See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/372188272

ISSUES IN THE GRID INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

Conference Paper · February 2015

CITATIONS READS

0 31

1 author:

K.V. Vidyanandan
NTPC Limited
24 PUBLICATIONS 766 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Solar PV, Wind Energy and Energy Storage. View project

Electric Vehicles View project

All content following this page was uploaded by K.V. Vidyanandan on 07 July 2023.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 ISSUES IN THE GRID INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS
Dr. K.V. Vidyanandan, Member, IEEE
Additional General Manager
Power Management Institute, NTPC Ltd., Noida, India.
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract—Power generation from renewable energy resource, such as wind and solar radiation, often takes place with
decentralized or distributed generation (DG) units. These units, generally located in remote locations, are not centrally
planned or dispatched, and are usually connected to distribution networks at low voltage (LV) or medium voltage (MV)
levels. In few cases, renewable based generation having large capacity implemented on a utility scale, are connected to the
transmission network. As a consequence, the power generation structure is moving from the large, centralized plants to a
mixed generation pool consisting of traditional synchronous machine based large plants and many smaller DG units. Most
of the renewable based generators have electrical characteristics that are different from the conventional directly
connected synchronous generators. Since a large group of DG technologies use power electronics converters for grid
connectivity, they introduce many technical issues related to power quality, stability and protection of the distribution
system. This paper presents some of the technical challenges that need to be addressed for the effective grid integration
of renewable energy systems (RES) based power generators so that eventually, our reliance on polluting and expensive
fossil fuel based power generation can be reduced.

Index Terms—Distributed Generation, Power Quality, Renewable Energy, Solar PV, Wind Turbines.

I. INTRODUCTION

R ENEWABLE energy share in the world power system is growing exponentially. During the past 50 years since 1965,
electricity generated from renewables has increased by more than 500%. In 2013, generation capacity based on RES
jumped more than 8%, accounting for over 56% of net additions [1]. By the end of 2013, the world renewable power
generation has reached 1560 GW, which is nearly 21.7% of the world's total electricity generation [2]. Hydro at 1000 GW
is the major electricity supplying renewable. Wind comes next at 319 GW, while solar photovoltaic is around 137 GW, and
solar thermal is around 326 GW. Annual growth rate of total renewables as of 2013 is 6.4% [3]. Global wind share is growing
at 20% per year whereas; solar PV is growing at about 60% per year. At present, wind share in the world energy mix is
around 2.5% and that of solar PV is around 1.1%. The world target, as per the goal set by the UN Sustainable Energy for All
initiative, is to double the share of renewables in the global energy mix by year 2030 [4].
As renewable energy become more reliable and economically feasible, there is a trend to interconnect RES based
generators to the grids to serve different purposes and offer more options to end-users. These include: a) Improving
availability and reliability of power supply, b) Peak load shaving, and c) Selling surplus power back to utilities. The increasing
share of renewable energy in the power systems will bring both positive and negative consequences to the existing system.
Some of the positive aspects include relief in line congestion, reliable power in remote locations, energy security, reduction
in pollution and global warming. However, the issues arising from renewable based power in grid is much more challenging
and thus needs more considerations.
Renewable energy sources have a much lower energy density than coal or oil, and hence, for capturing optimum energy
for practical applications, these units are geographically more dispersed. Hence, these generators cannot have very large
capacity as compared to conventional units. The rating of renewable generators typically vary from a few hundreds
kilowatts (kW) to few megawatts (MW) only. RES can be embedded into all types of electric networks, from small to large
capacity grids. However, due to the relatively small capacity and the remoteness from HV transmission lines, these
generators are usually connected to the power grid at the distribution level, normally at MV or LV level.
The integration of a RES into the power grid depends on a number of factors, both regulatory and technical. The
regulatory aspects include the percentage share of RES, location of point of common coupling (PCC), energy conversion
technology, the mix of generation technologies, and the size and characteristics of the network in which it is connected.
The technical aspects include the effect on system inertia, droop, power quality, working of network protection and stability
[5]-[8]. Integration of renewable based generation alters the power flows in distribution networks and changes the
traditional one way power flow from the high to the low voltage levels of the power system.
The main objective of a power system network is to efficiently deliver reliable electricity to the consumer. System
frequency and node voltage are the two important parameters which guarantee the stable operation of the grid. It is a
known fact that more the number of generators participating in system frequency and voltage regulation functions, more
smoothened frequency and voltage excursions result after system events. Currently, renewable systems, including wind
turbine generators (WTG) and solar PV systems, do not participate in system frequency and voltage regulation functions.
This is mainly due to the facts that majority of the RES (e.g. wind and solar PV) are highly intermittent and fluctuating type
of resources. Due to technical limitations, RES based units do not increase or decrease their active/reactive power outputs
when the frequency/voltage deviates from the respective nominal values. Since frequency and voltage stability in the
1
power grid is essential for maintaining security and stability of the supply, this inadequacy of the RES will pose a limit to
the level of penetration of these technologies into the existing system.
The standard practice generally followed with RES is to disconnect them during contingencies and reconnect when
normalcy is restored. The active/reactive power support required by the system during that period is usually provided by
conventional units. This is tolerable as long as RES share is low. However, with the increasing share of RES, they must also
contribute to frequency and voltage regulation exactly like traditional units. Besides, the practice of disconnecting RES
during system contingencies is no longer permitted as this will aggravate the situation because of loss of more power.
The focus of this work is to highlight the technical issues and challenges associated in the grid integration of renewables
such as wind farm and solar PV farm (or a solar park). The rest of the paper is organized as follows: overview of renewable
energy technologies are discussed in Section II, power generation from renewable resources is presented in Section III,
issues with grid integration of renewables is covered in Section IV and conclusions are presented in Section V.

