ABC and D A' B 'C ' are said to be congruent to one another
if the conditions
AB = A' B' , BC = B 'C ' , AC = AC
' '
and ÐA = ÐA' , ÐB = ÐB' , ÐC = ÐC ' .
are fulfilled. We denote D ABC = D A' B'C ' .
Theorem 14. Two triangles are congruent if one of the following conditions is fulfilled
• SAS (Side – Angle - Side): If two pairs of sides of two triangles are equal in
length, and the included angles are equal in measurement, then the triangles are
congruent.
• ASA (Angle – Side - Angle): If two pairs of angles of two triangles are equal in
measurement, and the included sides are equal in length, then the triangles are
congruent.
• SSS (Side – Side - Side): If three pairs of sides of two triangles are equal in
length, then the triangles are congruent.
Proof. The proof is left as an exercise for the reader.
Definition 10.
• Two angles are called supplementary if they have a common vertex and a
common side, and the second sides of two angles are two opposite rays.
• Two angles are said to be vertically opposite angles (or vertical angles) if they
share a common vertex and their sides are opposite rays. Two vertical angles
are made when two straight lines intersect.
• An angle that is congruent to its supplement is called a right angle.
Theorem 15.
1) If two angles are congruent, then their supplements are also congruent.
2) Two vertical angles are congruent
3) All right angles are congruent to one another.
Theorem 16. Every line segment has exactly one point that divides the segment into
two congruent segments. This point is called the midpoint of that segment.
Definition 11. Let [ AB ] and [CD ] be two straight line segments. If there is a point M

lying between A and B such that AM = CD we say that the segment [ AB ] is greater

than the segment [CD ] , and write it as AB > CD .

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Definition 12. Let Ð(Ox, Oy ) and Ð(O' x' , O' y ' ) be two arbitrary angles. If there is a ray

Oz lying inside the angle Ð(Ox, Oy ) such that Ð ( Ox, Oz ) = Ð ( O' x' , O' y ' ) then we say

that Ð ( Ox, Oy ) > Ð (O' x' , O' y ' ) .

Theorem 17. An exterior angle of a triangle is greater than either of the non-adjacent
interior angles of the triangle.
Proof. The proof is left as an exercise for the reader.
Theorem 18. In a triangle, a bigger side is opposite to a bigger angle, and conversely,
a bigger angle is opposite to a bigger side.
Proof. The proof is left as an exercise for the reader.
Corollary 2.
• If two straight lines are perpendicular to the same line, they do not intersect.
• If a transversal intersects two straight lines so that corresponding angles are
congruent, they do not intersect.
1.5.5. Group IV – Axioms of Continuity
Axiom (IV.1). Let {[ An Bn ]}n be a sequence of segments on some straight line such that :

• [ An+1Bn+1 ] Ì [ An Bn ] for all n Î N

• For every segment [CD ] , there exists n Î N such that An B n < CD .

Then, the intersection of these segments is not empty, and there exists exactly one point
I belonging to all of them.
The axiom (IV.1) is called Cantor’s axiom.
Axiom (IV.2). For any two segments [ AB ] and [CD ] , there is a natural number n Î N

such that
EF = nAB > CD
where the segment [ EF ] is obtained as the sum of n replicas of the segment [ AB ].

The axiom (IV.2) is known as the Archimedes axiom.

1.5.6. Group V – Axiom of Parallels
The fifth group consists of one axiom, called the axiom of parallels.
Definition 12. Two distinct straight lines that lie both on a plane and do not have any
common point are said to be parallel.

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Theorem 19. Let a, b and c be three straight lines on the plane (a ) . Assume that c

intersects a, b and forms two congruent alternate interior angles. Then we have 𝑎 ∥ 𝑏.
Proof.
Theorem 20. (Existence of the parallels)
For any point M not lying on a straight line a , there is a straight line passing through
point M and being parallel to the line a .
Proof. Applying the theorem 19.
Axiom V. (Axiom of parallels or Euclid’s Axiom)
For any point M not lying on a straight line a , there is exactly one straight line passing
through point M and being parallel to the line a .
Theorem 21. Assume that two straight lines a and b are parallel and intersect with
the third line c . Then the alternate interior angles formed by a , b and c are congruent.
Proof. According to (III.4), there is precisely one ray emanating from B, being on the
opposite side of the ray a1 such that

Ð ( a1 , AB ) = Ð ( b1' , BA).

Let b' be the straight line containing the ray b1' . According to theorem 19 and the axiom

V, we get b ' º b .
Theorem 22. The sum of angles in an arbitrary triangle equals two right angles (or a
straight angle).
1.6. Equivalence between the postulate V and Euclid’s axiom
We recall here the statement of the postulate V in the Elements and Euclid’s parallel
axiom in secondary school mathematics:
The postulate V:
If a straight line intersects two straight lines forming two interior angles on the
same side that sum to less than two right angles, then the two lines, if extended
indefinitely, meet on that side on which the angles sum to less than two right angles.
Euclid’s parallel axiom in secondary school mathematics curriculum states that:
For any point M not lying on a straight line a, there is exactly one straight line
passing through point M and being parallel to line a.
Now, we will prove the equivalence between these two propositions.

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1) If we accept Euclid’s Fifth Postulate, then we can prove Euclid’s Axiom
Let B be a point not lying on the straight line a. Note that the existence of a straight
line that passes through B and does not intersect the line a has been proven without
using the postulate V. We only need to prove the uniqueness.
Assume that there are two straight lines b and b' which are parallel to the straight
line a.

Because a is parallel to b , by the postulate V, one has

a + b ³ 2v (1)
a1 + b1 ³ 2v (2)
(Here, v stands for a right angle).
Furthermore,
(a + b ) + (a1 + b1 ) = (a + a1 ) + ( b + b1 ) = 4v (3)

Then
(a + b ) + (a1 + b1 ) = 2v.
It follows from the same reasoning above that
a + b ' = a1 + b1' = 2v.

Therefore b = b ' and b1 = b1' . One obtains b º b' .

2) If we accept Euclid’s axioms, then we can prove the Postulate V
Assume that the straight line c intersects two straight lines a, b at A, B and forms
two interior angles on the same side a1 , b1 which satisfy the following condition
a1 + b1 < 2v.

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We need to prove the two straight lines a and b meet on the side of the angles a1 , b1 .
Let a 2 , b 2 be two interior angles on the opposite side of the angles a1 , b1 , formed by the
straight line c and the two straight lines a, b . We have
a 2 + b 2 > 2v.

We construct a straight line b' passing through the point B and the two straight lines b'
and c form two supplementary angles b1' , b 2' which satisfied :

a1 + b1' = 2v (4)
a 2 + b 2' = 2v (5)
Furthermore, we have
b1' + b 2' = 2v (6)
It follows from (4), (5) and (6) that
a1 = b 2' .

We conclude that b' / / a , because if b' intersects a at a point C, this is a contradiction.

Since we accept Euclid’s axiom, the straight line b' is unique.
Because b ' ¹ b then b intersects a . It remains to prove that b intersects a at a point on
the same side as a1 and b1 .
We have
a1 + b1 < 2v
b1 + b 2 = 2v.
Hence a1 < b 2 .

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Therefore, if the straight line b intersects a at a point C ' on the same side with a 2 , b 2

then we have (in the triangle ABC ' ) :

a1 < b 2 .

This is impossible.
1.6. Introduction to non-Euclidean Geometry

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