ThePhilosophyofNietzsche 10041533

T h e P h i l oso p h y
o f N i etzsc he :
AN E ! P O SI T I O N AND AN
x x A P P R EC IA TION x x
G E O RG E S CHAT TE R TON -HILL ,

PH D. .
PR I VATD OCE N T O F S O CI OLO G Y AT

U N IV ER S ITY O F G E N EVA
N EW Y O R K
D . A P P LE T O N A N D C O M PAN Y
MC M! I I I
CO N T E N T S
BO O K I .
—
C ITI CA
R L P H I LO S O P H Y
C H A P TE R
I . TH E L I F E OF N I E TZ SC HE
II G E N ER A L V I EW OF N I ETZ S CHE S I D EA L
.
’
III . TH E S TA T E
IV . TH E MO R A L LAW
V . TH E R EL I G I NS O
VI S C I E N CE
.
B OO K II .
-
P OS ITIV E I
P H LO S O P H Y
I . TH E W I LL OF P O WER A S F UN D A M E N TA L P O STU LAT E

II . TH E T HEO R Y OF K N O WLE D G E A S E ! P RE S S I VE OF T HE
W I LL OF P O WER
II I . TH E M O R A L S Y S T E MS —MA STER S AN D SL AVE S

IV . THE O VER -MA N
V N I ETZ S C HE
. AN D MA ! S T I R N ER
VI . TH E V A L U E OF N I ETZ S CH E
VI I C O N CLU S I O N
.
P R E FA C E
TH E ma n u s cr i p t this book w as wri tt en as long a g o

of
as 1 9 0 5 S e v en yea rs cons t i t u t e a long pe riod in t he

.
li fe o f a y o u ng au t ho r S ince this manu scrip t w a s

.
wri tt en o the r work has been composed and has

,
seen t he li g h t o f day amon g s t i t being m y books o n

“H e redi t and S elec tion in S ociolo ” and “The
,
y gy ,
S o ciolo g ical V al u e of Ch ris t iani t y and v ario u s ,
essay s D u ring se v en y ea rs an a u t ho r m u s t i n e v i t
.
abl y g o t hr o ugh va rio u s phases o f men t al e vol u t ion ,
he canno t fail t o be infl u enced b y th e nu mero u s

boo k s and pe rsons w i t h who m he c omes in cont ac t ,
and t o ha v e his ho ri z on cons t an t l y enla rg ed t he r eb y .
I canno t s ay t he r e fore t ha t t he poin t o f View fr o m

, ,
which I j u dg ed t hing s se v en y ears ag o is the same as

t ha t fro m which I j u dg e them to d a y .
F or ce r tain r easons t he man u sc rip t w as n o t

published a t t he t ime and since t hen m y a t t en t ion
,
has been taken u p wi th o t her wo rk Bu t n o w .

,
follo wing ad v ice which has b een t endered me I hav e ,
de cided t o p u blish i t wi tho u t C hang ing any t hing

,
e xc ep t a fe w u ni m por tan t de t ails

—
.
The b oo k is as oéj c as possible tha t is t o s a y

’
e tzve ,
I hav e endeav o u red t o plac e as clea rl y as I ca n t he

philosoph y o f N ie t z s che b e fo r e t he reade r wi t ho u t ,
p u tt ing fo r ward m y ow n op inions I t is N ie t z s che s

.
’
tho ugh t a n d N zetzs cé e s t/zoug fi z a l on e whi ch i s

’
’
‘
, ,
e x posed he r e I t is i m p ossible howe v e r when , ,
e x posing th e t h ou gh t o f ano the r t o be onesel f wholl y

,
and co mpl e tel y silent ; m y V iews m ay conseq u en tly

6 a
6 b P RE F A C E
be fo u nd t o hav e e x p ressed the m selv es m o r e than
I sho u ld hav e wished and m o r e t han i t w a s m y ,
in t en t ion t o hav e g iv en e x p r ession t o t he m Sho uld .
t hese views be fo u nd b y those w h o m ay hav e read ,
o t he r wo rk of m ine no t t o be in ha rm ony wi t h t he
,
ideas de v eloped in s u ch o the r wo rk th e e x plana t ion ,
o f t his ap a r en t ano m al is t o be so h t in t he fa ct
p y u
g
tha t t he p r esen t boo k wa s wr i tt en sev en y ea rs ag o ,
as m en t ioned abov e .
I f this boo k c a n in t he sli g h t es t de g r ee hel p any

, ,
one a m ong t he E nglish speaking p u bli c t o a s t rong e r

,
-
,
ad m i ra t ion fo r a n d a be tt e r c o mp rehension o f the

, ,
m os t r e cen t o f t he r eall y g rea t Mas t e r s of E u r opean

tho u gh t ; i f i t sho u ld s u cc eed in in ci t ing any one t o
s t u dy mo r e dee pl y and t he r e fo r e t o app re cia t e m o r e
,
fu ll y t ha t m ag ni fi c en t G e r m an c ul tu r e ill u s t ra t ed
, ,
b y t he na m es o f so m an y i mm o r tal t hinke rs p oe t s ,
and a r tis t s t o whi ch m ode rn civilisa t ion owes so

,
i m m ense a deb t ; t he au t ho r m ay pe rhaps be pa r , ,
don e d fo r v en t u ring t o l ay be fo r e the r eade r t he

p r esen t wo rk .
My s in c e r e g ra t i t u de is du e t o M H en ri Li ch t en .
be rg e r Pr o fesso r o f G e rm an Li t e ra t u r e a t the
,
Univ e r si t y o f P a ris and au t ho r o f t ha t ad m i rable

,
in t rod u ct ion t o t he s tu d y o f Nie t z s che s tho ugh t ’
L a P fi zl os ofi k ze de N zetzs cé e w hi ch has had s u ch g r ea t

' ' ’
s u c cess in m a k ing Nie t z s che kno wn and a p pre cia t ed

in F r an ce P r o fe s so r L i ch t enbe rg e r mos t kindl y
r ead m y m an u s crip t besides r ende ring m e o t her
,
val u able assis t ance .
G E N E VA , N ovemé ez I 9 I 2 .
B OOK I
C RITI C AL PH ILOSOPH Y
Tag m e i n e s Leb e n s l
G en Ab e n d g ehts ’
.
S ch o n g l u h t D e i n A u g e
h a l b g e b r o ch e n ,
S ch on q u illt D e i n e s T h an s ’
Th r an e n g e tr au s e l ,
'
S c h on l auft s till ti b e r we i s s e Meere

'
D e i n e r L i eb e P u rp ur ,
D e i n e l e t zt e Og ern de S e li gk e it
z .
D i e s i s t de r H e rb s t de r—b i h t D i
r c r n och das H e rz l
F li e g e for t ! fl i e g e for ! t
N I E TZ S C H E .
THE P H I L O S O P HY OF
N I E TZ S C H E
CH APTER I
THE LI FE OF N I E TZ SCHE
N I E TZ SCHE himself h as said of Schopenhauer that

he w as the last German to enj oy an international
reputation The same remark may howe ver more
.
, ,
fi tl y be made of Friedrich Nietzsche himself The .
powerful mind of Nietzsche has exercised an influence

in E urope which it would be di fficult to o v erestimate .
During the last ten years the philosophy and letters

of the Continent have been under the hypnotism of
that gospel of life in all its plenitude and energy which ,
preached under the attractive form of aphorisms ,
vigorous and apodictical has broken loose from the

,
trammels of the dogmatic school which had dominated

the world of Western thought since Immanuel Kant .
In Germany the philosophy of Nietzsche has

given birth to a literature abundant in quantity and
varying in quality In France it h as attracted the
.
attention of all thinking circles and h as become as ,
M Ferdinand Bruneti ere remarks in the first volume

.
”
of hi s Discours de Combat the philosophie a la
,
mode . M Emile Faguet M Alfred Fouill é e

.
,
.
,
M Eug ene de R ob erty M Henri Lichtenberger

.
,
.
,
have contributed valuable works to the Nietzsche

bibliography In England something like a dozen
.
9
10 THE PHILOSOPHY OF NIETZSCHE
books have been de voted to the life and teachings of
the German philosoph er notably those of Mr T ,
.
Common Mr A M Ludovici Mr J M Kennedy

, . .
, . .
,
Dr Mii gge and Mr A R Orage while a translation

, . .
of the whole of his Works has been issued in eighteen
substantial volumes under the editorship of Dr

Oscar Levy The first half of the Offi ci al biography
—
.
,
written in German by Mrs FOrs ter Nietzsch e has ,
recently been published in an English translation ,
and it is understood that the other part is to follow

shortly It is howe ver regrettable that an even
.
, ,
wider knowledge should n ot have been obtained of

a doctrine which whatever may be the views taken
,
as to its fundamental principles has exercised an ,
in vi gorating and revivifying influence on the whole

domain of philosophic thought ; and which by ,
calling in question the very basis o f an almost

—
universally accepted ethical creed b y call ing in
—
question the legitimacy of the moral l aw itself has
brought us face to face with those fundamental
problems which e very philosopher from S ocrates
onwards has sought to solve Hitherto with very .
,
few and almost unknown exceptions every school ,
of philosophy has been agreed on the fact that a
universal moral law exists the differences of opinion

arose as to the precise basis on which the categorical
imperati ve could be grounded Max Sti m er was .
,
we believe the first to deny the existence of the

,
categorical imperative altogether and to preach ,
the gospel of immoralism But even in spite of the .

,
persevering e fforts of Mr Mackay the name of Stirner ,
remains unknown to the vast maj ority of men It .
was the gospel preached with lyric al enthusiasm by

Zarathustra Nietzsche which first called general
attention to the fact that serious reasons exist for
TH E LIFE OF NIETZSCHE 11
preferring the immoral to the moral the untrue

, to
the true .
I t h as often been obj ected with regard to Nietzsche

that the numerous contradictions which are to be
found scattered through his works themselves pre ,
clude any attempt to systematise h i s philosophy .
To this it may be replied that all or almost all these , ,
contradictions are capable of being resolved in the

light of the master thought which pervades all h i s
-
writings and indeed that philosopher w h o is often

, ,
held up as a model in respect of consistency Kant ,
himself is by no means free from contradiction in the

,
pages of the Critique of Pure Reason which fact

does n ot prevent us from recognising Kant as the
founder of a very fruitful and important system of
philosophy But with regard to Nietzsche it may
.
,
also be urged that he never intended his work to

”
be regarded as a coherent and consistent system .
It does n ot appear that Nietzsche e v er endeavoured

to deduce any sociological conclusions from his philo
sophical premises The philosophy of Nietzsche in
.
,
the eyes of its author w as the expression of a per

,
s on al i ty of a character of a temperament
, ,
We are .
therefore quite j ustified in endeavouring to system

ati s e the writings and teachings of Nietzsche in ,
examining that teaching in the light o f biologic al

fact and sociological re al ity in applying it to the ,
solution of the fundamental problems of philosophy

and of sociology ; but we should be committing a
grave error if in studying Nietzsche we should make
, ,
abstraction of the personality of the author That .
pe rsonali ty reve al s itself in every line in every ap h or ,
ism I f the work of Nietzsche is characterised by one

.
fundamental doctrine : the belief in life in all i ts

plenitude and —
power which
serves as a clue to th e
—
systematisation of his philosophy i t is also character
ised by one fundamental feature : the sincerity and
’
heroism of the writer s nature which serves as a guide ,
to the comprehension of his personality An d as we .

,
have said the personality of Nietzsche is intimately

,
bound up with his philos ophy .
Sincerity and heroism we have said are the two

, ,
Characteristics of Nietzsche s personality To these ’
—
.
qualities should be added a t hi rd delicacy of senti

ment and refinement of taste These characteristics .
give us the clue to his rupture with Wagner to the ,
apparent brutality of his language to his hatred of the ,
democratic and plebeian movement to his enthusiastic ,
worship O f art as the m i s on détre and O bj ect of life

~
-
’ ‘
to his detestation of the Christian reli gion All .
”
or nothing was his motto and he lived up to it
, ,
.
Gifted as we have said with an extraordinary refi n e

, ,
ment of sentiment and taste having s et himself as

an ideal Life itself and Life in beauty in plenitude
, , ,
in power in exuberance of wealth he was determined

,
to be sincere with himself at all and e v ery cost to ,
examine every ideal howe v er ancient however sacred

, ,
its traditions howe ver universal its acceptance ; to

,
examine it to the bottom to rej ect it if necessary at

, ,
whatever cost o f friendship or of suffering to himself

to affirm and reaffirm his ideal that ideal which he ,
held to be true to affirm and reaffirm it in the face

of the whole world if necessary without compromise
—
.
,
To be able to do this to be able to attack and rej ect

all that which mankind has hitherto by al most ,
universal acceptance held sacred to be able to

,
sacrifice all those ideas which tradition and education

have rendered personally of value ; to be able to
sacrifice friends that one lo ves and venerates on the
THE L IF E OF NIETZSCHE 13
—
altar of one s convictions to do this requires courage
’
above the ordinary : it requires heroism .
Refinement of taste is the third great characteristic

of Nietzsche The standard by which he j udges of
—
.
every ideal whether in morality or in religion which

—
,
i s morality in a higher potency or in art or in the ,

”
intimacy of daily life is i ts Vornehmheit
,
i ts ,
elegance its good taste its aesthetic qu alities Nietz

, ,
.
sche is essenti al ly an artist H e is more an artist than

.
a think er or rather his career as thinker i s subor

di n ate dto his artistic propensities And when we s ay .
of Nietzsche that he was an artist we do not mean that ,
he was a mere poet or a mere musical composer

,
although he wrote some very delightful verses and was

an excellent appreciator of music if n ot a profound
—
,
on e but we mean that his whole conception of life

was an artistic conception and even as he regarded
the cosmologic al process in its entirety as an aesthetical
manifestation of the universal Will of which life and
the world and thought are composed he also con ,
si der e d all the details o f existence in their relation
to his standard — a very high standard O f artistic —

val ue
.
Friedrich Nietzsche was born in 1 8 44 at Rocken in , ,
Germany Left fatherless at the age of five he emi

.
,
grated with his family in 1 85 0 to Naumburg where his ,
first s tudies were undertaken In 1 85 8 at the age of .

,
fourteen he entered the school at Schulpforta as a

,
pupil an institution which counted Klopstock Fichte

, , ,
Schlegel von Ranke among its former stu d ents

, , .
After leaving school he studied at Bonn ( 1 864 1 8 65 ) -
and at Leipzig ( 1 8 65 From an early age he had

de veloped a liking and an aptitude for general culture ,
as opposed to that specialism which manifested itself

14 TH E P HILOSOPHY OF NIETZSCHE
already in the sixties and which tends to increase with
every ad vance of modern civilisation Confronted .
with the di fficulty of choosing a career when entering

the university he selected philology as his speciality
,
and in 1 8 6 9 before even he had d efended the thesis

,
necessary to the obtaining of the degree of doctor at

the University of Leipzig we find him nominated to ,
the post of Professor of Philology at the University of

Bale .
’
Nietzsche s career up till n ow had been uneventful .
He and his sister n ow Frau FOrs ter Nietzsche were

,
-
,
the only two children The account which his sister .
gives of these early years shows Nietzsche to have been

already in boyhood of a singul arly thoughtful and
serious disposition His father was the Protestant
.
pastor of R OCk en his native village and Nietzsche

, ,
w as brought up in an atmosphere which without ,
being bigoted or austere was deeply religious Thi s , .
early education was destined to influence profoundly

the whole life of the philosopher Howe ver violently .
he may have later on broken loose from Christianity ,
however bitterly he may have criticised the faith of his

’
forefathers Nietzsche s remained always an es s en ti
,
ally religious nature The man who imagined himself .
to have effected the most complete separation with

the past who proclaimed at all times and in all
,
places that God is dead that he was beyond and ,
above all religion and al l supernatural belief that ,
same man proved by his worship of truth by his

, ,
fearless and intrepid sincerity by his idealisation of ,
life that he was e ver actuated by the most deeply

,
religious principles Certainly he was far above all

.
churches and all religions but if he emphatically ,
repudiated belief in an anthropomorphic God he ,
belie ved in Life in Life as a manifestation of Beauty

,
TH E LIFE OF N IETZSCH E 15
he believe d in p rinciples and he lived up to h i s ,
principles .
In 1 8 69 therefore we find Nietzsche occupying the

, ,
chair of philology at Bale At Leipzig as the pupil .