II. OVERVIEW OF RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES

Some of the renewable energy systems that have the potential for grid connectivity are: Biomass, Flywheels, Fuel Cells,
Geothermal, Small Hydro, Solar PV, Solar Thermal, Tidal, Wave and Wind Turbines. Many of these technologies are in the
very early stages of development. For the work in this paper, only two renewable energy systems are considered: a. wind
turbines and b. solar photovoltaic (PV).
A. Wind Turbines
Wind Turbine Generators (WTGs) convert kinetic energy of wind into electric power. Wind turbines are generally
classified as: a) Vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWT) and b) Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT). In VAWTs, the blades circle
around a vertical axis. This type of WTGs was used in the past because of certain structural advantages. However, modern
WTGs use horizontal-axis design. Operating range of a WTG is shown in Fig. 1 a.
The maximum power (Pm) extracted from the wind by a WTG is given as [9]
1
Pm =  AUw 3CP ( ,  ) (1)
2
where, ρ = air density, A = rotor sweep area, Uw = wind speed, Cp = power coefficient, λ = tip speed ratio, β = pitch angle.
It can be seen from (1) that in order to increase the output of a
WTG, (a) it requires a higher wind speed, and (b) a longer blade
length. As the WTG’s power output is proportional to the cubic
power of the wind speed, a small variation in wind speed can result
in a large change in WTG output.
Modern high capacity wind turbine rotates in the speed range
Fig. 1a. Wind speed and power output of WTGs.
of 20-30 rpm and thus, a gearbox is needed for interfacing it with
a high speed generator. In certain latest designs, direct drive
generators without gearbox is also available. By using generators
with large number of poles, like in hydro units, a gearless drive
arrangement is possible. These designs are more reliable due to
the absence of gear box but are expensive.
WTGs are broadly classified as fixed speed and variable speed Fig. 1b. DFIG based wind turbine.
WTGs. Variable speed WTGs are more efficient than fixed speed
WTGs. Fixed speed WTGs use cage induction generators, which are
directly connected to the network through a transformer. For
wider speed control range, majority of the modern wind turbines
are coupled with Doubly-Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) and the
multi-pole Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG). Fig. 1c. PMSG based wind turbine.
i. DFIG based WTGs
DFIG is a wound rotor induction generator with the three-phase stator winding is directly connected to the three-phase
grid and the three-phase rotor winding is fed from the grid through sliprings, linking the rotor and grid through a bi-
directional ac-dc-ac converter. The rotor circuit can supply or absorb active power. The term doubly fed means both stator
and rotor windings actively participate in the electromechanical energy conversion process. Since the DFIG rotor voltage is
typically less than the stator voltage, the transformer connecting the machine to the system has two secondary windings;
one for the stator and the other for the rotor. The arrangement of the DFIG based WTG is shown in Fig. 1 b.
ii. PMSG based WTGs
A PMSG based wind turbine system, as shown in Fig. 1 c, uses full scale power electronics converters in their stator
circuit for grid connection. Permanent magnets are used in the rotor for providing excitation. Because of the full scale
converters, speed control range of these WTGs is much wider than partial scale converter based DFIG-WTGs. By using large
multi-pole rotor, these wind turbines can be direct coupled with the electric generators without a step-up gear.
2
B. Solar Photovoltaic (PV)
A photovoltaic cell (or solar cell) is a semiconductor device that converts the photon energy of visible light directly into
electricity by the photovoltaic effect. The amount of energy that can be converted is dependent on the sunshine intensity
and the angle at which the PV cells are installed. Solar cells are made up of one or many p-n junctions, consisting of light-
absorbing materials. When a solar cell is in dark, the PV junction acts as an ordinary diode, as there will be no photons
present. When light falls on the PV cell, it produces both a current and a voltage to generate electric power.
The cell is the basic building block of a PV power system, having a capacity of about 4 W of DC power. Cell voltage is
around 0.5 V at a current level of 8 A. To obtain higher power output, many such cells are connected in series and parallel
to form a module. A photovoltaic array is the complete power-generating unit, consisting of many number of PV modules.
The working of a solar PV cell is shown in Fig. 2 a, its current-voltage (I-V) and power characteristics are shown in Fig. 2 b
and the PV based power generation system is shown in Fig. 2 c. Solar panels are usually operated along the MPPT (maximum
power point tracking) curve for capturing optimum energy from the sun light.

Fig. 2a. Working of a PV cell. Fig. 2b. I-V and power curves. Fig. 2c. PV based power generation.

III. POWER GENERATION FROM RENEWABLE RESOURCES

Electricity from renewable resources can be generated by means of a rotating generator or a static generator. Wind
energy conversion systems typically use rotating generators, while solar PV systems use static generators. In case of
rotating machine based system, energy from renewables is first converted into mechanical energy (shaft rotation) through
a prime mover, which in turn drives an AC generator. The AC generator can be a synchronous machine, or an asynchronous
(or induction) machine. In synchronous machines, the relationship, n=120*f/p is valid whereas, it is not valid in
asynchronous or inductions machines.
Induction generators can be fixed speed or variable speed type. Few technologies that use fixed speed induction
generators are small hydro turbines and Type-A wind turbines. These generators can be directly connected to the ac power
grid. Direct connected asynchronous generator speed of rotation will be higher than the synchronous speed. However,
fixed speed operation of rotating generators for fluctuating renewable energy conversion systems is not efficient. If the
primary energy is intermittent in nature (e.g. wind, tidal, or wave), for extracting optimum energy from the resource, the
prime mover speed has to be adjusted continuously as per the Maximum Power Point (MPP) profile. As an example, in a
typical DFIG based variable speed wind turbine, rotor speed can vary ± 33% around the synchronous speed. In case of a
PMSG based WTG, speed variations will be even more than the DFIG-WTGs.
If the AC power generated is at the system frequency (50/60 Hz), it can be directly coupled to the power grid. However,
if the generated power is at a different frequency than 50/60 Hz, it needs power electronic converters to link these two
systems. The frequency converting mechanism consists of an AC-DC converter, a DC link capacitor for smoothing and a DC-
AC inverter. A harmonics filter is incorporated at the output-stage of the DC-AC inverter to improve the power quality.
Basic arrangement of a rotating machine based generator is shown in Fig. 3 a. In case of solar PV and electro-chemical
energy conversion systems (e.g. hydrogen fuel cell), the voltage generated is DC. These systems need a DC-AC converter
and output filter for grid interconnection. Basic arrangement of a static generator is shown in Fig. 3 b. Table 1 shows grid
interfacing mechanism used for various distributed resources.
Table 1. Interfacing Technologies for Renewables.
Resource Machine Grid Interface
a.
Wind Turbine Rotating DFIG/PMSG + PEC
Solar PV Static PEC
Small Hydro Rotating DFIG/PMSG + PEC
b. PEC: Power Electronic Converter, DFIG: Doubly-Fed Ind. Gen., PMSG:
Fig. 3. a. Rotating machine and b. Static generator Permanent Magnet Synch. Gen.

IV. ISSUES WITH GRID INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLES

An electric power system is a network of electrical components comprising of generators, transformers, feeders,
protection devices and loads; used to generate, transmit, protect and use electric power. Traditionally, power system
networks are designed in such a way that both active power (P) and reactive power (Q) flows from the higher to the lower
voltage levels, that is, from the transmission network to the distribution system; and from there it is distributed to the
customers. This is the conventional radial system, represented by a single voltage source on each distribution feeder. Due
to the absence of generators connected, distribution systems are called passive circuits. However, with the introduction of
renewable based generators, the situation will reverse. There will be many voltage sources in a single feeder. With
3
significant level of RES based generators connected at distribution level, the power flows in the circuit may become
reversed and the distribution network is no longer a passive circuit supplying loads. With generating units connected, these
networks will act as active systems with power flows and voltages determined by the generators and the connected loads.
Depending up on the generation capacity, grid integration of renewable systems can be at the transmission level (large
capacity) or at the distribution level (small capacity). As of now, majority of the RES are connected at LV distribution level.
This situation is represented in Fig. 4.
The technical issues that need to be addressed while integrating
distributed resources on the distribution system are:
a. Point of common coupling (PCC ) and Voltage level
b. Network voltage variations
c. Power quality
d. Voltage ride-through capability
e. Reactive power compensation capability
f. Frequency regulation capability
g. Protection issues Fig. 4. Grid connected distributed resources.