,
of R i tschl he had devoted himself to the study of

,
the Greek language and literature From thence .
onwards he w as a passionate lover of Greek life of ,
Greek art Of Greek philosophy His study of that

,
.
ancient and glorious civilisation reveal ed Nietzsche

to himself It brought to his knowledge a culture
.
and an ideal which seemed to correspond most nearly

to the ideal which he had already evoked of life This .
search for himself as we may call it this endeavour

, ,
to discover in contact with the outer world that ideal

, ,
which was also h i s or which was as near to his as ,
possible was destined to prove a painful but very

, ,
salutary experience for Nietzsche

,
.
From earliest boyhood upwards we find Nietzsche s ,

’
temperament deeply tinged with that aristocratism

which i s s o characteristic a feature of h i s philosophy .
He claimed always whether rightly or not we know ,
n ot to be descended from the Polish race

, from a ,
family of Ni etzk y which is said to have sought shelter

,
in Germany towards the beginning of the eighteenth

century from the religious persecutions directed
against Protestants in Poland A Count Ni etzk y .
”
does n ot tell lies Nietzsche used to say prou dl y to his
,
sister when yet a boy ; and this sentence gives us the

clue to his aristocratic extraordinarily refined and ,
sensitive character His breach with orthodoxy seems

.
to have been e ffected gradually without violent ,
emotions But that he was deeply conscious of the

.
importance of the step which he took in abandoning

Christianity is sho wn by several passages in his
writings The separation of Nietzsche from Chris
.
16 TH E PHILOSOP HY OF N IE TZSCHE
ti an i ty was in any case inevitable His was too .
powerful a genius to be able to confine itself within

the narrow domain of a dogmatic creed and the ideal
o f Christianity — of primiti v e Christianity is the -
’
diametrical opposite of Nietzsche s idea] which was ,
also the ideal of the Greeks of the heroic age and of ,
the Romans before the disruption .
Nietzsche s search for himself as we have called

’
it led him to explore vast fields of culture His was

,
.
e v er a synthetical mind to which the minute and ,
detailed analysis of the scientist was repugnant He .
had a natural aptitude for music and poetry an apti ,
tude which harmonised with the delicacy and refi n e

ment of his nature He had an aptitude for literature
.
,
for philosophy he had the curiosity O f new details ,
of ad v enturous research ; and abo v e all he had an
inborn love of life of beauty of strength ; and the life

, ,
which is strong and beautiful which manife sts itself ,
in all its integrity which goes ou t conquering an d to

,
conquer was the life which Nietzsche recognised as

,
the ideal life .
As a consequence it ensued that al l the manly

—
virtues courage strength purity love of adventure
—
, , , ,
lo ve of hardship and privation even ferocity were , ,
in Nietzsche s eyes above v alue He had a natural

’
,
.
repugnance for the Christian virtues of humil ity

—
,
gentleness love forgi veness i n a word feminism

Beauty—Art—were the m i s on détre of life its
, , , .
’ ‘
-
,
j ustification and beauty w as synonymous with

strength with courage with Power The man who
, ,
.
is strong and courageous and powerful is the j usti

fi cati on of humanity And such a man naturally
.
de tests those qualities which tend to minimise his

strength and to undermine his power such qualities , ,
for instance as humility and gentleness

,
.
18 THE P H ILOSOP HY OF NIETZ S CHE
home on the Lake of Lucerne This friendship .
between Nietzsche and Wagner was one of the most

important as it was also one of the most beautiful
, ,
events in the li ves of both masters One must go .
back to the friendship of Goethe and Schiller in order

to find a parallel for the friendship of the musician and
the philosopher Nietzsche was roused to enthusiasm
.
by Wagner s work He s aw in Wagner the re viver of

’
.
Greek tragedy the modern successor of ZE s ch y l u s

, .
A further meeting ground in common was the philo

-
sophy of Schopenhauer The great pessimist of .
Frankfurt had exercised a very great influence on

Wagner an influence which reveals itself especially
,
in Tri s tan an d I s ol de NO less was the influence

.
he exercised on Nietzsche The latter first be came .
acquainted with The World as Will and R ep re

s en tati on in 1 8 65 by an accident From the first
, , .
he was struck by the immense perspective opened out

by this masterpiece as well as by the remarkable
,
personality of the author which shows itself in these

pages Nietzsche s aw in Schopenhauer and s aw
.
,
rightly the destroyer of that happy and absurd

,
optimism of which David Friedrich Strauss was the

then representative and which still reigns supreme
,
to day in certain circles in which the qualities

-
,
formerly attributed to an anthropomorphic deity have

been transferred to the abstract entity called Reason .
From his study of Greek drama Nietzsche had ,
drawn the conclusion that two states of mind were

e ver present to the Greeks O f the heroic era The .
contemporaries of [E s ch yl u s were no mere optimists ,
believing in the ordered and harmonious go vernance

of the universe They were not afraid of the sight
.
of all the pain and suffering that are the necessary

accompaniments of the world process They were -
.
THE LI F E OF NIE TZ S CHE 19
strong enough and brave enough and powerful

, ,
enough and suffi ciently sure of their power to be able

, , ,
’
not only to View the sight of the world s sufferings
with complacency but to wi s h for the spectacle to
, ,
enj oy the spectacle as an ms th eti c vision to enj oy it as ,
a reminder of the reality of things as an instrument ,
for giving them conscience of their power as an ,
instrument for realising their power Gree k tragedy .
was the visible symbol O f this feeling of invincible

power in the face of suffering and pain it was in
order to have the spectacle of the eternal struggle
constantly evoked constantly placed before them
, ,
that the Greeks had recourse to the tragedy Only he .
who is strong enough to be able to surmount su ffering ,
who is conscious Of being superior to su ffering of

’
being above it can afford constantly to have evoked

,
before his eyes scenes representing all that is most

bitter all that is most cruel in the history of human
, ,
natu re and the world .
What was the secret of this power Of the Greeks ,
which rendered them not merely indi fferent to the

sight of suffering but which enabled them to regard
,
suffering as an aesthetic man ifestation of the universal

Will process which constitutes the world P That
-
secret Nietzsche s aw in those two states of mind to

which we have referred above The Greeks first of .
,
al l possessed the faculty of creating an ideal vision of

,
the world as it s hould be a vision which enabled them,
to escape from the tyranny Of Being which enabled ,
them to regard suffering as the necessary means to

the attainment of their ideal The Olympian gods .
are the fruit of this ecstatic state of mind the Ap olli n ,
i an as Nietzsche termed it
, The deities of Olymp ia .
were creations of beauty whose existence inspired ,
the Greeks with a c onsciousness of their own creative

20 THE P HILOSOP HY OF N IETZSCHE
power which opened ou t to them an endless p ersp ec
,
tive of the possibilities to be achieved by that creative

power which represented an ideal of supreme beauty
,
and power and strength whose beauty power and , ,
strength alone su fficed to j ustify all the pain and all

the tears and all the suffering necessary to create that
radiant vision In the Apollinian state of mind when
.
,
confronted by the beauty of that radiant vision

which reflected his own strength and his own power ,
because his strength and his power had created it ,
man uplifted himself above the cares and wom es of

existence and exclaimed Life I love thee I desire , ,
thee for thou are beautiful and glorious and thy

, ,
beauty and thy glory do but represent the infinite

”
possibilities of my strength and power .
In the second place the Greeks possessed the ,
faculty of elevating themselves above the narrow

limits in which individual life is confined and of con ,
tem p l ati n g Life as a whole in its eternity above and, ,
beyond the fact of individuation above and beyond ,
the flux and reflux of phenomena In this state of .
mind the Dionysian they took conscience of the

, ,
identity of all li v es in the one univers al Life they ,
broke down the barriers which the fact of indi vidua

tion had s et up and s aw only one universal life
,
process in its eternity manifesting itself in the fact of

,
indi viduation but superior to it because confined

, ,
Within no limits because universal and unchanging

,
and eternal In the Dionysian state of mind b e

.
,
coming conscious of the identity of his indi vidual life

with al l life with the whole of nature with the eternal
, ,
world process itself man exclaimed

-
,
Life I love ’
thee I desire thee for thou art eternal

, ,
.
Thus the Greeks were neither pessimists nor

optimists they were above both pessimism and
TH E L IFE OF N I E TZSC HE 21
Optimism for them pessimism and optimism ceased

to be and were confounded in a higher state in an
, ,
Ap ollinian and Dionysian or rather in a state which

,
combined both the Apollinian and Dionysian visions

of life . This combination of Apollinian and Dio
n y s i an wisdom w as reached in Greek tragedy and ,
above all in the choir of satyrs s o much appreciated ,
by the Greeks The satyr of h al f human half

.
,
-
,
animal creation represented the return to nature

, ,
to primitive savagery whe re culture was unknown

, .
The choir O f satyrs by means of dancing and mus ic

, ,
roused the spectators to a condition of ecstatic frenzy

in which the identity of the whole of nature seemed to
b e reali s ed in whi ch the barriers artificially s et up
,
by the fact of individuation were broken down and

at the same time while the spectators were celebrating
,
the return to nature and the eternity of nature and

, ,
the identity of all nature was communicated the ,
glorious and radiant vision of the god Dionysus ,
Offering himself to the assembled mass Thus the .
Apollinian mystery celebrated by the choir of satyrs

gave birth to a Dion y sian vision of the god radiant ,
ide al above humanity In this supreme moment .
Apollinian and Dionysian wisdom were confound e d

in a common ecstasy .
The perusal by Nietzsche of S chopenhauer s ’
master work must have convinced him that Schopen

-
hauer was deeply impressed by the truth conveyed in

the Apollinian vision Schopenhauer s fundamental
’
.
thought is the essential identity of all life as em ,
an ati on of the universal and primor di al Will and the ,
highest wisdom is attained by him wh o breaking ,
down the barrier set up by the fact of individuation ,
raises him self above the sphere of phenomena

subj ected to the law of sufficient reason an d realises ,
22 THE P H ILO S OPHY OF N IE TZ SCHE
the identity of all life as confounded in the uni versal
Will of which the world of phenomena is the mani
fes tati on Pursuing h i s investigations further and
.
,
had he not been so exclusi v ely devoted to Greek

philology Nietzsche would have disco vered that the
,
’
Eastern philosophy from which Schopenhauer s ,
learned so much enunciated the same idea quite ,
independently of the Greeks And Krishna says .
Know that this science alone i s valid which a ffirms

an unique and eternal essence in all beings the ,
undi vided in the divided For he does but s ee he .

,
wh o percei ves all beings as li ke himself .
But the Apollinian vision of life which was used by ,
the Greeks as a means of strengthening life of adding ,
to its beauty of celebrating its triumphs was used

, ,
by Schopenhauer to an end diametrically opposite .
According to the philosopher of Frankfurt it is only ,
when we have realised the uni versal solidarity which

binds u s to the rest of nature that we are able to fully
fathom the depths of human suffering and human
desolation and the conception of the identity of all
life celebrated by the Greeks in the choir of satyrs
, ,
becomes in the mind of Schopenhauer the main

, ,
incitement to a total negation n ot only of life but of , ,
all wish to li ve .
Nietzsche accepted the pessimism of Schopenhauer .
He too s aw in the world process a gigantic evil ;

, ,
-
he too could have repeated : Das Leben ist das

, ,
Os s te Verbrechen He s aw in the phil osophy

g r .
of Schopenhauer the salutary counterblast to the

philistine optimism philisterhafter Optimis
mus of which Strauss was the chief representati ve .
The optimist school s aw in the world process the work -
”
Bh agavat a Gita ch ap xviii Cited i n S anctu aires
-
,
. . et
”
P ay s ages dAsi e p 1 5 8 by A Ch evri ll on ( P ari s
’
. .
, , ,
TH E LI FE OF N I E TZ S CHE 23
Of an all pervading Reason which abstract entity

-
,
they substituted for the former anthro p omorphic

deity Nietzsche following S chopenhauer s aw in the
.
, ,
world process no trace of reason For the disciple

-
.
as for the master the world i s unj ustifiable from the
point Of view of pure reason The on e universal and .
immutable law i s that Of fatality To this view .
Nietzsche always adhered He never ceased to .
pro claim that from the standpoint of reason life

, ,
i s an absurdity an endless struggle an unnecessary

, ,
suffering ruled by the iron hand of Fate We are

, .
unable to agree with M Emile Faguet who in other .

,
respects h as written s o admirable and sympathetic

,
1
a work on Nietzsche that the latter suffered in the , ,
”
early part of his career from a romantic diathesis , ,
and that his later career was in some respects a con

tradi cti on of his earlier on e Rather are we inclined .
to the view based on the account of the evolution of

,
’
Nietzsche s thought given by h i s sister and on a study
2
,
of h i s own writings that h i s p osition with regard to

,
the fundamental questions of philosophy in a word ,
his Weltanschauung did not vary from the time ,
of the publication of Die Geburt der TragOdi e

until h i s illness in 1 88 9 With regard to his C hange of .
front concerning Scho p enhauer we believe that when ,
Nietzsche wrote S chopenhauer al s Erzieher in the

”
Un zei tgem ass e Betrachtungen in 1 8 74 h e did not , ,
realise the meaning of the conclusions drawn by

S chopenhauer from p remises which both held in
common As regards the breach with Richard
.
Wagner we are inclined to think Nietzsche very

,
mistaken in the view taken by him of the tendencies

1
E . F ague t lis an t Ni et zs che ( P aris
En ,
E liz abeth Fors t er N ie tzs ch e : Das Leb en Fri edri ch N iet z

3
-
s ch es ,2 B an de i v T ei le ( N aum ann Lei p zig )

, .
, .
24 THE PH ILOSOP HY OF NIETZSCHE
of the Wagnerian drama but although he changed h i s ,
conception of Wagner he did not change his con cep

,
tion of life The conception Of life entertained by the

.
author of Richard Wagner in Bayreuth is the

”
same as that of the author of Der Fall Wagner .
It w as the view which he took Of the position occupied

’
by Wagner s art with regard to that conception which
changed .
This digression as to the conception formed by

Nietzsche of life and of Greek thought and Greek
,
culture was necessary in order to have some compre

,
h en s i on of the reasons which led to his memorable

breach with Wagner in 1 8 76 and to his renunciation ,
of his master Schopenhauer During the years of his

,
.
professorate at B a le from 1 8 69 to 1 8 76 Nietzsche was

, ,
on terms of the closest intimacy with W agner and his
wife Very frequent were the visits which he paid

.
them in their retreat at Tribschen and these visits ,
ever remained the sweetest and most beautiful

’ ’
reminiscence of Nietzsche s and indeed of Wagner s , ,
career As w e ha ve said Nietzsche was full of

.
,
enthusiasm for Wagner s work which he heralded ’
as the re vival in modern form of the Greek tragedy

, ,
.
He interested himself especially in the scheme p ro

pounded by Wagner for founding a German national
theatre at Bayreuth and his essay on ,
Richard
Wagner at Bayreuth published in 1 8 76 as the ,
fifth of the Un zei tge m as s e Betrachtungen w as ,
destined to assist the propaganda in aid of this scheme .
Wagner on the other hand found in Nietzsche a

, ,
friend of the highest and most powerful intell ect ,
of quite extraordinary qualities and of a character , ,

’
as M Henri Lichtenberger expresses it
. d une ,
’
trempe peu commune Probably in Wagner s
.
,
eyes here was the ideal disciple such as every great

, ,
26 TH E PHILOSOPHY OF N IE TZSCHE
change in themselves As to Wagner w e are inclined .
,
to think that the author of P arsifal had certainly

modified some of the ideas which inspired him in
writing Tri s tan an d I solde and S i egfri ed The .
atheist Wagner had b ecome if not an orthodox ,
Christian certainly a mystic But P ars ifal had

,
.
n o t yet appeared at the time of the rupture with
Nietzsche in 1 8 76 Therefore we can s ee no other

.
reason for Nietzsche s action than a Change of position

’
in regard to the Wagnerian ideal as considered in the ,
light of his own ideal But the rupture was n ot s o .
sudden as certain think It was not the affair of a .
moment a coup de theatre s o to speak We have

‘
- -
.
,
said that even during the period of the Tribschen

’
intimacy Nietzsche s posi tion with regard to certain
,
o f W agner s works notably Tan n haus er was one

’ ‘
, ,
of more or less mild hostility But if Nietzsche .