a. Point of Common Coupling (PCC)and Voltage Level

The PCC is a point in the grid where multiple generators and loads are connected. The importance of PCC is that it is the
point on the network at which the generator will cause most disturbances. According to IEEE Std. 519, PCC should be a
point which is accessible to both utility and customer for direct measurement [10]-[12]. The variations in RES generated
power results in voltage variations at the PCC. A basic requirement while connecting a generating unit with the power grid
is that during faults, it should not adversely affect the quality of power supplied to the customers. The strength of a grid is
measured at the PCC by the short circuit faults that it can absorb without disturbing the rest of the system.
The strength of a grid can be characterized by its short circuit ratio (SCR), which is defined as [13]
S
SCR = sc (2)
Pg
where, Ssc = short circuit capacity (MVA) at the bus where the generator is located, P g = rating of the generator (MW).
The short circuit capacity (Ssc) or short circuit power is the maximum power that can flow in the network in case of a
short circuit. Short circuit capacity determines the strength of the node, or the ability of the point to transfer power in a
stable condition. This power depends on the system voltage and the grid impedance and is represented as
V V2
S = I V = sV = s (3)
sc f s Zs s Zs
where, If = fault current, Vs = grid voltage, and Zs = grid impedance.
Vs 2
Substituting (3) in (2), SCR = (4)
Z s Pg
A network may be considered strong with respect to the RES integration, if SCR is above 10 and weak if SCR is below 10.
It is obvious from (4) that a network will be strong if the operating voltage is higher and the effective impedance is smaller.
A strong grid is the one which is thermally limited, while a weak grid is the one which is voltage limited [14]. From a stability
point of view, a new generator connected to a strong point in the grid (i.e. bus with a high fault level) will have less trouble
exporting power, than the connection of the generator to a weak point (low fault level) in the network. In case of a weaker
grid, the flow of active and reactive power into and out of the network causes significant changes in the system voltage. A
weak system will also be affected considerably due to the disturbances caused by the addition of new elements such as
loads or generators. If SCR value of a bus is less than 5, it is usually not recommended to connect RES to that system [15].
A high short-circuit power capability at the connection buses, about 20 times more than the wind or solar PV capacity will
be needed to ensure reliable system operation. This will restrict the possible integration of the RES to the distribution
system. If the RES based generator is far away from the network bus, long feeders will be required to connect them, and
this will reduce the fault level due to increased line impedance. The impact of a renewable energy generator on the network
is therefore very dependent on the fault level at the point of connection as well as on the size of the proposed generator.
Accordingly, the point of common coupling for connecting a distributed generation must be carefully chosen. It is obvious
from (4) that that for grid integration of large amount of wind or PV, the PCC voltage level have to be as high as possible to
limit voltage variations. The suitable voltage level at which a renewable based generator is to be connected with the power
grid dependents on its capacity as well.
Table 2 gives the maximum capacity of renewable based distributed generators that can be connected at different low
voltage networks [16]. Connecting at a higher voltage is usually more expensive because of the increased costs of
transformers and switchgear and most likely because of the longer line required to make connection with the existing
network. Connecting at too low a voltage may not be allowed if the generator influences the local network considerably.
Table 2. Limit of Renewable Generation on Distribution Grid.
4
 Network Voltage Max. Limit of Ren. Generation
400 V feeder 50 kVA
400 V busbars 200 – 250 kVA
11 kV feeder 2 – 3 MVA
11 kV busbars 8 MVA
63 kV to 90 kV feeders 10 – 40 MVA
b. Network Voltage Variations
In conventional distribution system, the bus voltage is so set that during load variations, voltage along the feeder, in
particular at the remote ends, will be usually maintained within an acceptable range around the nominal value. The
presence of generating units at distribution bus will change the voltage in all the feeders connected to that bus. In passive
feeders, voltage may exceed both upper and lower limits, and in the distributed resource (DR) feeder, voltage will go
beyond the upper limit. The amounts of voltage variations depend on the load and local generation. The rise in distribution
system voltage (ΔV) caused by a generator supplying active and reactive power is given by [17]
PR + XQ
V = (5)
V
where, P = active power output of the generator, Q = reactive power output of the generator, R = line resistance, X = line
inductive reactance, and V = nominal voltage of the circuit.
The rise in feeder voltage is a function of X/R ratio of the line. For HV transmission lines, X/R ratio is higher (i.e. X >> R)
due to the geometry and low resistance of the conductors. Distribution feeders are characterized by low value X/R (i.e. R
is comparable with X). As an example, for a 400 kV line, X/R = 16, and for an 11 kV line, X/R = 1.5 [18]. The voltage profile
of a distribution system with and without the presence of DG is shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. Voltage profiles along the distribution feeder.

Another issue that affects the operation of distribution system is the unbalanced voltage. At distribution level, both
loads and renewable generators can be either three-phase or single-phase. Interconnection of single phase source, such as
small PV source, will increase the system unbalance. Similarly, the inherently unbalanced distribution systems can pose
problems for the three-phase RES connected to it, as the resulting unbalanced currents in the generators can cause
overheating and frequent shutdowns.
c. Power Quality (PQ)
The quality of electric power may be described as a set of values of parameters, such as continuity of service, variation
in voltage amplitude and frequency, transient voltages and currents, and harmonic content. The power quality problem is
defined as any deviation in magnitude, frequency, or waveform shape of the voltage and current that results in failure or
malfunctioning of customer equipment [19]. The increased share of WTGs and PV systems in the power grid results in many
power quality issues. In case of PV systems, PQ problems arise due to variations in solar radiation, cloud shadow, power
electronic modules such as inverter and filters due to their non-linear mode of operation. In case of wind turbines, PQ
problems arise due to variations in wind speed, tower shadow, yaw error due to the misalignment between wind direction
and turbine facing direction and power electronics devices. Accordingly, the power quality related phenomena can be
divided into two main groups: a) those caused by the fluctuating nature of energy resource and b) the power electronic
interface with the power system.
PQ issues arise due to fluctuating resources are PQ issues arise due to the power electronics interface
• Over voltages during feed-in • Harmonic injection
• Long and short time voltage fluctuations • Resonance phenomena
• Unbalance • Inrush currents
• Frequency deviations • Decreased damping of the grid due to nonlinearities
Of these PQ issues, the most important ones are voltage fluctuations and harmonics injection from converters.
The voltage variations related issues include over-voltage, under-voltage, sags, swells, spikes, surges, flicker, unbalance
and voltage interruptions.
Voltage sag is a reduction in the voltage magnitude (10-90%) followed by a voltage recovery after a short period of time.
These are caused by short-circuit faults in the system or by starting of large motors. Over voltages of very short duration
and high magnitude, is called voltage spikes (duration: µs).