,
Cherished any hopes during the period Of th eTrib s ch en

,
intimacy of converting Wagner to his own views

, ,
those hopes were speedily dispelled when Wagner

emigrated from Tribschen to Bayreuth From this .
’
moment On the seduction exercised by Wagner s
,
commanding and captivating personality disappeared .
Nietzsche became increasingly conscious of the fact

that Wagner was changing or at any rate that his , , ,
conception of Wagner was changing Far from being .
the re viver of Greek ideals which he had dreamed ,
Wagner seemed to him to have been captured by

the Germans as he puts it to be ministering to the
, ,
p opular vainglory following on the triumphs of 1 8 70 ,
to be pandering to German chauv inism and German

mysticism to be seeking for success at the expense
,
of his own convictions In 1 8 76 before going to .

,
Bayreuth to assist at the solemn celebrations of the

N i ebel nngenri ng Nietzsche determined to gather
,
TH E LIFE OF NI ETZSC H E 27
together all the tender memories al l the cherished ,
souvenirs of that friendship consecrate d at Tribschen

, ,
to write as it were a sort of memorial tribute n ot

, , ,
to the real Wagner but to the idealised Wagner to

, ,
the Wagner of his dreams of his hopes to the Wagner , ,
wh o had disappeared The last of the Unzeit

.
gemasse Betrachtungen i s consecrated to Richard

Wagner in Bayreuth B ut this ap preciation this
.
,
glorification of the master must be understood as a ,
tribute to the Wagner of the p ast to the Wagner ,
whom Nietzsche had imagined who had p erhaps , , ,
never existed but in the hopes and dreams of Nietzsche .
It was the last tribute paid at the parting of the ways .
Nietzsche was bitterly disappointed by the rep re

”
s en tati on of the Ring in 1 8 76 Wagner like every .
,
Over Man like every overwhelming genius was

-
, ,
accustomed only to rigid O bedience and respect from

those who surrounded him H e was much angered .
’
by Nietzsche s conduct on this occasion The breach .
was completed two years later by the publication

Menschliches All zu m en s ch
’
of Nietzsche s book : ,
’
liches . Wagner regarded Nietzsche s conduct as the
basest of desertions he came to look upon hi s former
bosom friend as an unscrupulous intellectual adv en
venturer wh o had n ot hesitated to make use of h i s
,
name and reputation and friendship in order to attain

for himself a certain degree of fame The flame was .
fanned further by attacks on Nietzsche of particular

violence which appeared in the B ay reu ther B l atter .
The year 1 8 76 marked the turning point in the

intellectual career of Nietzsche He had been the .
fervent worshipper of Schopenhauer the beloved ,
friend of Wagner Schopenhauer was dead and the

.
,
parting was thus less bitter than the separation from

Wagner Nietzsche had come to the critical moment
.
28 THE P H ILOSOPH Y OF NIETZSCHE
of his life as thinker and philosopher Hitherto he .
had been searching for himself searching for an ideal ,
which might satisfy his conception of life He had .
thought to find that ideal in Schopenhauer and

Wagner ; and he found ou t that the idols he had been
worshipping were false gods that they represented , ,
not the ideal of beauty and of strength and of power

, , ,
and of Apollinian and Dionysian wisdom which he ,
had discovered among the Greeks but the very op po ,
site He s aw them n ow in a quite different light he

.
s aw them as representing modern ci v ilisation in all i ts
weariness in all its disgust of life in its exhaustion in

, , ,
its degeneracy The bitter pessimism of Schopenhauer

.
appeared to him the logical outcome of that nihilism

which seems to mark the decay of European culture
to day
-
.The art of Wagner seemed to him to rep re
sent life under i ts most nervous and tired aspect
he s aw in that art a skilful means of a dm inistering
a narcotic to overwrought minds of calming and ,
drugging them with all the resources of a magician .
And from this moment the contrast the violent , ,
poignant contrast between his ideal of life the ide al of

, ,
Olympian beauty and power and the ideal of modern

,
civi lisation with its pessimisms its disgust of life

, , ,
its longing for the nirvana was to haunt Nietzsche

,
night and day gi ving him a sense of isolation in a

,
world s o totally di fferent in its aspirations .
But n ot for a moment did Nietzsche hesitate Th e .
ideals of to day and yesterday and of the last nineteen

-
centuries were not his ideals In the categorical .
imperative in the Sermon on the Mount in the

, ,
democratic mo v ement of to day he s aw the signs O f ,
decadency His ideal was an ideal in which none of

.
those conceptions which the world to d ay regards as

beyond controversy coul d find a place Very well .
THE L IFE OF NIE TZ S CHE 29
he would declare war on modern civilisation in al l i ts

forms In an age of democracy of sentimentalism
.
, ,
of mysticism he would preach the gospel of ultra

,
aristo crati s m of hatred instead of love of immoralism

, ,
instead of morality of egoism instead of altruism of , ,
hardness of heart instead of sympathy of art as the ,
j ustification of life instead of the moral l aw H e .
recognised n ow that he had been living in slipper y

places that he had been in real danger of succumbing
,
to the universal degeneracy whi ch he wo ul d hence

forth combat without mercy that he had been seduced ,
by f alse charmers that he had attributed to Schopen

,
hauer an dWagner ideas which they never entertained .
His sincerity and the loyalty and sublime disinterest

,
e dn es s of his character had led him and it always led , ,
him to idealise his friends to s ee in them something

, ,
which they were not something more than they ,
possessed It was thus that he had idealised Schopen

.
hauer and Wagner It was thus that he w as destined.
subsequently to s ee in Frau Andreas Lou Salom e -
qualitie s Which she never possessed It was thus that .
he was led to estimate friends like Herr Rohde and

Dr R é e at far above their real value This faculty of .
idealising his friends was destined often to lead him

into very painful positions .
Thus we find Nietzsche having completed the

search for himself We find him at war with al l the
.
ideals of modern ci vilisation It is n ot the ideal .
which he has s et forth i n Die Geburt der Tr agodi e

which has been modified But he has realised that .
that ideal is the diametrical opposite Of the ideal of

to day that his i deal i s an ideal of exuberant life
-
,
and of beauty and of power and of strength whereas

, ,
the ideal of to day is an anaemic ideal the fruit O f

-
,
degeneracy of nihilism of weariness of neuro p athy

, , , .
30 THE P H ILO S OP HY OF N IE TZSCHE
In all modern institutions in all that constitutes the ,
pride of our modernity in the State in the di fferent

, ,
religi ons in the moral law in modern science Nietzsche

, , ,
sees the obstacle o f the establishment of his ide al .
In temperament and constitution a contemporary of

ZE s ch y l u s or Pericles he finds himself transplanted
,
into a hostile atmosphere saturated with Christianity ,
with moralism and Hegelianism and romanticism .
In 1 8 78 Nietzsche published Menschliches ,
Allzumenschl iches But already before this publi

.
,
cation his health had become seriously undermined

,
.
In 1 869 he had had a bad fall from a horse which had ,
laid him up for a considerable time In 1 8 70 he .
served in the Franco German W ar in the Ambulance

-
,
Department and his health had again broken down

under the strain The stress of his university work
.
in the intervening years the emotion caused by his

,
rupture with Wagner and by his breach with all ideas

,
hitherto held sacred as being steps towards the

attainment of the ultimate great Ideal and which he ,
was now obliged to recognise as being diametrically

opposed to the realisation of that ultimate ideal again ,
brought on a complete breakdown in 1 8 76 a break ,
down i n which the serious illness of 1 8 70 also had its

share Nietzsche had been insufficiently treated in
.
1 8 70 he had recommenced work too soon and he

had o verworked He had to pay a heavy debt n ow
.
—
.
In 1 8 76 he was compelled to take a year s leave most

’
o f which he passed at Sorrento In 1 8 77 he r ecom .
m en ce dhis professional duties at Ba le and in 1 8 78 he ,
published Menschliches Allzumenschliches ,

But .
his university work was too heavy for him his health ,
became rapidly worse and in 1 8 79 he was forced to

, ,
his deep regret to resign his professorship

,
.
THE LI FE OF NIETZ S CHE 31
The severance of his connection with the Univer

s i ty of B a le where he had been active during ten
,
years was the outward and visible sign of that more

,
profound separation which Nietzsche n ow e ffected

between himself and all modern culture His health .
was very seriously undermined He w as the victim of .
violent and frequent headaches which left him nearly ,
paralysed with pain Between January 1 88 0 and .
January 1 88 1 he counted n o fewer than on e hundred

and eighteen such attacks H e p assed the winters in .
the south the summers generally in the mountain air

,
of Switzerland During three years from 1 8 79 to 1 8 8 2

.
, ,
he lay as it were between life and death in per

, , ,
p e tu al physical pain but never losing courage ,

fo r
an instant disputing every inch of ground with his

,
malady heroically battling resolutely for health

,
.
These years of physical suffering and illness were also

the years of his most profound intellectual discourage
ment the years of the most complete negation
, .
Nietzsche himself was fully aware of the gravity of the

p hysical and moral crisis which he was going through .
According to him there was an intimate connection

,
between the two He had b een afflicted during the

.
,
years 1 869 1 8 76 with the Wagnerian diathesis s o to

-
, ,
speak H e had been nearly conquered by ideals

.
which were the contrary in reality of his ideal and , , ,
which he had represented as being identical He had .
been the victim o f illusions due to the excessive ,
confidence and exaggerated faculty of idealisation

which he possessed But this worship of Wagner .
and Schopenhauer w as not natural to him It was .
a worship given under a misapprehension as to the

tendencies of these two masters And n ow was the .
period of intellectual emancipation Hi s physical .
suffering stood in co relation to his moral suffering or

-
32 THE P HIL O S OP HY OF NIETZ S CHE
hi s moral suffering stood in co relation to hi s physical
-
suffering Certain it is that the years of se vere illness

.
,
from 1 8 76 1 8 8 2 which were destined to end in fairly

-
,
complete recovery were also the years of moral

,
suffering destined to end in his entire emancipation

,
from Schopenhauer and Wagner and the whole of

modern C ivilisation and all the aspirations which he
had cherished up to the present and which were ,
s o many O bstacles to the attainment of life in all its
power and plenitude and beauty which was always ,
the ideal of Nietzsche .
We can trace the crisis through which Nietzsche

was passing in his works ; and we s ee the e ffect
,
of the ph y sical malady on his intellectual evolution .
In 1 8 78 he published Menschl iches All zum en sch ,
liches In n o book has he been so coldly s o entirely

.
,
negative as in this on e Every ideal which humanity

.
has been accustomed to look upon with reverence

and respect as something beyond controvers y as
, ,
something higher and more durable than itself is

— —
,
col dl y and calmly or violently flu n g aside Der .
Wandrer und sein Schatten followed in 1 8 79 as

—
,
the completion of the first work a book which is full

of sadness with its depicting of the Wanderer wh o
,
searches among the labyrinth of the forest to find his

way accompanied always by his shadow which haunts
, ,
him But already in Morgenr Oth e ( 1 8 8 1 ) we s ee

.
the signs of impro vement in health The ferocious .
”
negation of the Human all too Human is gradually
,
gi ving way to a more positi ve ide al Die fr Ohl i ch e

.
Wissenschaft ( 1 88 2 ) is the her al d o f recovery ,
written in a strain Of gaiety and optimism in the ,

”
most beautiful of all Januaries which Nietzsche ,
passed at Genoa Nietzsche himself writes in the

.
preface Thankfulness flows from it as a stream ,

34 TH E P HILOSOPHY OF N IETZSCH E
View of Rome is obtained and where one hears the ,
gentle murmur O f the fountain beneath was composed ,
that most solitary of all songs that have ever been

”
sung the Song of the Night
, This refers to that .
exquisite Nachtlied of Zarathustra

Nacht i s t es nun reden alle s pringen den Brun nen . Un d au ch
meine S eele i s t ei n s pri ngen der B run n en .
N acht i s t es : nun ers t erwachen alle Lieder der Li eb en den .
Und au ch meine S eele i s t das Li ed ein es Li eb en den .
The visit to Rome to the etern al unique i n com , , ,

’
parable city inspired several passages of Nietzsche s
,
master work The sight of the ruins of the maj estic

-
.
Basilica of Constantine the passing of a procession ,
of white robed priests on the Monte Aventino

-
the ,
gigantic dimensions of St Peter s the C loisters of

’
San Gio v anni Laterano all impressed him as they , ,
impress everyone and i mp r ess e dh i m the more because

'
h i s was an essentially impressive nature Another .
city which delighte d him was Genoa It was in .
Genoa that Die frOhl i ch e Wissenschaft was com

posed Its palaces its history its situation its
.
, , ,
climate e ven his hosts charmed him He writes :

, ,
.
I see here the faces of generations which are past and

gone the whole district i s full of the portraits O f
brave bold and proud men These li v ed and desired
, .
not only to live but to live on always I see this

, ,
wish expressed in the construction of their houses ,
built and decorated not merely for the passing hour ,
” 11
but for centuries Venice charmed him perhaps
.
I t i s n igh t n ow b egi n th e bu bblin g wells to s p eak An dmy .
s ou l too i s as a bu bbli n g well

, , .
I t i s ni ght n ow b egin all th e s ongs of th e l overs An dmy s oul .

,
"
too i s as th e s on g of a l over
, .
E FOrs ter N i etz sch e : Das Leben Fri edri ch Nietz sches
1 -
.
,
ii 363
. .
TH E L I FE OF NIE TZ S C H E 35
more than anything The palaces the silence the

.
, ,
Piazza San Marco with the Campanile and the P alace

of the Doges and the doves the poetical atmosphere Of
, ,
the whole town which seemed to transplant him into

,
another age all filled his artistic soul with jo y He

, .
had the further pleasure of having hi s devoted friend

—
,
Herr Peter Gast there Gast whose music conquered

, ,
him and who was ever ready to do some service for

,
the venerated master Rap allo on the Italian .

,
Riviera was the scene of the composition of the first

,
part of Al so sprach Zarathustra and as such it ,
occupies an important p lace in Nietzsche s life He ’

.
describes the origin O f the idea of Zarathustra in h i s

brain I n the morning ( February 1 883) I began the
ascent in a southerly direction of the lovely roa d
towards Zoagli which led me p ast P ini and brought
,
me to a point commanding a grand view of the s ea

in the afternoon I made the tour of the whole Bay of
Santa Margherita as far as P ortofi n o During these .
two wal ks the whole conception of Zarathustra

,
presented itself to me especia l ly the type of Zara

,
” 1
th u s tr a himself Later on he frequented Nice
.
,
which always charmed him I t was in Nice that the .
third part of Also sprach Zar athustra was com

posed ( 1 8 83 Un d er the halcyon s ky of Nice ,
which shone for the first time o n my life I found the ,
third Zarathustra That decisive part which bears

.
the title Concerning the O ld and the new tables ,

’
was composed during a most di ffi cult climb from the

”
station to the wonderful Moorish cli ff Eza For .
Nietzsche life and beauty were synonymous with

,
southern climates and the southern s un I taly was .
Auf di esen bei den Wegen fi el mi r der g an ze ers te Z arathu s tra

ein , v or allem Z arathu s t ra selbe r al s Ty pus ri chti ger er fi b erfi el
, ,
”
mich .
36 TH E PHI L OSOPHY OF NIETZSCHE
for him the unique country where alone life w as ,
rendered sweet whose music was charming where

, ,
alone art was understood and Cherished .
Morgen r Oth e had already breathed a new spirit .
Its title was suggestive as being the dawn of a new

,
era I
E s gi eb t s o vi ele M orgen roth e
Di e n och nicht geleuchte t h aben .
But a new morning sky was heralded in this work ,
where the first streaks of the coming day are perceived .
Then follows Die frOhli ch e Wissenschaft breathing ,
the spirit of gratitude and O f hope and of renewed

confidence I n life And then followed that mar vel
.
lous burst of lyrical enthusiasm Also sprach

,
Zarathustra .It is a song Of triumph the song of the ,
wanderer who has returned home at last who was ,
lost and i s found wh o has fought the fight and is

,
victorious I t is a song of victory and of faith of

.
,
hope and a ffirmation and of life and lo ve ,

.
The poem of Zarathustra contains four published

parts written between January 1 8 8 3 and January
,
1 8 85 a fifth part w as proj ected by Nietzsche and ,
destined to end with th e death of Zarathustra .
Ni etzs ch e vh as left fi ve plans of this fifth part none ,
of which he ever put into execution .
As w e have said since the resignation of his chair

,
at the Uni versity of B a le left him free Nietzsche led ,
a wandering and roaming life wanderings which were ,
mainly determined by the necessities of his health .
It is astonishing to contemplate the philosophical and

literary activity of Nietzsche during this period of
restlessness in spite of all obstacles The publication
,
.
of Zarathustra was followed by that of Jenseits

v on Gut und Bose in August 1 8 8 6 The work
, .
Zur Genealogie der Moral was written and pub

‘
TH E LI FE OF N I E TZ SCHE 37
l i s h ed
in 1 88 7 The year 1 88 8 the last year of
.
,
his intell ectual career witnessed the production of ,

”
Der Fall Wagner of G Otzen damm er un g
,
of ,
”
Der Antichrist and of Der Wille zur Macht
,
.
Derniere moisson moisson f é conde ,

.
But during all these years which followed the physi

cal and moral crisis of 1 8 76 1 8 8 1 the position of Nietz -
,
sche in the world was on e of growing i s olation The .
ever increasing separation the ever widening breach

-
,
-
between him and his times the di vergences of their ,
respecti v e aspirations the growing hardiness and ,
temerity of his views al l led bit by bit to an estrange

, , ,
ment between him and the world The quarrel with .
Wagner with the best beloved friend in whom all

,
-
,
his fondest hopes were placed l eft fa gap in his life

‘
which never co ul d be filled H is wandering life his .

,
inability through reasons of health to settle down in

, ,
a house of his own prevented him from taking root

,
anywhere His tendency to ide alise all those with

.
whom he came into closer contact to see in h i s friends ,
not so much what they really were as what he wished

and believed them to b e led him into some bitter ,
disappointments the bitterness of which was aug

,
m en te d by the extreme sensitiveness and delicacy O f

his nature And yet how he longed for a friend for
.
,
a real true friend and confidant for a disciple in

, ,
whom he could place implicit trust whom he could ,
rely on to continue the work s o bravely commenced

by him There is a passage in his private diary which
expresses this secret yearning of all his later life
Wer die gr Os s ten Geschenke zu vergeben hat sucht
—
,
nach Solchen welche sie zu nehmen verstehen er

,
sucht vielleicht umsonst E r wirft endlich sein .
Geschenk weg Dergleichen geh Ort zur geheimen

.
Gesc h ichte und Ver zwei flu n g der reichsten Seelen es

38 TH E P HI LO S OP HY OF N IETZSCHE
ist vielleicht der un v ers tan dl i ch s te und s ch werm u
” 1
ti gs te aller Un gl ii ck s féi l l e auf Erden .
The constant concentration of his mind on the most

exalte d and most intricate problems which confront
humanity added to the growing isolation which he
,
himself felt more than anyone Not with impunity .
can one be for e v er absorbed in the lofty question of
the origin and validity of all the tables of values of —

metaphysical and moral and scientific values which —
humanity possesses or has possessed Nietzsche .
himself writes of the conception O f the E v erlasting

Return of all things which dawned on him on e superb
,
summer morning in the forest of Silvaplana in the

E ngadine that it originated
,
at 6000 feet above
”
the s ea and far hi gher above all human things
,
.
’
This accurately represe nts the state of Nietzsche s
mind He lived in an atmosphere which was all his
.
own . He concentrated that powerful brain of his on the

highest and deepest problems which he perpetu al ly ,
meditated He had thrown overboard all the values

.
which humanity has revered up till to day He lived -

.
,
as he himself expresses it j enseits von Gut und ,
B ose beyond and above things good and bad beyond

, ,
and above all things human He had ever before his .
mind s eye the glowing vision of the future of a n ew

’
world o f a n ew humanity re generated and purified

, ,
and b eau ti fi ed of the Over Man incarnation of beauty

,
-
,
and strength and power of light heartedness and ,

-
i n s ou ci an ce of life in all its vigour and plenitude

,
.
He had elevated by a superhuman e ffort of hi s

,
He wh o h as th e mos t preciou s gi ft s to bes t ow seeks those wh o

are —
wor th y to receive th em an d s eeks p erh ap s i n vai n A t las t .
he throws th os e gift s as i de This tragedy appertai ns to th e s ecre t

.
his tory an d desp ai r of th e greates t min ds it i s perh ap s th e mos t

”
i ncompreh ensible and mel an ch oly of all tragedi es on earth .
THE LI F E OF N IETZ S CHE 39
indomitable will hi s mind far far above all those

, ,
thin g s which interest ed his contemporaries he had

attained those regions of lofty serenity and great
silence which are also the regions of eternal snow and ,
alone in that great silence under the stars he stood

, ,
contemplating the accumulation of ruins of tears and ,
sufferings of j oy and hope of victories and defeats

, , ,
which far beneath him in the valleys constitute the

, ,
history of the world and of humanity .
But it must not be concluded that Nietzsche was

of a cold and haughty disposition Few men have .
possessed according to the accounts of all wh o were

,
pri vileged to know him a more charming and lovable ,
character Nothing was fur ther from him than

.
vanity or arrogance and if he instinctively repulsed

, ,
those whose manner was di spleasing to h i s excessively

refined taste he was towards his friends full of
, , ,
kindness and charm and thoughtfulness If h i s .
intellectu al isolation was irksome to him if he w as ,
a man wh o y earned for friends and yet found none

worthy O f him if he was of course aware of h i s
, , ,
immeasurable sup eriority to all those wh o surrounded

him yet he never was anything but cheerful a charm
, ,
ing companion and filled with sympathy for all men

,
and things Al l those wh o met him at Sils Maria or

.
-
,
on the Riviera liked him and respected him

,
He was .
an altogether striking personality in the presence of ,
whom the trivialities and convention al banalities of

daily conversation seemed ou t of place and in whose
presence all boasting all pretentiousness all unreality
, ,
were equally out of place Nietzsche himself has .
maintained that he could at once detect thanks to his ,

”
extraordinary scent any physiological abnormality
, .
Certain it is that those who being physiologically ,
or psychologic ally inferior were admitted to his ,

40 TH E PHILOSOPHY OF NI ETZSCHE
presence at once felt themselves probed to the
,
bottom by the brilliant piercing blue eyes of their ,
interlocutor Tri viality and uncleanliness whether

.
,
bodily or mental were two things which could ne ver

,
stand in the presence of so delicate cultured and ,
aristocratic a soul as that of Friedrich Nietzsche .
Nietzsche was the greatest of idealists ; and his

passionate idealism led him into grievous mistakes and
blinded him as to the real merits and defects of his
friends H e speaks of Herr Peter Gast the faithful
.
,
friend and disciple as if Gast were a great musician

, ,
and he estimated him far higher than Wagner He .
s aw in Dr R é e in Professor Erwin Rohde in Frau

, ,
Lou Salom e personages of a distinction which they

-
,
’
were far from possessing Nietzsche s generous nature .
was the opposite of those who are always ready to

detract to find out some little defect on which they
,
may insist Nietzsche saw in his friends nothing but

.
perfection but bitter was the disappointment when

at last the truth could no longer be concealed and ,
the veil fell from his eyes .
Nietzsche s was one of those natures which give them

’
selves freely lovingly con fi di n gl y disinterestedl y ;

, , ,
and like all such natures he yearned for human

, ,
sympathy and human love for that same sympathy ,
and love which he was ready and longing to give This .
statement wi l l surprise those wh o only know Nietzsche

from some famous oft repeated aphorisms such as his
,
-
,
”
advice to become hard and his doctrine that the ,
greatness of a man is to be measured by his capacity

to inflict suffering But in his private life Nietzsche
.
appears as one of those ideal natures to whom might

be applied the description by a French poet of Victor
Hugo Dieu mit d ab or d dans s on c oeur la grande
’
”
bont é . We find him writing to a friend in need ,
42 THE PHI LOSO P HY OF NI ETZSCH E
—
embraced You served that y ou belong to that as
.
, ,
also does your name for etem i ty that which is ,
immortal which dies n ot with the body although it

, ,
is born with it
—
.
Few have such aspirations and Of these few

wh o can realise them as y ou can P
Thus it is that my thoughts go out to y ou to day -
,
and thus have I always thought of y ou if from a far ,
distance of you who are the woman whom my heart

,
” 1
most greatly reveres .
His love for all that is artistic all that is beautiful , ,
his passion for music I know n o di fference between

”
music and tears he writes ,
I know that happiness
which cannot think Of the south without a slight
shudder of timidity —
are these the signs of a brutal
and violent nature P There are a thousand p assages
from his works which reve al the tenderness of every
fibre of his nature Could anyone but a delicate and
.
sentimental nature have written as he wrote of , ,
Venice P
An der Bru ck e s tan d
Jii ngs t i ch i n braun er N acht .
Fernher k am Ges ang

Goldener Tropfen qu oll s ’
Uber die zittern de Flache weg .
Gon deln Lichter Musik , ,
Trun ken s chwamm s i n di e Dammerung hinau s ’

.
Meine S eele ei n S aitenspiel , ,
S ang s ich un sichtb ar b erii h r t

, ,
H eim li ch ei n Gon delli ed d azu ,
Z ittern d vor bu n t er S eeli gk ei t

H6 1 te Jem an d i h r zu P
-
Alas ! n o on e remained to listen to this song of

a great soul Solitude certainly Nietzsche lo ved
.
, ,
.
Oh Einsamkeit Du meine Heimat Einsamkeit

E FO s te N ie t s ch e Da L ebe n F ied ich N ie t sche n 8 6 3
1
. r r- z : s r r z s, . .
THE L I FE OF N I ETZ S CH E 43
he wrote But he felt also the want of a friend in

.
whom he could confide who could understand him ,
and what was for him more important his ideal

, ,
.
”
How many years have elapsed he writes to h i s ,
sister since I last heard a word that really app ealed

,
to me that went to my heart My dear old .
friend he writes again already in 1 88 4 to on e of

, , ,
the comrades of his youth when I read your last ,
letter it seemed to me as if y ou shook my hand with

a melancholy look as if you would s ay How is it
,
possible that we have to day s o few things in common -

,
that w e live as if in different worlds And yet long ,
ago Thus dear friend goes it with all those who are
, ,
dear to me al l seems finished and past One sees .
each other still one talks in order to break the silence

, ,
one writes letters in order to break the silence But .
I know the voice of truth and I hear it saying : ,
Friend Nietzsche y ou are al on e I n 1 8 8 7 he

,
.
’
writes to his sister : O heaven h ow lonely I am ,
to d ay 1 I have no on e with whom I can laugh ,
no one with whom I can take even a cu p of tea no one ,
to comfort me His friend Baron Heinrich von ,
Stein died early and his loss was v ery ke enly felt by
, ,
Nietzsche With Professor Rohde he had quarrelled

.
,
his friend Baron von Gersdorff was seldom with him ,
and his sister the friend and confidante of a lifetime

, ,
had gone ou t to Paraguay with her husband Herr ,
Bernhard FOrs ter Few perhaps can understand what

.
it must have cost the author of Zarathustra

to have perpetually to frequent the society of the
amiable nonentities E nglish French or German who , , ,
filled the hotels and boarding houses of the Engadine -
and the Ri viera And yet he was always cheerful

.
,
always full of that charming courtesy which was

peculiar to him always ready with a kind word or
,
44 THE P HI L OSOPH Y OF NIETZ S CHE
with the o ffer Of a ser vice al ways popular The , .
people he thus met ne ver understood who or what

he was . H e was a most delightful companion v ery ,
intelligent but nothing of a great mind was the

, ,
opinion expressed by on e person Nietzsche accepted .
this misunderstanding cheerfully It is my mask .

,
he used to say laughingly with regard to his modesty

o f demeanour He knew that it was not such people
.
wh o would be called upon to judge him The day .
after t o morrow first belongs to me he wrote and ,
he knew that his work was for those for whom it was
—
destined for the chosen few and for them only , .
The whole work of Nietzsche is that of an artist .
As his sister truly says sunshine and blue sky were ,
necessaries of life to him The beauties of nature .

,
the beauties of art and of music who appreciated ,
them loved them wished for them more deeply than

, , ,
Nietzsche ? The poem of Zarathustra was composed

partly at Rapallo in view of the lovely bay of Santa
,
Margherita partly in the E ternal City with its

, ,
memories and treasures partly in Nice under that , ,
halcyon s k y and with the blue expanse of water

,
beneath The idea of the E verlasting Return occurred

.
to him in the midst of a forest among the grandeurs ,
of the High Engadine at a he i ght of 6 000 feet The ,

.
Gaya Scienza is all saturated with the atmosphere

of the most beautiful of all Januaries passed under ,
the Italian s k y at Genoa Nietzsche loved the sun .
shine and the stars and the moonlight on the lagoons

,
of Venice and the soft caressing music of the south

,
which brings with it a gentle breeze of Mediterranean

am
As we have said the year 1 8 8 8 was the busiest

, ,
’
as it was the last of Nietzsche s career as thinker
,
.
”
He wrote Der Fall Wagner the G Otzen dam ,
THE L I FE OF N IETZSCHE 45
”
merung ,
Der Antichrist and the fragments of ,
Der Wille zur Macht which have been published ,

.
With regard to the latter work which contains the ,
entire philosophy of Nietzsche in a nutshell it cannot ,
be too deeply deplored that the breakdown of the

author s health prevented i ts completion Its con
’
.
tents are indeed already contained in the poem of

, ,
Zarathustra But Nietzsche was the first to under

.
stand the di fficulties which would arise concerning the

interpretation of the latter work Already in 1 8 83 .
,
when Zarathustra was finished Nietzsche seems ,
to have planned the writing of a new volume which

should contain the exposition in prose and in a more , j
methodical style of the ideas expressed in lyrical

,
language by Zarathustra In 1 88 6 he wrote ou t a .
plan for this new work to be composed in four books , .
B ut in 1 8 8 7 he re vised this p lan and finally deter ,
mined the composition of this new work as follows

Der Will e zur Mach t : Versuch einer Umwertung aller Werte
.i D e eu Opai s ch e N ihil is mus
r r .
K i t ik de h och t n W rt
'
ll
. r r s e e e .
iii P in ip e in e n eue n We t s e t ung

. r z r r z .
i v Z uch t u n d Z u ch tu n g
. .
This plan was carried ou t and the work was ,
published posthumou sly by the Nietzsche Archiv -
1
at Weimar The plan howe ver formed but part of
.
, ,
a much larger scheme for exposing his philosophy

in all i ts details which Nietzsche was unfortunately
,
unable to complete .
1
Th e followi n g i s th e trans l ati on of th e titl e
Th e Will of P ower th e Tr ans valu ati on of all Values
i Th e Eur opean Nihilism
. .
ii Cri ti qu e Of th e H ighes t Values

. .
iii P rin ciples of a n ew Evalu ation

. .
i v R earing andSelecti on
. .
46 THE PH ILOSOPHY OF NI ETZSCHE
The year 1 8 88 was one of extraordinary cerebral
activity It also happened that the summer which
.
,
Nietzsche spent as usual at Sils Maria was on e -

,
in which exceptionally bad weather prevailed .
’
Nietzsche s health always far from robust was , ,
unfavourably influenced by these climatic con

di ti on s
. Although since his comparative reco very,
in 1 88 2 he had had no return of the violent attacks

,
of pain to which he was formerly a martyr he had ,
been obliged to take constant precautions in view

O f his health which remained in a weak condition
, .
Unfortunately he had no on e to look after him and

to care for him The solitude in which he was
.
plunged and the constant concentration of his mind

, ,
and the vertiginous heights to which his thoughts

perpetually soared all combined to make him neglect
,
a hygienic r é gime indispensable to him to fatigue ,
hi s already somewhat overwrought ner v ous system ,
to keep him in a state of unceasing cerebral tension .
Everything seemed to combine against him in this ,
his final year of acti vity First came a renewed .