5
 Flicker is a periodic or aperiodic fluctuation in system voltage that can lead to noticeable changes in light output. Slow
fluctuating periodic flickers, in the 0.5–30 Hz range, are considered to be noticeable by humans. In case of PV systems;
flicker is resulted due to the power variations caused by passing clouds. In case of WTGs, flicker is caused by fluctuations
in the output power due to wind speed variations, wind shear, and the tower shadow effects. Variable-speed WTGs have
shown better performance related to flicker emission in comparison with fixed-speed WTGs.
Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages and currents with frequencies that are integral multiplies of the fundamental
frequency (50/60 Hz). Harmonics are associated with the distortion of fundamental sine wave and are produced by non-
linearity of electrical equipments. Harmonics results in increased currents, power losses and overheating in equipments
leading to premature ageing of devices. Service life reduction of equipment has been reported as 32.5% for single-phase
machines, 18% for three-phase machines and 5% for transformers. Harmonics may also lead to flickering in displays and
lighting, spurious tripping of circuit breakers, malfunctioning of sensitive equipments etc.
PQ problems can be mitigated by two ways, either from the customer side or from the utility side. The first approach,
known as load conditioning, ensures that the connected equipment is less sensitive to power supply disturbances, allowing
the operation even under significant voltage distortions. The second solution is by installing line conditioning systems that
suppress or offset the PQ related disturbances. Energy storage systems (flywheels, super-capacitors etc.), and other devices
such as constant voltage transformers, harmonic filters, noise filters, surge suppressors, isolation transformers etc. are
used for the mitigation of specific PQ problems. Recently, many FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission System) devices such as
DVR (Dynamic Voltage Restorer), STATCOM (Static Compensator), DSTATCOM (Distribution-STATCOM), SSSC (Static Series
Synchronous Compensator), SVC (Static Var Compensator), TCSC (Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator), and UPFC
(Unified Power Flow Controller) etc. are also being used for PQ mitigation.
d. Voltage Ride-Through (VRT) Capability
DFIG based wind turbines are the main technology used in wind generation systems. These WTGs are very sensitive to
the voltage variations in the connected grid. During abnormal voltage conditions, continuous operation of DFIGs may lead
to destructive over currents in the rotor winding or large over-voltages in the dc-link capacitor. Identical situations also
arise with converters used in PV systems.
In the initial periods of renewable grid integration, for the safety reasons; during abnormal voltage periods, converter
based generators used to be disconnected from the faulty system. However, with the increasing renewable penetration,
such practices are not more permitted and therefore, wind and PV generators should remain in service during grid events.
To enable wind and PV systems stay connected during abnormal voltage conditions, they need a voltage ride through
capability [20], [21]. VRT capability helps to produce reactive power in an effort to stabilize the grid. Without VRT capability,
DRs must trip for voltage deviations more than ± 10%.
Faults in the power grid result in voltage depression over a large area, both during the fault and during post-fault
dynamic behavior. In conventional system with synchronous generators, field forcing will help to keep the unit in
synchronism. As this feature is not available in distributed generators, terminal voltage will dip severely during faults. If
one unit trips due to under-voltage, that will trigger cascade tripping of other units, which in turn may lead to a bulk grid
event that stresses the grid further. To avoid this, DRs should not get isolated from the network during low system voltage
levels. Such requirements are called Low Voltage Ride Through (LVRT) capability.
During the post-fault period, high voltages may occur over a wide area due to dynamic backswing. These voltage
variations at the transmission level tend to propagate to the distribution systems to which DRs are connected. Over-voltage
may also arise due to load shedding or unbalanced faults. The magnitude and duration of high voltage will depend on the
fault scenario. To support the system during the short periods of such over-voltages, the DRs should not get isolated. This
requirement is called High Voltage Ride Through (HVRT) capability.
In many countries, LVRT capabilities are now mandatory for grid integration of DRs. Fig. 6a shows LVRT and HVRT
requirements as per IEEE Std. 1547, and LVRT requirement specified by few renewable rich countries, including India.
As per IEEE Std. 1547, grid connected wind and PV plants are expected to remain online and ride-through zero-voltage
faults, i.e. 100% drop in voltage, for up to 150 ms. The no-trip zone is set by voltage recovery for up to 2 s. The HVRT
requirement is 140% for 150 ms and 120% for 2 s. In India, wind plants connected to buses at 66 kV and above, ride-through
is 85% drop in voltage for up to 300 ms and voltage recovery is for up to 3 s [22]. These generators are required to maximize
reactive power till the time voltage starts recovering or for 300 ms, which ever time is lower.
There are two methods to enhance LVRT capability of induction generators based wind turbines during faults: a) by
reducing input to wind turbine and b) by increasing output of WTG. Turbine mechanical input can be reduced by blade
pitch control. The generator output can be increased by using switched capacitors, SVC, STATCOM, Unified Power Quality
Conditioner (UPQC), DVR, and series braking resistor etc. In case of DFIG based WTGs, LVRT capability can also be improved
by using active crowbar and series antiparallel thyristors.