,
and very bitter attack from the Bayreuth ring wh o ,
had ne ver forgiven and never could forgive Der

, ,
Fall Wagner This attack ungenerous itself was

.
, ,
made increasingly bitter by the fact that i t was

published in a musical review whose administrator
’
was Herr E Fritsch of Leipzig Nietzsche s own
.
, ,
publisher He had an increasing sense of loneliness

.
,
of isolation Especially did the absurd silence of the

.
entire German world of thought with regard to his

labours fill him with anger and sorrow He com .
plains to his sister of this feeling of utter loneliness ,
this want of sympathy this general ingratitude ,
towards me Why i s there n o sign of approval

.
,
n o understan ding me no cordial app reciation P ,

THE LIFE OF NIETZSCHE 47
Nietzsche sought refuge from his woes the neglect ,
of his compatriots the want of friendship and ,
understanding in renewed work And he worked

,
.
hard and he forced his brain to concentrate itself

,
for a violent e ffort as if he had conscience of the fact

,
that it w as to be a last effort and increasing

nervosity and insomnia ensued as a natural resul t .
The sleeping draughts of chloral to which he had ,
long accustomed himself became ever larger and ,
e v er larger as his cerebral tension increased and

, ,
the insomnia became more di fficult to cope with In .
the course of h i s wanderings Nietzsche had made the ,
acquaintance of a Dutch gentleman from Java wh o ,
recommended him as sleeping draught and general

,
-
remedy for hypertension of the nervous system a ,
drug which he had himself discovered in the E ast .
Nietzsche foolishly enough determined to try this

, ,
dr ug a conco ction which me dical science had never

,
analysed An d the e ffects were good s o good that

.
,
Nietzsche slept long under them and awoke with an

ever increasingly confused brain This was the state
-
.
o f the man at the close of 1 8 8 8 Overworked racked .

,
with worry I n ill health sleeping only by means of

,
-
,
enormous doses of chloral and O f this Eastern drug ,
wit h his whole ner vous system strained to breaking

—
point i t wo ul d have require d the constant care and
affection of a mother or sister or friend who could ,
ha ve comforted him nursed him cheered his solitude, , ,
afforded him light and agreeable distractions to ,
avoid the coming blow .
Alas 1 Nietzsche was alone After a ba d summer .
in the E ngadine which increased his bad health

,
and bad spirits he arrived at Turin en r ou te for

, ,
the Riviera At Turin he found the weather most

.
favourable ; he cheered up under the influence of an

48 THE PHI L OSOPHY OF NIETZSCHE
Italian autumn and w e find him writing in a most
,
cheerful frame of mind to his sister in Paraguay .
He began not content with producing Der Fall

,
”
Wagner the G Otzen damm er ung and that most
, ,
”
important work Der Wille zur Macht on e after ,
another in the same year to write an intimate diary , ,
which he entitled Ecce H omo He begins this .
diary thus
On this most important of days when not only ,
are the grapes brown but when all is ripe suddenly , ,
a gleam of sunshine fell on me and lighted up my

whole life I looked back I looked up I never s aw , ,
at one and the same time s o many good things Not .
for nothing ha ve I j ust completed my forty fourth -
—
year i t was well for me to bury it for wh at has ,
lived during that year i s saved and is immortal .
The first book of the Transvaluation of all Values ,
1
the Song of Zarathustra the Twilight of the Idols , ,
’
my essay in philosophy by means of the hammer
—
,
all are the gifts of this on e year indeed of the last ,
three months How would it be possible for me not

to be thankful for my whole life P An d thus will I
” 1
recount the story of my life .
In this state of hypertension of over excitement ,

-
,
nothing could have been worse than to have caused

Nietzsche irritation This however is precisely .
, ,
what he encountered Instead of that loving .
sympathy which a home or kind frien d s could and

should have prepared for him he found himself ,
exposed to on e attack after the other His ol d and .
v enerated friend Frau Malwi da von Mey s en bug

, ,
co mmenced by attacking him on the subj ect of

G otzendammeru ng .
2
E . Fors ter Nietzsche
- Das Leben Friedrich Ni etzsch es ,
u . 8 92 .
50 THE PHILOSOPH Y OF N I E TZ S CH E
point O f a morbid state dating back some fifteen
years and which according to this theory was
, , ,
inherited by Nietzsche In view of the attempt .
which has been made to discre dit Nietzsche s work ’
on the ground that it is the work of an insane person ,
and in view Of the not unnatural success which has

attended this attempt especially or exclusively
—
, , ,
among the uninitiated we s ay not unnatural for it , ,
i s an easy and convenient way of refuting views which

may be only with di fficul ty refuted by more serious
—
arguments we think it well to give a brief sketch
’
of Nietzsche s history from the medical point O f
view .
Nietzsche belonged to a family in which exceptional

longe vity was the rule Most of the brothers and .
sisters of his father as also his grandfather sur vi v ed

, ,
the age of seventy and some of them attained eighty

,
or even ninety years The same rule of longevity

.
prevailed in the family of his mother On the other .
hand n ot one single case of insanity or of any mental

, ,
aberration is reported among any of his immediate

,
’
ancestors or relations Nietzsche s father it is
—
.
,
true died at the early age of thirty six from softening

, ,
of the brain But this softening of the brain was

.
caused by a fall down some stairs which had occurred ,
eleven months pre viously ; and Nietzsche being five ,
years old when this accident happened no further ,
account need be taken of it During his early life .
Nietzsche was gifted with exceptionally good health .
His sister reports that when at the university as a , ,
student he used to return in his riding suit from a

,
-
cross country gallop everyone admired the splendid

-
,
build O f his frame and the physical strength which

it revealed He never had a serious complaint of
.
any sort it seems before 1 869 when a fall from his

, , ,
THE LIFE OF NIETZSCH E 51
horse laid him up for a considerable time Then .
came 1 8 70 and the Franco German W ar in which -

,
Nietzsche served in the Ambulance De p artment .
The severe strain of this winter campaign proved

too much for him H e became seriously ill and
.
, ,
without being properly cured or su fficiently rested ,
b e resumed hi s arduous work as professor at B a le .
From this time onwards came constantly recurring

headaches of e ver increasing severity till at last
,
-
, ,
as we have seen he was compelled to abandon his

,
p rofessorship at B a le During two years he lay a

.
martyr to his sufferings but towards 1 88 1 his health

,
improved and from 1 8 8 1 to the time of his attack

,
in 1 8 8 9 he does not se em to have su ffered from this

complaint to any great extent But h i s health was .
visibly undermined It w as only by means of the

.
strictest hygienic r egi m e by constant changes O f ,
climate that life was rendered more or less support

,
able I n this fragile state of his health Nietzsche

.
,
’
require d a woman s care and constant affection ;
he required a doctor to supervise him to prevent ,
him from overworking himself But left to himself .

, ,
Nietzsche subj ected his brain to a work which ,
powerful as that brain was it was nevertheless ,
unable to cope with An d we must constantly .
bear in mind that Nietzsche was no mere coldly

obj ective philosopher but that his philosophy was
,
inseparable from himself from his life that he l i ved

, ,
hi s i deas in the most literal sense By nature of .
an extremely delicate and sensitive dis p osition hi s ,
work filled him with an enthusiasm which it i s hard

to conceive His state of mind after the completion
.
of each part of the poem of Zarathustra was one of

extraordinary excitement He was himself Zara .
th u s tr a preaching in terms of lyrical beauty a new

, , ,
52 TH E PHILOSO P HY OF NIETZSCHE
gospel to the world He s aw himself uplifted above
.
all humanity soaring in the vast spaces and immense

,
silence of the region o f eternal snow he s aw the ,
vision of the future before him the radiant vision ,
of the Over Man far abo ve all things human far

-
, ,
removed from all that which humanity has venerated

up till now the creator of the n e w tables of the l aw
, ,
of the new v alues of him who,

is to mould centuries
according to his image as if they were wax
,
In a .
state like this e very fibre of a ner vous system already

,
o verwrought by long and p ainful i ll ness was strained .
Insomnia attacked him and he had recourse to ever

,
stronger doses o f chloral and of that fatal Easter n

drug gi ven him by the Dutch gentleman from Java
at the same time instead of reposing his nerv ous
,
system and gi ving it time to c al m itself he worked ,
on and o v erworked till at last overwor k and drugs

,
and worries proved too much and that powerful ,
brain which had created Zarathustra succumbed

, ,
to the demands made upon it .
No trace of any morbid influence is to be found in

any of Nietzsche s works with the exception of the
’
,
”
later part of his intimate di ary E cce Homo , ,
written at the end o f 1 8 88 after the completion of ,
all his philosophical and literary work When we .
come to these passages of the di ary written in ,
December 1 88 8 certain traces of a distinctly morbid

,
character are to be seen But the contrast i s great

.
’
between these passages and the rest of Nietzsche s
work a contrast clearly showing that his productions
, ,
from the Birth of Greek Tragedy to The Will

of Power are n ot the fruit of an abnormal state of
,
mind At the end of his life of thinker Nietzsche

.
,
seems transplanted into another world He was .
”
thus trans pl anted when he wrote Zarathustra ,
TH E L IFE OF N I ETZSC HE 53
but in a di fferent fashion for Zarathustra i s a ,
coherent well ordered work showing all the signs

,
-
,
of an exception ally powerful and fertile intellect ;
whereas certain passages in E cce H omo are

incoherent and absurd Under this morbid influence .
which heralded by some weeks the fatal stroke ,
Nietzsche sees himself as a stranger he contemplates ,
himself as if from afar H e is the continuator of the .
work O f Jesus Christ as he i s also the deadliest enemy

,
of that work and he is continuing it by annihilating

,
it and transvaluating it Across nineteen centuries .

,
he stretches his hand out to what he believes to be

his predecessor This idea haunts him continually
.
,
and his last letter to Georg Brandes written on ,
4 th January 1 88 9 and undoubtedly the product

, of an
”
insane mind is signed by him The Cru ci fie d One
, .
Th e paralytic stroke which attacked him in

Turin was a mild on e and confined to cerebral ,
paralysis Nietzsche was able to go ou t an d to write

. .
I t was his letters which first gave alarm to hi s

friends Professor Overbeck his former colleague
.
,
in B a le came in haste to Turin and took Nietzsche

, ,
!
back wi th him to Ba le After being nursed for a .
time at B a le he was removed to Jena and thence to

,
Naumburg where his mother and sister j oined him

, ,
the latter returning from Paraguay to nurse the n ow

helpless brother Nietzsche was still able to go ou t
.
,
and he met his sister at the station with a bou quet

of flowers to greet her on her return .
The decline of the creator of Zarathustra of the ,
great apostle and lover of life and of beauty of the ,
enthusiastic prophet O f the Over Man symbol of life -

,
and of beauty an d of strength was a decline singu

,
,
l arl y sublime in its pathos an d mel ancho l y Th e .

54 THE PH I LOSOPHY OF NI ETZSCH E
silence which had accompani ed Nietzsche during
h i s active life a silence broken towards the end by
,
a few members of the éli te Of the world of thought

-
b y Brandes in Denmark by T aine in France by
—
, ,
Burckhardt in S witzerland n ow suddenly gave way

to a celebrit y which resounded throughout Europe ,
from Paris to Moscow a celebrity which was als o

,
an apotheosis But of this tardy recognition of his

.
genius Nietzsche knew nothing In that quiet

,
.
,
sunny house at Weimar whither his mother and ,
sister had removed from Naumburg lay the great ,
thinker and philosopher enj oying on his verandah

,
the balmy air and the V iew of the hills of the

Thuringian Forest which dotted the horizon His .
great pleasure was to receive the visits of ol d and

well loved friends to hear them talk and to listen
-
, ,
to music His faithful disciple Herr Peter Gast

.
, ,
came over to Weimar to cheer him with music and ,
the deep blue eyes of the invalid filled with tears and
his whole frame shook with emotion at the sound .
What were his thoughts as on the beautiful spring ,
and summer e v enings he used to watch the sun

,
slowly sink beneath the horizon in a glow of crimso n

glory P
He seemed to have a faint recollection of his
former life of thinker Did not I too write good
.
, ,
books ? he asked once of his sister as she placed ,
a n ew book in his hands Towards his sister wh o .

,
nursed him with a rare de votion his gratitude was ,
very touching Al l those who visited him were

.
mo ved by this affection which he constantly showed

, ,
as well as by the beauty of that lofty forehead and

of those deep blue eyes which illness seemed only to
,
have made more beautiful P rofessor Lichtenberger .

,
in his most excellent introduction to the philosophy of

Nietzsche describes thus the impression left on him :
,
THE LIFE OF N I E T ZSC H E 55
La souffrance et la maladie avaient sans doute , ,
marqu é leur empreinte s u r la p hysionomie de '
Nietzsche mais sans la d é gra der sans lui enlever

, ,
s a noblesse Son front restait tonj ours admirable

.
,
s on regard qui semblait comme tourn é vers l e

,
dedans avait une expression i n dé fi n i s s ab l e et pro

,
’
fondement é mouvante Dans tous les cas i l .

,
’
avait conscience de l affecti on dont s a s oeur l entou ’
rait i l n e cessait n e la suivre des yeux l ors qu el l e

’
’
allait et venait dans l a chambre et rien n é tai t ,
’
touchant quand ell e s as s ey ai t pres de son fauteuil
, ,
comme l e geste gauche et lent par lequel i l s efforcai t

’
de pren dre dans s a mai n la main de cette s oeur ,
confidante j adis de ses ann é es de j eunesse supreme

, , ,
” 1
consolatrice auj ourd hui de s es ann ée s de d é clin
’
.
, ,
In the room below that o ccupied by the invalid ,
Frau FOrs ter Nietzsche aided by a few devoted -

,
friends O f the m aster were busily sorting rea di ng , , ,
arranging the numerous papers manuscri p ts diaries , , ,
correspondence etc left by the master and destined , .

, ,
to be published as posthumous works And above .
lay the master himself unconscious of the noise ,
now being made around his name dying slowly and ,
nobly unaware of his apotheosis

, .
The end came peacefully gently on the 2 5 th of , ,
August 1 8 9 9 A fresh paralytic stroke fell a long

.
,
sleep ensued the expression on his face changed

—
,
slightly a faint agitation a long breath and the , ,
master fell into the last sleep that which knows no ,
awakening The bold fighter the brave explorer of

.
,
the paths of knowledge the intrepid searcher after ,
truth had entere d the haven of peace at last

, .
1
H Li ch tenb erger
. Friedrich Ni et zsche Aph orismes et
”
Fragments ch oisis In troducti on ( P aris , ,
CHAPTE R I I
G E N ERAL V I E W O F N I E TZ S CHE s
’
I D EAL
THE temperament of Nietzsche was in some respects

well suited to the philosophy O f Schopenhauer and
to the drama of Wagner ; for Nietzsche was of a
melancholy disposition at times he was nervous
, ,
he willingly exaggerated and was willingly aggressive .
He knew in all its bitterness the pang of regret which

e very man worth something must experience at some
time or other in the course of his life the pang caused
,
by the separation from men and from ideas which are

dearly lo ved and cherished and revered Nietzsche .
was O f a melancholy disposition at times for instance ,
at the time of the separation from Wagner or in ,

”
Menschliches Allzumenschliches
,
or in , Der
Wandrer und sein Schatten or in some of his cor
,
respondence with his sister and with intimate friends .
An d this melancholy is a feature of all refined and

sensitive natures especially as such natures are prone
—
,
—
to s ee the world more or less through a prism that
of their own ideal and the disapp ointment is the -
more cruel in proportion as the idealised world finds '
itself out of harmony with the world of reality But .
it is only at times that Nietzsche is melancholy The .
basis of his nature or its principal part is composed

, ,
of cheerfulness o f optimism
,
and of a somewhat
,
aggressive spirit which made of Nietzsche a hard and

bold fighter .
During the first thirty years of his life Nietzsche

56
58 TH E P HIL OS OPHY OF N I ETZSCHE
Schopenhauer had preached the negation of all
wish to live as the highest wisdom Nietzsche had .
admired Schopenhauer ; but he had admired him

chiefly as being the pitiless destroyer O f that flat and
Philistine optimism which prevailed very extensively
in German philosophy about the middl e of the century ,
and which was one of the many bad results of the

influence of Hegel Finding himself in the presence
.
of a great and ancient civilisation whose ideal is the ,
affirmation of the most i n ten s e life Nietzsche rej ected ,
Schopenhauer His own ideal was the a ffirmation of

.
life ; he must have misunderstood Schopenhauer ;

but in any case he came to recognise that Schopen
’
hauer s teaching was not in accordance with the
Nietzschean ideal Nietzsche discovered his real self
.
,
that which had always been his real self in contact ,
with the Greeks .
] The Apollinian conception of life finds its concrete

e
expression in the work of the sculptor whose obj ect ,
is to create beauty and to give us types of beauty

,
which shall raise us above ourselves which shall giv e ,
a value to life which shall create for us a perspective

,
in which we s ee the possibilities of our own creative

faculty and s o incite us to regard life as sanctioned
,
and dignified by the sole creative power of the artist .
Th e Dionysian conception finds its concrete expression

i
in the aspiration of the musician the most lofty aim ,
of all music being to awake in us a love of life because

it is strong and being strong also and necessarily
, , ,
eternal There is no contradiction between Apollo

.
,
the god of beauty and Dionysus the god of strength

, ,
and of overflowi ng life For the Greeks beauty was

.
synonymous with strength and power That which .
was strong and powerful and a ffi rmative was also

Beauty being the rai son detre of life
’
beautiful .
-
,
G E N E RAL VI EW OF NI E TZSCH E S I D E A L ’
59
and the creation of beauty i ts sole j ustification it ,
followed that only the existence of a race which was

strong and powerful which knew how to dominate
,
and to organise could afford a j ustification of life

, .
And the Greeks were precisely a strong race who ,
knew h ow to dominate and to organise Let there be ,
no mistake as to the real meaning of the Athenian

re p ublic a republic governed by ten thousand
,
aristos wh o commanded a nation of subj ects and

slaves The political colonising and administr ative
.
,
activity of the Greeks activity always bent on con

,
quering and subj ugating whether it be rival states or

,
the highest riddles of the universe shows us the i n ,
flu en ce of the Dionysian conception on the daily life

of the race and the art the immortal art of the age
,
associated with the name of Pericl es art which entered ,
into the daily life of the inhabitants and stimulated

that life to ever increasing activity is the result of the
-
,
Apollinian conception .
By dint of their strength the Greeks were able to ,
raise themselves above pessi mi sm and they were able

also to raise themselves above mere optimism and to ,
confound pessimism and optimism in a higher state

which witnessed the resolution of the antinomy of the
two The supreme proof of that strength is to be seen
.
in Greek tragedy In its person ages Greek tragedy

.
,
realised the Apollinian conception of life of life as ,
synonymous with beauty In the C hoir of satyrs it

.
,
realised the Dionysian conception life conceived as ,
synonymous with strength and power The tragedy .
proclaimed at once the beauty of life and the exub er ,
ant power Of life desiring eternity for th e realisation

,
of its infinite possibilities .
And the faculty thus revealed by the Greeks of ,
being able to contemp late with serenity the sufferi ngs

60 THE PHILOS OPHY OF NI E TZS CHE
and woes of life pro ves the s trength both physical and
, ,
moral of the race For the Greeks did n ot seek to con

,
.
’
ceal the sight of life s sufferings in order to lull them
,
selves into an optimistic conception of life They did .
n ot mer ely succeed in contemplating life s sufferings

’
with serenity and calm They w ent further and they

.
considered the exhibition the frequent exhibition of

, ,
suffering and pain to be a necessary factor in the

combat against optimism as essential to an under ,
standing O f the real value of life as a counterblast to ,
undue optimism They went further still and they

.
,
considered the sight of suffering and pain as adding to

the value and to the b eauty of life They contem .
plated suffering and p ain in the light of an aesthetic

manifestation of the universal Will of which all life is
but the manifest ation Afte r enj o ying the sublimity Of
.
the Olympian vision of the beauty and strength and

eternity of life the Greeks liked to renew their force
,
by a contemplation of life under its diametrically

opposite aspects they liked to renew their vigour by
,
going once more to the source of life which is su ffering , .
And this su ffering and pain and hideousness they ,
considered as the j ustification of the Olympian

vision and they considered the Olympian vision as
j ustifying the pain and suffering which accompanied
its creation and as being j ustified by them For
, .
what reason possess suffering and pain P Their on ly

j ustification which is also their supreme j ustification
, ,
is th at they incite us to create beauty that they are ,
necessary and indispensable to the creation of beauty ,
that without them beauty could n ot be created for ,
beauty does but exist by reason of its antithesis ,
and thus do suffering and pain become the rai s on

’’
detre of the creation of beauty which is the ,
rai s on de We flee from the sight of so

’
-
tre of life .
G EN E RAL VIEW OF N I E TZ S CHE S ID EAL ’
61
many horrors and we create for ourselves works of art

,
and of plastic beauty in order to escape from these

horrors An d the pain and su ffering which is the
.
accompaniment of the whole world process is also -
the material with which beauty and art are created .
Through them ou r love of life as synonymous with

beauty and with strength i s intensified Through .
them we realise the vision O f life in beauty of life in ,
power of life exuberant and o verflowing with wealth

, ,
wealth of beauty and wealth of power and needing ,
eternity in order to realise that wealth .
’
And the whole conception of life which is Nietzsche s
is realised in this conce p tion which was that of the
,
Greeks Ni etzsc he is an artist and as an artist he

.
,
sees lif e as a manifestation O f beauty ; he sees life as

iI HTh G W
W ”
i l l OI
W
s y n on y m ofi s
T
domination
and this will of power realised by the Greeks in their
,
conquering acti vity in all domains is itself but the ,
W i t h el om fl fi a of the a ffirmation of life

r
,
of the wish to live and to live whol ly .
Arrived at this point Nietzsche realised that t hi s

,
conception of life was likely to be criticised on the

score of its being a conception which can only pene
trate the few the select fe w And it is certain that
, .
the Dionysian conception of life is the antithesis

of a democratic on e The creation of beauty i s
.
the work of the él i te and of the él i te only ; and the

strength of mind and body which reveals itself in the
ability to contemplate the sufferings of life as being ,
necessary to the creation of beauty can but be the ,
privi lege of the few ; and that view of life which

considers suffering as necessary to the creation of
beauty which considers art as the sole j ustification of
,
life and which holds th at the greater the sufferin g

, ,
62 TH E PHILOSOPHY OF NIETZSCHE
both in amount and in intensity the greater the beauty ,
in amount and intensity is not likely to be app reci

,
ated by that vast majority who are called upon to

suffer and to die in order that the minority the ,
él i te may be able to enj oy all the more the con

,
te m p l ati on of their artistic creations For suffering .

,
Nietzsche says after Schopenhauer is the basis of

, ,
all life ; it is in fact the only real i ty in life The

, ,
.
artistic creation which culminates in the Apollinian

,
and Dionysian visions is the only means of em an ci

,
pating us from suffering and consequently from ,
pessimism We take refuge from suffering in art and

.
in beauty But e v en as life is thus rendered beautiful

.
,
as a supreme creation of art s o does the creation of ,
art require suffering as a primordial factor The only .
means of escaping oursel ves from pessimism and

suffering is thus the infliction of su ffering on others ,
for art cannot exist without its antithesis .
Such a conception of life presupposes the existence

of an eli te o f a ,
minority strong and powerful , ,
which dominates the rest of humanity And the .
Greeks had realised the n ecessities of logic and they ,
had established the rule of an eli te o ver a republic

of sla v es and subj ects Nietzsche too understood
.
, ,
whither the necessities of logic led him The creation .
of beauty as the j ustification of life and the existence

of suffering as a primordial condition in that creation
this necessitated the rule of an éli te And the .
existence of this éli te is further j ustified by the fact

that its members alone are capable of creating beauty ,
that they alone are strong enough to surmount the

trials of life and to take pleasure in the contemplation
of those trials .
The existence of a strong dominating race in , ,
whom and by whom is realised the Dionysian and

G E NER AL VIEW OF NIE TZSCHE S ID E AL ’
63
4
Apollinian conceptions of life who by its strength , ,
and consequently by i ts beauty i s naturally called ,
upon to govern humanity the existence of such a race

can alone ensure the existence of those conditions
without which life would be but a uni v ersal wail ,
without obj ect without j ustification Such a race

,
.
creates the conditions in which life 1 5 rendered toler

able it creates the conditions in which life i s ren
dered fruitful and beautiful and strong I t creates .
beauty and in s o doing it creates those ideals which

, ,
are at the same time visions of its own infinite

possibilities which give a value and a meaning to life
,
.
But in order that a race may create beauty may ,
create those con ditions under which we first apperceive

the v alue of life in which we first can desire life it is
, ,
indispensable that certain antecedent conditions

should already exist The first of these antecedent
.
conditions i s the existence of su ffering Only as we .
become aware of the intensity of human su ffering can

we wi s h to create an artistic vision which shall be its
antithesis Only as we become aware of the intensity
.
of su ffering is there a p os s i bi l i ty of realising its

antithesis The j ustification of a ruling race is the
.
j ustification O f humanity for it is the duty of that

,
race to create the v alues which give a v alue to life ,
which give a meaning to life And that race by its .

,
strength is itself and in itself an aesthetic mani

, , ,
fes tati on of the highest order For if it can create

.
,
beauty it is because it is strong because it has an

, ,
excess of vitality which permits it to surmount

pessimism and suffering And i ts vitality can be
.
maintained only on condition that it is rendered hard ,
and it is rendered hard by the sight of suffering .
Suffering is thus necessary it is indispensable both

, ,
as the inspirator of artistic creation and as main ,

taining the vital ity essential to that artistic creation ,
which is the result of a superabundance Of l ife .
Such is Nietzsche s conception of art An d

’
.
’
Nietzsche s conception of art contains all Nietzsche .
He differs profoun dl y on this subj ect from his erst

while master Schopenhauer For Schopenhauer art
, .
,
is the means of escaping for a wh ile for a short time , ,
from the tyranny of the desire O f life For a brief .
moment we stand entranced and as if in ecstasy

,
before the product of artistic creation and during ,
that moment we are uplifted abo v e ourselves we are ,
uplifted to a hi gher sphere in which we ceas e to desire

, .
We do n ot indeed in t hi s con di tion consciously form

, , ,
a positi v e wish to be delivered from the desire of li fe ,
whi ch positi v e wish is the highest wisdom ; but w e

negati vely cease to desire life for a brief moment for ,
a while the ardent flame of desire is quenched and in ,
this quenching of the thirst for life lies accordi ng to ,
Schopenhauer the value O f art But even as Schop

, .
en h au er considered art as possessing a value o nl y s o
far as it acts in a nihilistic sense in so far as it exti n

,
g u i s h es in us the desire to li v e s o does Nietzsche ,
consider the value of art as resi di ng in it as a great

s ti mu l an t of life Art is what alone gi ves a v alue to
.
life what alone gives it a meaning without which life

, ,
wou ld not be po ssible or would be possible o nl y as an

en dl ess purgatory Art is the great stimulant of
.
life how can on e s ay of art that it has no obj ect no ,

’
purpo se h ow can one underst and it as l art pour
,
l art P One question remains art brings with it

’
much that is ugly hard and questionable does not

,
—
art therefore s nfi er from life to this extent ?
, ,
But this is the pessimistic view : one must appeal

from it to the artists themselves What does the .
66 THE PH ILO S OPHY OF N I E TZ S CH E
in being able to contemplate them as beautiful as ,
ar tistic in themselves as essential pieces in the gre at ,
edifice of beauty Without them art would not be

.
,
.
An d the greater the suffering the greater the develop

ment of artistic creation And as the intensity of .
artistic creation i s the condition of life as life finds its ,
j ustification in art as the O bj ect O f life is to expand

,
and develop in beauty in ever greater beauty s o does , ,
life require suffering and m uch su ffering and much, ,
intense suffering .
And Nietzsche preaches to us the necessity of

becoming hardened of inflicting su ffering of being , ,
able to witness the most terrible su ffering with seren ,
ity nay with j oy of being able to in fli ct and witness

, ,
suffering in order to be able to taste the more keenly

the j oys of that artistic creati on a n d of that artistic
destruction which is itself a fresh incitement to
,
creation which embellish life He tells us that the

, .
great man the truly great man is not he wh o is full

, ,
of sympathy for his fellows but he who is capable of ,
inflicting the cruellest suffering without heeding the

cries of his victim The greatness of a man is to be
.
measured by his capacity to inflict su ffering It is .
necessary to harden ourselves to harden ourselves ,
greatly .
Why s o hard P asked once upon a time the piece

of kitchen coal of the diamond ; are w e not near
relations Why s o soft P — O my brethren that i s
—
,
what I ask you are y ou n ot m y brethren P

Why so soft s o tender s o conciliatory ? Why is
, ,
such self denial in your hearts ? Such little conscious

-
ness of your Destiny in your look P

And if y ou do not desire to be the messengers of
Destiny and of an inexorable Destiny how can you
,
hope to tri u mp h with me P

G ENE RAL V I EW OF N IE T ZSCH E S IDEAL ’
67
And if your hardness cannot shine forth and cu t

and crush : h ow can you ho p e to create with me P All —
creators are hard And it must be a great joy to y ou
.
to mould the face of centuries as if it were wax ,
J yo to write your name o n the wi ll of centuries as

—
,
if on brass harder than brass nobler than brass ,

.
That alone which is the hardest i s also the noblest .
This n ew Table 0 my brethren I write above , ,
y ou : B EC O ME HAR D 1
Thus life in beauty in strength and in po wer , ,
an d su ffering and pain as necessary to the creation of
beauty consequently to the glorification of life this

,
i s the message of Nietzsche I t is a message which is .
distinctly pagan and distinctly Hellenic and di s , ,
ti n ctl y Roman it i s the message of the Renaissance

and it i s a message which is distinctly anti Christian-
,
anti democratic and su fficiently Nero ni an to enable

-
,
Werke Th e ori gin al G erman one of N ietzs che s’
, vi .
31 2 .
,
—
mos t s triking p as s ages , i s as foll ows
Warum s o h ar t l s prach zum Di am an ten eins t die Ku chen
Kohle s in d wir den n n icht Nah -Verwan d te P
Warum s o weich P O h m ein e B ruder al s o frage i ch euch sei d ,
i hrden n nicht m eine Brii der P

-
Warum s o weich s o weichen d und nachgeben d P Warum i s t

,
s o vi el Leu gn un g Verleu gn un g i n eu rem H er zen P

, 8 0 wen ig
S chicks al i n eurem B licke P
Un d wollt i h r n i cht S chi cks ale s ein un d Unerbi t tli che : Wi e
konn te t i hr ein s t mi t mi r— s i egen P
—
Un d wenn eure H ar t e n i cht bli t zen u n ds chn ei d en un dzers ch
nei den will wi e k onn te t ih r ein s t m i t mi r s ch affen P
“Alle S chaffen den n amli ch s in d h ar t Un d Seligkeit mus s es
'
euch dii n k en eure H an d au f J ah r t au s en d e zu d

, rii ck en wi e au f
W achs
— ,
—
S eligkeit auf dem Will en von J ahrt ausen den zu schreib en
,
wi e auf E rz h éir ter al s E rz edl er als Erz G an z h ar t i s t all ein

, .
das E dels te .
Diese n eue Tafel Oh meine Bru der s telle i ch u ber euch

, ,
WE R DET HART !
68 THE PH I LOSOPHY OF NIETZ SCHE
us to conclude that Nietzsche must have been an
admirer of Nero .
All that which i s tired and weak and nervous and

pessimistic and anaemic in life finds in Nietzsche i ts
dea dl iest enemy And that which is exuberant and
.
gay and bold and intrepid and full of strength and of

the lo ve o f life finds in Nietzsche its fer vent apostle .
According to Schopenhauer the greatest crime in ,
life is the fact of living According to Nietzsche

.
the greatest crime in life is sympathy Sympathy .
does not serve any purpose except that of increasing

the amount of suffering on earth without adding to
i ts beauty . Sympathy does n ot help him to whom
it is proffered but it drags down him who pro ffers
it to the level of the others Sympathy adds to the.
number of those who are miserable It may pro v e .