e. Reactive Power Compensation Capability

Unbalance in reactive power (VAR) is one of the major causes of voltage instability in an electric network, leading to
voltage drops in the buses and lines. Induction generators used in wind turbines of Type-A (fixed speed) and Type-B (limited
6
variable speed) needs reactive power support. At no load, these WTGs consume reactive power about 35-40% of the rated
active power, and at full load, VAR requirement increases to around 60%. Capacitor banks are normally used for
compensating the VAR requirements. That means, these types of WTGs do not participate in system voltage control.
For variable speed WTGs and solar PV systems using self-commutated power electronic devices, the VAR can be
controlled to minimize losses and to increase voltage stability. These systems can have unity powerfactor and can also be
used for voltage regulation. For large capacity systems, a central reactive power compensation device, such as SVC or
STATCOM may be used for improving the reactive power regulation capability. As an example, German utility requires
reactive current injection according to the droop line shown in Fig. 6b, with a minimum of 2% positive sequence reactive
current for every percent of voltage drop below 100%. This implies that for faults with voltage drops of 50% or lower, the
reactive component of current goes to 100% or higher, up to 1.1-1.2 pu, depending on the current rating of the converters
[15].

Fig. 6a. Voltage ride through Fig. 6b. VAR capability of wind Fig. 6c. Freq. profile with increased wind
requirements of DRs. turbine generators. share in absence of droop and inertia.
f. Frequency Regulation Capability
Conventional synchronous generators possess two key qualities which are very essential in controlling the grid
frequency. These are: a) system inertia and b) speed droop.
Inertia is the property of a body to oppose any change in its motion. Inertia of the power system is proportional to the
amount of rotating masses in the system [13]. It determines the rate of change of frequency (ROCOF) following a load
event. The larger the system inertia, the less is the ROCOF following a power imbalance. The initial turbine governor action
immediately following a load event, known as primary control, establishes the active power balance between generation
and demand by using a proportional control action, known as droop, arrests the frequency deviations due to the change
in load. The droop parameter in the governor control loop allows multiple units to share common loads.
For optimizing the energy conversion efficiency, most of the wind farms use variable speed WTG technologies. In order
to prevent the reproduction of wind speed variation as frequency variation in the grid, variable speed WTGs use back-to-
back ac-dc-ac power electronic converters for the grid connection. The intermediate dc bus in the converter creates an
electrical decoupling between the machine and the grid. Because of this ac-dc-ac decoupling, the wind turbines, though
they are very heavy, appear lighter to the system. Thus the increasing presence of WEC systems in the power system will
reduce the effects of conventional synchronous generators that supply the major portion of the active power needed in
the grid. The entire system will then behave as a lighter system. A lighter system will experience larger changes in the
frequency even for small mismatches in the supply and demand.
The increasing penetration of wind and solar energy in the power grid increases the equivalent droop parameter of the
system. The increase in droop value translates into a weaker system, less responsive to load changes and consequently,
more frequency excursions result after every system event. Since the droop parameter is incorporated in the primary speed
control loop of a prime-mover governor, increase in the droop value will reduce the overall frequency control capability of
the generating unit. Fig. 6 c represents the system frequency profile after a small increase in load, in absence of inertia and
droop [23].
Another requirement for a generating unit to take part in frequency regulation is the availability of sufficient reserve
generation margin to meet the sudden increase in load demand or tripping of some generators. Traditionally, variable
speed WTGs and solar PV systems always operate at the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) curve so as to capture
optimum energy from the resource. This leaves no power reserve for frequency regulation needs. Thus, these generators
provide very little or no support to the system frequency regulation [24].
g. Protection Issues
The major protection issues related to the grid connection of distributed resources are: a) change of short circuit levels,
b) reverse power flow, c) lack of sustained fault current, d) blinding of protection and e) islanding.