,
and has indeed pro ved exceedingly dangerous as an

,
instrument for impressing on the pri vileged classes

the notion of the inj ustice of their privileges and ,
thereby sounding their death knell Zarathustra i s -

.
attacked by the vision of the Most Hideous Man he ,
wh o is the symbol of all the miseries and all the

sufferings and all the ugliness of humanity he who ,
has slain God himself victim of the constant con

,
tem p l ati on of all the wounds and sores of stricken

’
humanity And Zarathustra has a moment s
.
hesitation The awfulness o f the vision has taken

.
hi m aback .But Zarathustra vanquishes himself ,
he thrusts the symbol of suffering humanity aside ,
and goes further It is the great victory the

.
,
victory over his innermost self the crushing ou t of ,
the feelings of sympathy and tenderness .
But it would be perhaps a mistake to suppose

, ,
that Nietzsch epreached the doctrine of hardness and

cruelty for i ts own sake Sympathy a d ds to the
.
G ENERAL V IEW OF N I E TZ SCHE S
’
I D E AL 69
numbe r of those who are miserable Those wh o are .
happ y and who love life and wh o cherish life are

, , ,
liable to be rendered unha p py are s ure to be rendered ,
unhappy are sure to turn against life to declare

, ,
life a misery and a burden by sympathising with ,
those wh o are m i serable and who hate l ife because

they are miserable For what is sympathy.
? It
’
is the sharing of another s burden only this sharing
of the burden does not relieve any of the weight on
the shoulders o f him wh o is miserable while it ,
places a burden which was hitherto absent on the

shoulders o f him who was up till then happy S O .
that sympathy adds to the stock of ugliness and

su ffering in the world And Schopenhauer was .
incontestably right when he s aw in sympathy the

best means of attaining to that negation of the
desire to live which he p rized as the highest wisdom
, .
Sympathy reveals to us the depths of the world s ’
suffering it inspires us with timi di ty in the face o f

,
that suffering with the consciousness of the non

,
value of all life ; it incites u s to desire t h e cessation

of all life and the cessation of all desire Sympathy
is thus an anti vital sentiment And it was but
-
.
natural that Nietzsche the great apostle of life in

,
all i ts plenitude should regard sympathy as a crime

, .
The predication of the gospel of life in all its

plenitude entails some consequences which Nietz
sche foresaw Firstly the life which will assert
.
,
itself in all its plenitude must encounter n o obstacles

which will hinder it in e ffecting this realisation ;
and if it encounters obstacles it must be able to
o v erthrow them That is a con di tion precedent
. .
Secon dl y when that condition has been realised

, ,
life will affirm itself by all and every means ; by

war . My brothers in war I love y ou from my ,
70 TH E P HILO S OP HY OF NI ETZ S CHE
heart I am and always hav e been your fellow
, , ,
warrior And I am also your best enemy

. .
You shoul d love peace as a means to fresh wars and ,
the short peace rather than the long one You .
s ay ,a good cause s an cti fi es even war ; but I s ay ,
a good war s an cti fi es every cause 1

By war and ,
by the infliction of suffering and by the trampling ,
down of the weaker and by the creation of beauty ,
and by the assertion O f one s personality in every ’
domain of life whether artistic or intellectual or , , ,
administrati ve or political or social , , .
And this affirmation of oneself this expansion of ,
oneself is but the a ffirmation of one s belief in life

’
, ,
of one s love of life

’
which is the cardinal point of ,
’
Nietzsche s doctrine During nineteen centuries .
and longer since Socrates and Plato the affirmative

, ,
and expansi ve and exuberant life has been repressed ,
every obstacle has been s et in its way every e ffort ,
has been made to prevent life from affirming and

expanding itself in all i ts boundless plenitude .
There are many preachers of death and the earth ,
is full of those whose extinction should be preached .
There are those who preach that life i s n ot worth

li ving that the world is a vale of tears and these
,
are those and they are at present the great maj ority
, ,
whose extinction should be preached and ad vocated .
For these preachers of death are the enemies of all life .
For death as they understand it is the antithesis Of

, ,
life the release n ot only from life but from all desire
,
to live the nirvana in which those wh o are tired of life

,
and weary of life may take refuge and find repose .
But death for him wh o lo v es life who aspires to

, ,
hav e life beautiful to hav e it powerful and exuberant ,
and strong wh o lo ves life abo ve all things Who loves

, ,
Werke vi 66 67 1 "
,
.
, .
G ENERA L V IE W OF NI E TZ S CHE ’
S I DEAL 71
life as a creation of art and on account of the possi

b i l i ti es it a ffords of creating art an d beauty who ,
wishes for life eternally because only in eternity can ,
the plenitude of i ts expansion be realised for him ,
death is also something which partakes of the

beautiful and gay and optimistic For if death be .
indeed a token of the decay to which all individual

life i s exposed it is also a reminder of the eternity
,
of life oVer and above the accidents of this world of
phenomena If death be a manifestation of decay it

.
,
is also a manifestation of resurrection The individual .
will with the force which it incarnates is dead but

, , ,
the Universal Will of which life and the world are but
,
emanations exists still exists eternally symbol of the

, , ,
desire of life immortal and unquenchable

,
.
The creator dies h i s death triumphant s u r , ,
rounded by those who hope and praise .
To die is the best ; but the next best is to die

in battle in the full expansion of a great soul
,
.
But that which the fighter as also the victor , ,
hates is that miserable death of yours which steals

, ,
on you like a thief but which nevertheless comes as

,
lord and master .
I recommend y ou my own death the death which ,
i s free which comes onl y when I will

,
.
Let your death be not a reproach to man and

to the world my friends ,
this I ask of the honey
of your soul .
In your death should your soul and your virtue

shine forth like unto the evening glow of the sinking
,
s un otherwise have y ou failed in your death

,
.
And thus shall I die myself s o that you , ,
my friends shall on my account love life more

greatly
Werke vi 1 05 1 06 1 08 ,
.
, , .
72 THE P HILOSOPHY OF NI ETZ SCH E
Thus is death also a fresh means of loving l ife ,
of a ffirming life And thus also from the heights

.
,
in which he soars does Nietzsche embrace in the

, ,
lyric gospel of the love of life which he preaches ,
also that phenomenon which is generally considered

as the antithesis of life Death shall sanctify li fe .
death shall not b e welcomed as a release from life

death shall by i ts courage by i ts intrepidity by its
, , ,
beauty give a fresh proof of the beauty of all life

, ,
and thereby increase ou r love of life .
It is impossible to go further in one s a ffirmation

’
of life
,
and of the supreme value of life In thi s .
’
brief general view of Nietzsche s po sition a sketch ,
’
necessary in order to give us an idea of Nietzsche s
philosophy we hav e shown that the car dm al doctrm e
,
of Nietzsche I S th el ove w
AIi d
i
i '
affirmation of life contains all

i ‘
Nietzsche as we shall s ee But we must n ow

,
.
’
examine Nietzsche s position with regard to the
various obstacles at present existing and which ,
prevent an unrestrained expansion of life .

74 THE P HIL OSOP HY OF N IETZSCHE
pose it And many O f the O bstacles to the re al i s a
.
tion of the ideal of the O ver Man are inherent in the -
habits traditions and prej udices O f humanity

, .
For instance that feeling of fear before the n u

,
known that feeling O f misoneism as psychologists

,
term it what greater obstacle than this to the free

and unfettered exploration of the paths of know
ledge ? But such free and unfettered exploration
of the paths of knowledge is a necessity to him wh o
would know the keenest j oys and also the keenest ,
sufferings of life ; consequently to him wh o desires

,
to live fu l ly But there is n o doubt about this

.
general repugnance to a free and unfettered explora

tion The most unprej udiced minds still have their
.
prejudices The scientist who breaking loose from

.
,
the religious beliefs which have perhaps been h i s , ,
in childhood imagines himself to be a free and u n

,
fettered explorer after truths to be a free thinker ,
is he in reality s o free ? Is he not still retaining

many of the prej udices of his childhood his un wav er ,
ing belief in the truth for instance or his respect , ,
for the moral law as assumed in the Kantian impera

tive ? Unknown perhaps even to himself there , , ,
lingers a pertinacious dislike of adventure in the

research of knowledge and an equally pertinacious ,
partiality for well trodden paths which present no

-
,
dangers where the road is straight and the point O f

,
arrival sure Humanity does not like to explore

.
the virgin forests which threaten the bold wanderer

,
with a thousand perils unknown and unforeseen , ,
in which there are many chances against one that he

will miss h i s path and be lost in a hopeless maze .
This sentiment of fear before the unknown is a not

unnatural on e but it i s an obstacle and a serious
, ,
O bstacle to that free and unfettered search after

,
THE STATE 75
knowledge which is at once necessary to the eman ei

patiou of man from the bonds which n ow enthral
him and which is also necessary to the realisation
of li fe in its integrity ;
Thus here at the very outset is alrea dy an obstacle ,
and a very great obstacle to be removed Man

, .
must shake off that fear of the unknown an d u n

explored he must gird up his loins and boldly explore
,
the mysterious labyrinth of knowledge ; he must

learn to shake o ff the prej udices accumulated by
centuries ; prej udices which by the force of heredity
, ,
have become part of his nature H e must unlearn .
a great deal indeed most of what he has learned

, , ,
and which is merely error But these errors and

.
prej udices which he must unlearn compose hi s mos t

sacred his most cherished his most firmly roote d
, ,
beliefs H e is called upon to throw O ff the burdens

.
of morality of religion Of the S tate and all other

, , ,
O bstacles to the realisation of hi s integral self .
And h ow many care to face the risk ? H ow many

care to wander through the labyrinths of the virgin
forest or navigate amid the reefs of unknown seas
, ,
in order to attain to the bottom of things if indeed

things ha v e a bottom or if that bottom only con
,
tains something disagreeable something repugnant

, ,
or nothing at all ?
However the risk must be faced boldly Man .
must shake Off his fear of the unknown he must ,
carefully avoid the beaten track and plunge into

the unknown recesses of the forest He knows n ot .
what he may meet on the w ay or where he wi l l ,
arrive or if he will indeed arrive at all But he

, .
will taste the pleasures the incomparable pleasures

, ,
as also the poignant anguish and suffering which ,
alone are the lot of the explorer of the Don Juan ,

76 THE PH ILOSOPHY OF NIETZSCHE
of knowledge Many and bitter will be h i s di s .
appointments and m or ti fi cati on s and de ceptions ,
but his will be also the v ast j oy of the man wh o

suddenly fi n ds hi ms elf who like Rip Van Winkle , , ,
awakes after a long sleep ; of the man who has

consciousness of the expansion of himself and of
the realisation of himself during the search and by
the searc h The sentime nt of infinite l iberty in the
.
face O f the unknown in the face of the most redoubt ,
able problems in the face of unknown dangers and ,
ambushes is the sentiment of highest j oy and

,
triumph it is the sanction of life because through ,
it life is a ffirmed and glorified .
The concrete obstacles to the realisation of his

ideal whether represented by the State or by the
, ,
religions or by the categorical imperative or other

, ,
wise Nietzsche did n ot attack them separately

, ,
in an orderly and methodical manner He attacked .
them all one after the other or all together without , ,
method violently , .
First of all we have the State Nietzsche hates

,
.
the State in which he sees an organisation dis

,
covered by the masses for their protection and

defence against the strong the exceptional the , ,
master The State is synonymous with mediocrity

.
org anised Being the invention of the weak an d

.
the inferior it profits only the weak and the inferior

, .
It allows these latter to develop without let or

hindrance without fear of the conqueror or the beast
,
of prey Its aim is the suppression of the exception

.
ally strong Of the exceptionally gifted The logical

,
.
expression of the State i s the Democracy with ,
its absurd doctrine of equal ity .
When we come to examine th e State the modern ,

TH E S TATE 77
State what do we find ? What i s the p recise aim

,
of the modern S tate ? The modern S tate aims at

enabling the greatest number of men possible to
live together peaceably in the best and happiest ‘
conditions possible The aim of the S tate is n ot the

.
development of the individual n or the creation of

,
beauty n or the cultivation of a superior race n or

, ,
even the protection of the better and stronger

elements in a race ; the aim O f the State i s the
greatest possible multiplication of indivi duals ; i ts
ai m is a r é gime of flat and mediocre happiness for the
greatest number of these individuals i ts aim must

necessarily be the suppression of all that which is
exception al and superior to the mass for that which ,
is superior to the mass revolts against the authority

of the latter as represented by the State The .
”
B iblic al exhortation : Go forth and multiply ,
summarises the aim of the State The mot .
dordre of modern demo cracy :

’
the greatest hap
p i n e s s o f the greatest number completes
, this
definition .
Th e State i s the creation of the weak and i s ,
consequently in the service of the weak T he .
State P What is that P I will open my ears and I ,
will recount you the story of the death of nations .
The State is the coldest of all cold monsters It .
lies coldly and this is the lie which proceeds from

’
its mouth ’
I the State am also the People

, , .
But it is a li e They were creators those that

.
,
created the di fferent peoples and gave them a faith

,
and an ideal ; and thus did they serve life They .
are destroyers and nihilists those that s et traps for

,
great numbers and call those traps the S tate the y

hang a sword and a hundred p assions above them .
There where a strong race still e xists the S tate i s n ot

,
78 TH E PH ILOSOPHY OF N IETZSCHE
understood and is hated as the evil eye and as a
,
crime against morals and liberty The State .
lies with all the tongues of good and of e vil ; and

whate ver proceeds from it is a lie and all that it ,
possesses is stolen Everything connected with the

.
State i s false ; it bites with stolen teeth and its ,

” 1
very bowels are false .
Being an instrument designed to permit of the

greatest possible multiplication of individuals the ,
State necessarily tends to favour the increase of

numbers of wholly superfluous persons
The S tate is there where are all the drinkers of
poison good and bad It is there where all good
,
.
,
a n d bad loose themselv es It is there where the

, .
’
slow suicide of all is termed life .
Behold these s u p er flui ti es l They steal the work

of the discoverers and the treasures of the wise
—
.
,
They call their theft education and everything in

their hands becomes illness and impotency
Behold these s u p er flu i ti es ! They are for ever
ailing they give v ent to their spleen and call the
,
result their newspapers They devour each other .

,
but cannot even digest each other .
Behold these s u p erflu i ti es ! They make wealth

“
and yet become poorer They desire power and .
,
first of all that condition precedent to all power

money .
There where the S tate ceases to be there begins

, ,
the man who is n ot superfluous There where the

—
.
,
State ceases to exist behold my brethren ! Do ,
you not s ee the rainbow and the bridge of the Over

Man P 1
It matters not whether the State be autocratic ,
Werke vi 69 70
1
,
.
, .
2
I bi d . vi .
71 , 72 .
THE S TATE 79
as in Persia or democratic as in Great Britain and

, ,
the United States The State i s always the enemy

.
of everything which is exceptional of everything ,
which is powerful of everythin g which rises above

,
the ordinary of everything which is independent

,
.
What it aims at is the multiplication and protection

of the inferior elements of the race which elements ,
constitute i ts strength and guarantee i ts longevity .
The State loves correct attitudes normality , ,
mediocrity .
An d the proof of this is that all those who in ,
modern times have risen above humanity and

, ,
dominated humanity an d rul ed humanity with a ,
rule of iron have either broken loose from all State

,
control or else have used the machinery of the State

,
in order to assert their powers The S t ate is an ad .
mirabl e instrument in the hands of a Cesare Borgia ,
or of a Peter the Great or of a Napoleon I t is an

,
.
admirable instrument for dominating the mass of

—
humanity and as such the great rulers of humanity ,
from Alexander and Julius C aesar down to Frederic

and Napoleon have always understood i t that
,
—
i s to s ay all those who belong to the mass either
,
by reason of their weakness in p hysique or on ,
account of their incompetency or because of their ,
inability or hesitation to enter upon new paths and

forsake the beaten track or for any other reason ,
.
All these need the State for their protection ; for

th e S tate protects them against exterior foes and ,
protects them against themselves T he S tate acts .
as do the religions as a policeman who prevents the

,
bad instincts of the masses from breaking loose .
The position of Nietzsche with regard to the

State is fundamentally opposed to the position of
the an archists Wh o also desire th e abolition of the
,
80 THE PHILOSOPHY OF N IETZSCHE
State The anarchists desire the aboli tion of the
.
State in order to do away with the power of the

governing classes of the bourgeois and capitalist
,
classes in order to ensure to each worker the integral

,
value of his own production i n order to do away ,
with the alleged exploitation of the industrious and

working classes by the capitalist and employers ’
class The condemnation of the State by Bakunin

.
,
by Kropotkine Reclus Grave and their disciples

, , , ,
is a condemnation pronounced in the name of t h e

masses pronounced against the alleged exploiters
,
of the masses against those who have the reins of

,
power in their hands According to the anarchist .
theory the State is the instrument of class domina

,
tion which theory is also that of Marx and th e

,
di fferent collectivist schools The State according .