i. Change in Short Circuit Levels

Direct grid connected rotating generator based DRs, in particular synchronous machine based, increase the network
fault levels. Induction generators provide only limited fault currents, not in a sustainable manner. As seen earlier, a high
fault level indicates a strong grid, in which the likely effects of connecting a new DG on the PCC voltage will not be very
7
severe. However, the increase in network fault level due to the addition of DG represents another issue in terms of system
protection. Short circuit current level in a network is the main parameter used in deciding the rating of CTs, CBs etc., and
the coordination between overcurrent relays. Short circuit level is characterized by the equivalent system impedance at
the fault point. With the connection of generators, the equivalent network impedance can decrease, resulting in an
increase in the fault level. The fault current under this situation may exceed the breaking capacity of existing CBs. High fault
currents can also lead to CT saturation. Further, the changed fault levels can disrupt the coordination between overcurrent
relays leading to unsatisfactory operation of protection systems. The fault level contribution of a DR can be reduced by
introducing impedance between the generator and the network, with a transformer or a reactor. However, this will
increase losses and lead to wider voltage variations at the generator.
Protection is one of the most important challenges associated in the grid interconnection of DRs. Distribution networks
are normally radial systems and are usually protected using time graded overcurrent protection schemes. Most distribution
system protections detect an abnormal situation by discriminating a fault current from the normal load current. For
demonstration, consider the distribution system shown in Fig. 7. When the DG is not present, the currents seen by the
feeder breaker CB-1 and the Recloser RC are approximately equal to the fault current I F (i.e. IS ≈ IRC ≈ IF). However, when
the DG is connected, IRC = IS + IDG, and IRC > IS. This is a condition normally does not occur in passive radial networks. This
doesn't cause a problem if the recloser interrupting capacity is sufficient to handle the increased fault current. However, it
is likely that coordination between the recloser and any downstream fuses (for example between RC and Fuse-1) is lost.
Because both the recloser and fuses operate faster at higher fault currents, the required margins between the recloser fast
curve and the fuse minimum melt curve can reduce to a level that the coordination is lost.

Fig. 7. Change of fault currents due to DG interconnection.

ii. Reverse Power Flow
Protection schemes of distribution system are initially designed considering unidirectional current flow in the radial
feeders. However, when a DG is connected, the power flows may be reversed. This reversal in power can also alter the
coordination of protection relays.
iii. Lack of Sustained Fault Current
In order for the protection relays to reliably detect and discriminate fault currents from the normal load currents, the
faults must cause a significant and sustained increase in the currents measured by the relays. If the fault current
contribution from a DG is limited, it becomes difficult for the overcurrent based protection relays to effectively detect
faults. Renewable energy based generation often employs induction generators, small synchronous generators or power
electronic converters. Induction generators cannot supply sustained fault currents to three-phase faults and make only a
limited fault current contribution to asymmetrical faults. Small synchronous generators are usually not able to supply
sustained fault currents that are significantly greater than the rated current. Power semiconductor devices cannot
withstand significant overcurrent for sustained periods and therefore power electronic converters are designed to
internally limit the output current. The lack of sustained fault current compromises the ability of relays to detect faults.
iv. Blinding of Protection
In presence of distributed generation, the grid contribution to the total fault current will reduce. Due to this reduction,
it is possible that a short-circuit stays undetected because the grid contribution to the short circuit current never reaches
the pickup current of the feeder relay. Working of overcurrent relays, directional relays and reclosers depends on the
detection of abnormal currents. Hence, protections based on these devices can suffer malfunctioning because of the
reduced grid contribution.
v. Islanding
Islanding is the condition where a part of the network is disconnected from the main grid and operates as an
independent system supplied with one or more generators. Islanding results in abnormal variations of frequency and
voltage in the isolated network. Opening of an auto recloser during a fault may lead to the formation of two independent
systems that operate at two different frequencies. Reclosing of the auto recloser while the two systems are out of phase
could bring disastrous results. Further, islanding operation may create an ungrounded system depending on the
transformer connection. An unidentified island would be dangerous for the maintenance staff. Islanding is considered as
an unsafe situation and thus, immediate disconnection of the DGs from the main grid is recommended in the event of
formation of an island.

8
 V. CONCLUSION
Increased environmental awareness and energy security concerns have pushed renewable energy systems towards the
top of the power generation program. Among various renewable resources, wind and solar PV systems show exponential
growth rate during the past many years and are capable for grid integration. Due to the low energy density of wind and
sunlight, as compared to traditional fuels, power generation from these resources usually takes place in a distributed
manner. Integration of RES based distributed generation into the power system can be done at either the transmission
level or the distribution level, depending on the scale of generation. However, due to the proximity to distribution system
in remote areas where majority of the RES based generators are installed, they are normally connected to the grid at the
distribution level. Due to the variable and intermittent nature of the renewable resource, the generation technology used
in these units is different from the conventional units. The frequency of the power generated by these units will not be
normally at the standard system frequency and hence, a large group of DG technologies use power electronics converters
for grid connectivity. The decoupling of machine dynamics from the system dynamics by the power electronics devices
introduces several technical issues. This paper reviewed some of the technical challenges that need to be addressed for
the effective grid integration of renewable energy based distributed generators. The major concerns in interconnection of
renewable energy generation at the distribution level are related to voltage control, power quality and protection.
REFERENCES
[1] Renewables 2014 Global Status Report, Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21).
http://www.ren21.net/Portals/0/documents/Resources/GSR/2014/GSR2014_KeyFindings_low%20res.pdf
[2] http://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/excel/Energy-Economics/statistical-review-2014/BP-
Statistical_Review_of_world_energy_2014_workbook.xlsx
[3] BP Energy Outlook 2035, January 2014. http://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/pdf/Energy-economics/Energy-
Outlook/Energy_Outlook_2035_booklet.pdf
[4] http://www.se4all.org/resources/fact-sheets/
[5] G. Lalor, A. Mullane and M. O’Malley, “Frequency control and wind turbine technologies”, IEEE Trans. Power Sys., vol. 20, No. 4, pp. 1905-1913,
November, 2005.
[6] G. Ramtharan, J.B. Ekanayake and N. Jenkins, “Frequency support from doubly fed induction generator wind turbines”, IET Renew. Power Gen., pp.
3-9, March, 2007.
[7] J. Ekanayake and N. Jenkins, “Comparison onctionf the response of doubly fed and fixed-speed induction generator wind turbines to changes in
network frequency”, IEEE Trans. Energy Conv., vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 800-803, December, 2004.
[8] J. Morren, S. W. H. de Haan, and W. L. Kling, “Wind turbines emulating inertia and supporting primary frequency control”, IEEE Trans. Power Sys.,
vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 433-434, February, 2006.
[9] T. Ackermann, Wind power in power systems, Wiley, 2005.
[10] IEEE Std. 519-2014, IEEE Recommended Practice and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electric Power Systems.
[11] IEEE Std. 1547.2-2008, Application Guide for IEEE 1547 Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems.
[12] IEEE Std.1547.4-2011: IEEE Guide for Design, Operation, and Integration of Distributed Resource Island Systems with Electric Power Systems.
[13] P. Kundur, Power system stability and control, McGraw Hill, 1994
[14] J. Earnest, Wind Power Technology, PHI, New Delhi, 2014.
[15] V. Gevorgian and S. Booth, “Review of PREPA Technical Requirements for Interconnecting Wind and Solar Generation”, NREL Technical Report,
NREL/TP-5D00-57089, November 2013. http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy14osti/57089.pdf
[16] N. Jenkins, R. Allan, P. Crossley, D. Kirchen, and G. Strbac, Embedded Generation, IEE Power and Engineering Series 31, Institution of Electrical
Engineers, London, 2000.
[17] L. Freris and David Infield, Renewable Energy in Power Systems, John Wiley, 2008.
[18] S. Lundberg, "Electrical limiting factors for wind energy installations", Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg, Sweden, 2000.
http://webfiles.portal.chalmers.se/et/MSc/LundbergStefanMSc.pdf
[19] IEEE Std. 1159-2009, IEEE Recommended Practice for Monitoring Electric Power Quality.
[20] M. Mohseni, M. A.S. Masoum, and S. M. Islam, “Low and high voltage ride-through of DFIG wind turbines using hybrid current controlled
converters”, Electric Power Systems Research, pp. 1456–1465, vol. 81, no. 7, July 2011.
[21] R. Walling, A. Ellis, and S. Gonzalez, “Implementation of Voltage and Frequency Ride-Through Requirements in Distributed Energy Resources
Interconnection Standards”, Sandia National Laboratories Technical Report 2014-3122, California, April 2014. http://energy.sandia.gov/wp/wp-
content/gallery/uploads/SAND-2014-3122-VFRT_Paper_April-2014.pdf
[22] Large Scale Grid Integration of Renewable Energy Sources - Way Forward, Central Electricity Authority, India, Nov. 2013.
http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/powersystems/large_scale_grid_integ.pdf
[23] K. V. Vidyanandan and N. Senroy, “Issues in the grid frequency regulation with increased penetration of wind energy systems”, IEEE Students
Conference on Engineering and Systems (SCES 2012), pp. 1-6, MNNIT, Allahabad, U. P., India. 16-18, Mar. 2012.
[24] K. V. Vidyanandan, Frequency Regulation in Microgrids, Ph.D. Thesis, Dept. of Electrical Engineering, IIT-Delhi, India, 2013.

Dr. K.V. Vidyanandan received the M. Tech. (Power Generation Technology) and Ph. D. (Electrical
Engineering) from the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Delhi, India. He is a Faculty Member at the
Power Management Institute (PMI), NTPC Ltd., NOIDA. His research interests include Wind and Solar
PV Energy Systems, Energy Storage, Microgrids, and Frequency Regulation.
E-mail: [email protected]

Citation:
K. V. Vidyanandan, “Issues in the Grid Integration of Renewable Energy Systems”, International Power Plant O&M
Conference, pp. 1-9, New Delhi, India, 13-15 Feb. 2015.

View publication stats