,
to this theory is the means whereby the capitalist

,
class is able to prolong its domination The State .

,
still according to this theory is the great O bstacle ,
which prevents the realisation of the anarchist and

—
collectivist ideal the ideal Of universal fraternity
and solidarity .
Anyone even cursorily acquainted with Nietzsche

will at once recognise the total and fundamental
di vergence of views which separates him from the
anarchist school The latter has as starting point
.
the ideal of a humanity living in peace fratern ity ,
and solidarity of a humanity whose unit the

, ,
indi vidual is naturally good naturally pacific and

, , ,
wh ose natural goodness and disinterestedness have

been momentarily destroyed by various influences ,
of which the State is among the most important .
Nietzsche has as starting point the ideal of a

humanity living in strife and in war of an Over ,
Man dominating humanity by his strength of an ,

82 THE P HILOSOPHY OF N IE TZSCHE
State i s the symbol of authority versus anarchy and ,
the anarchi sts are logical in wishi ng to bring about i ts

downfall but Nietzsche i s less logical in wishi ng the
,
same thing .
But thi s argument shows a misunderstanding of

Nietzsche s conception of authority and also a mi s
’
understanding of what is meant by the authority of

’
the State And indeed Nietzsche s conception of the
.
State i s intimately bound up with hi s whole philo

sophical teaching Nietzsche we must remember is
.
, ,
an autocrat and an enemy of the democratic ideal

, .
But Nietzsche is more than a mere autocrat He is an .
autocrat wh o aims at the establishment of an auto

cracy which shall go vern by reason of its strength by ,
reason of its power by reason of the terror and awe

,
and respect and also veneration which it inspires

, ,
.
The autocracy which Nietzsche sees as the ideal of

the future shall be on e in which rigid exclusiveness
prevails in whi ch admittance to i ts ranks shall b e
dependent on the strength the prowess the courage, , ,
the intelligence the anthropological superiority of

, ,
each member in which each shall be free to develop

himself to the utmost degr ee in boundless freedom , ,
or almost boun d l ess at an y rate in a freedom to which

,
the only limits are those s et by his own strength and

capacity The Nietzs chean autocracy shall be on e
.
to which only the fittest shall be admitted a narrow ,
circle composed of the elect alone of those wh o are the ,
creators of the values which humanity worships and ,
each m ember shall conquer admittance only by his

deeds but the dee ds which shall gain for him
admittance shall be deeds of daring and prowess both ,
intellectu al an dp h y si caywhi ch n o State could permit

‘
for it is such deeds as these which destroy the State

and falsify its aim and r ai s on detre In our -
’
.
THE S TATE 83
present ci vilised world we know only the degenerate

criminal crushed by the hostility and contempt of
,
society the criminal wh o distrusts himself who often

, ,
seeks to belittle and excuse hi s act i n short a type -

,
of criminal who h as failed ; and we forget that every
t man was a cri mi n al only n ot in miserable style

g rea , ,
—
but in great style we forget that every great act i s
” 1
a cri me . The great man of the future he who i s ,
.
alone worthy to be a master and a ruler of men who ,
i s alone worthy to enter t h e ranks of the autocracy

o f the Ov er Men he must necessarily be a criminal
-
,
that i s to s ay a man who knows not good and bad

, ,
because he is abo ve them a man wh o i s the scourge

of humanity who in order to realise the expansion
,
of h i s personality needs humanity as a field for

,
experiments as a field in which he can s ow su ffering

,
broadcas t for every great man needs to in fli ct suffer

,
ing for every great man is warlike and hard hearted

,
-
and needs great hecatombs in order to attain hi s O bj ect .
The aim of the O ver Man is a great mm and it i s the -

,
realisation of life in its entirety in al l its infinite ,
possibilities and in the great game which the Over

,
Man plays with Destiny humanity is but a pawn , .
Such i s the authority which Nietzsche would s et

up an authority of blood and iron dominating
, ,
humanit y by its strength by the awe and vener ation ,
which that strength inspires an authority which h as ,
attained i ts position through countless hecatombs ,
through tears and suffering which h as posed the ,
greatest and deepest problems which confront the

human mind and resolved them which h as lived ,
through perils innumerable and which has through its

perils become hardened become fitted to occupy the ,
position which it occupies that of creator of the tables ,
”
Werke xv 35 5 1
, . .
of v alues which shall constitute the faith of the world .
The autocrat of the future the O ver Man is the ,

-
,
embodiment of strength and beauty who is beautiful ,
in his strength and wh o is strong enough to gi ve full

,
vent to all his passions and also strong enough to

,
restrain those passions and to prevent them from

,
flowing over and destroying life .
It ensues that the autocracy of Nietzsche will exist

not by any means for the benefit of humanity at
large for it will be a scourge to humanity for it will
, ,
be th e master with the iron glo ve and humanity will ,
be the slave and the drudge Thus alike by its final

.
aim by its composition and by its immediate aims

, , ,
this autocracy will be the exact opposite of all con

temporary states whether autocratic or c on s ti tu
,
ti on al Its final aim will be itself and its own

.
development in strength and in beauty ; its com

position will be that of the most elect : of the fittest
of th e fit of the bravest of the brave of the strongest
, ,
of the strong ; and its immediate aim will be the

exploitation and scourging of humanity as the chief
means to its own consolidation .
If we turn now to the State of to day whether it -

,
be autocratic or constitutional we find at once that ,
every act which qualifies for admittance into the

autocracy of to morrow is condemned The State of
-
.
to day is essentially moral ; while the O ver Man is

- -
nothing if not profoundly immoral The obj ect o f .
the State is n ot the creation of beauty nor the ,
development of indi vidual power and independence .
Its obj ect is the de velopment of mediocrity ; its

obj ect is the creation of a flat colourless ideal of ,
uniformity which is certainly not beautiful and

, ,
which is certainly n ot the symbol of strength The .
aim of the State is the good man the correct ,

THE STATE 85
man i ts ideal i s the staid man of business or the ,
placid and conservative bourgeois wh o lives on

his income and leads an honourable a sedate and , ,
a quiet life The State has its philosophy which

.
,
inculcates respect of the l aw of the moral l aw and , ,
enj oins the worship o f the trinity of the Good the ,
Beautiful and the True The State is the enemy

.
of all initi ative or independence Whether it be .
Russia or France an absolute monarchy or a re public

, ,
initiative and independence are considered by the

State as its most redoubtable foes How could the .
modern State accommodate a Julius C aesar or a Cesare

Borgia or a Napoleon P T hese creators of their own
values these dominators and tyrants of humanity
, ,
were themselves the State they were themselves ,
the incarnation of the Will O f Power they personifie d ,
Power under its most redoubtable aspect .
The State however is n ot redoubtable The State

, ,
.
i s n ot the creation O f courage or of prowess or of great

ness of any sort The State has been cre ated in
.
order to render the life of the greater number toler

—
able that i s to s ay its obj ect is the curbing and
,
eventu al sup pression of the passions which surge up

in the human soul and which threaten the peace and
’
good digestion of one s neighbour The State ne eds .
order and peace and also the peace of mind

, .
But the State represents a principle of authority ,
y o u O bj ect and in order to O bt ai n authority y ou

must have power There is n o such thing as authority
.
without power of some s ort .
Certainly The State p ossesses authority

. but
there are two sorts of authorit y There i s th e .
authority which i s Obtained by the superabundance of

force and energ y such as was realised ; for instance
, ,
in Napoleon An d there i s the authority which i s

.
86 THE P HIL O S OP HY OF NIET Z S CHE
O btained by all sorts of intrigues of b ackstairs plot ,
ting of cunning tricks of baseness and meanness and

, ,
slyness and such is the authority of the State .
The State proclaims itself moral but it is in reality ,
profoundly immoral and disgustingly immoral This

is a first proof of its weakness of the m
.
ean and degen ,
c rate physique of those wh o control it for the great

sign of strength is to be able to proclaim oneself
immoral at least to oneself Napoleon gave himself
,
.
ou t as actuated by moral motives ; b u t that w as
because humanity i s too unintelligent to understand

the immoralist and to himself Napoleon also con
fessed himself But the rulers of the modern State
—
.
are full of self deception ; they lie to themselves ,
they deceive themselves deliberately until they begin ,
actually to belie ve in themselves and in their virtue

they blind themselves wit h big words and pious
attitudes and the reason for their deliberate self
,
deception is that they are afraid to examine them

selves to the bottom afraid to look the truth in the ,
face Here is a first proof O f cowardice of weakness

.
, ,
an d of hypocrisy .
Under cover of this tartufferie the most ,
tortuous intrigues and plottings are carried on Th ose .
wh o to day rule the S tate or aspire to rule it n ot

,
-
, , ,
being strong enough or courageous enough or bol d

, ,
enough to assert their supremacy by strong cour

, ,
ageou s and bold means have resort to all sorts of ,
crooked and unclean methods The democratic .
State with i ts shameless place hunting and deception

,
-
of the electors with i ts corruption and j obbery is

, ,
typical of that sort of power whi ch is represented

by the State That power is acquired by means of
—
.
corruption and j obbery is n ot the Fren ch republic

—
a striking instance P an d he Wh o employs the most
THE STA TE 87
underhand methods he who possesses the most,
crooked brain he wh o is most practised in the art O f

,
unscrupulous I ntrigue O f backstairs plotting and of

, ,
self deception he arrives at a goal and takes charge

-
,
of the helm of the State The contests of political

.
p arties are they contests of principles or O f per

,
sonal ambitions mean and sordid ? Incontestably

,
of the latter The r egi m e of democrac y with all i ts

.
,
s candals has discouraged thos e wh o p ossess any real

,
value those wh o are brave an d wh o look upon the

,
interests of the race and of the r ace of the future

, ,
as the highest aim of activity .
The democratic State hates the great man an d the ,
absolutist State hates the great man because the ,
great man i s the redoubtable enemy wh o would do

away and mercilessly with all the place hunters and
, ,
-
blood suckers who by means of tortuous intrigue

-
, ,
hol d at present the reins of power The advent Of .
the great man means the death of the place hunter -

.
An d therefore the State proscribes the great man ,
and outlaws him .
An d h ow do they keep hold of their places these ,
j obbers and intriguers ? By means of specious

—
p romises n ot to improve the condition of the race
by cultivating s y stematically its anthropologically
superior elements O h n o But by promises to the
,
mass b y luring on the mass by holding ou t visions

, ,
of future happiness by exciting the covetousness and

,
en vy and hatred and malice of the mass And thus .
does the State become the greatest foe of progress ,
thus does it seek to multiply the inferior elements at

the cost of the superior for it i s only in the inferior
,
elements that the State finds its support .
The results of the activity of the State have long

been manifest in Europe ; and biologists have r e
88 THE P HIL OS OP HY OF N IETZ SCHE
p ea te dl y called attention to the growing degeneracy
of the race as the result of the policy consistently
pursued by those to whom i s confided the responsi

b i l i ty of go v erning It i s notorious that Darwin was
.
extremely pessimistic as to the future of the race and ,
h i s views are also those of Gal ton Vacher de Lap ou ge , ,
S ergi Ploetz and of al l eu genists in Europ e or America

, , .
If we grant that this struggle for existence really

—
does exist and as a matter of fact it sometime s
—
does occur its results unfortunately are the exact
O pposite of those which the Darwinist school desires ,
and which one ought to desire with it The struggle .
results generally in the di s com fi tu re of the strong O f ,
the favoured exceptions The race does n ot increase .
in strength ; i ts weaklings are always triumphant

over its strong men because the former are more ,
numerous and more clever Darwin forgot to reckon .
with the intellect Geist Th e wea k lings

possess greater intelligence I understand by .
intelligence as it is easy to see slyness cautiousness

, , , ,
patience deceit great self possession and e verything

, ,
-
,
which we call mimicry to this latter a large part of

” 1
ou r s o cal led virtue belongs
-
.
To s u m up the State is a creation of the weaker

elements of the race who by dint of their greater ,
cautiousness slyness deceit trickery and self

, , ,
possession have succeeded in outman oeuvring the

,
stronger and fi er cer elements The State is the .
instrument of protection of these weak and treacher

ou s elements The power in the State is represented
.
by those among the inferior race who have succeeded

in outwitting and ou tdecei vi n g their competitors .
The rule of the State is the rule of j obbers and place

hunters wh o need peace and order and quiet in order
,
Werke viii 1 28 , . .
CHAPTER IV
THE MO RAL LAW
THE State is on e of the great obstacles to the real i s a

’
tion of Nietzsche s ideal But the State itself is n ot .
an accidental growth It is the expression of the .
Will of Power but of the Will of Power of an inferior

,
race which seeks to assert itself by underhand an d

,
tortuous means But the State is as it were but

.
, ,
a secondary expression of the Will of Power ; its

j ustification in the eyes of those wh o defend it on
,
sociological grounds is not that it is the means

,
o f exploiting the working classes at the expense o f

” 1
the mercantile bourgeoisie its j ustification its
, ,
ultimate j ustification is a purely moral on e The

, .
institution of the State is the best means if n ot the ,
sole means of preserving l aw and order and

, ,
morality .
All ou r social institutions a r e in fin al resort

—
, ,
reducible to moral institutions The St ate the

— — —
.
’
Law the Constitution the People s Charter are
all expressions of a desire to li ve in harmony with
the moral l aw Some anthropologists for instance —
—
.
,
Q uatrefages have gone s o far as to assert that man
is a religious animal ; which means that man i s a

moral animal moral by nature by instinct by birth
, , , .
Immorality is thus a crime against nature .
And it is a fact that every philosophical social

1
F Brun eti ere
. S u r l es C hemin s de l a Cr oy an ce Pr emiere .
”
Etape L Uti li s ati on du P os itivisme p 1 1 ( P aris
’
.
.
, ,
9°
TH E MOR AL L AW 91
an d other system which h as been invented from ,
Socrates to R en ou vi er h as been a system based on

,
moralism .However di vergent on other p oints ,

“
everyone has been a greed as to the existence of
the moral law and as to the necessity of obeying
that law The monisti c materialism of H aecke l
'
and Bii chn er is quite as rigid on this point as the

”
I m i tati o Christi Whether orthodox or heterodox
.
in matters of religion certain it is that every thinker

, ,
or every thinker with perhap s the excepti on of the

, ,
pre S ocrati an H ellenic philosophers and of Max

-
Sti m er in the middle of the nineteenth Christian

—
century e very thinker with these exce p tions has
, ,
been orthodox with regard to the moral law Thi s .
l aw mysterious undefined and intan gible has been

, , ,
the arbitrator to which all causes have ap pealed ,
whose decision is final and irrevocable The .
Rechtsstaat of Kant and Fichte is grounded on

the principle that the individual shall be regarded
as an end in himself and not as a means which is ,
a distinctl y moral p rinciple The whole school of .
classical liber al ism i s based on a moral basis E very .
p arty every social system every philosophy when

, , ,
wishing to j ustify itself seeks to show that its ,
doctrines are the most in harmony with the moral

l aw. And as a matter of fact that system which i s
, ,
considered to contain the strongest dose of moralism

is also held to be the most j ustified .
All this belief in a moral l aw in a categorical ,
imperative is based on the belief that as M Ferdin

, , .
and Bruneti ere express es it tr uth i s something ,
exterior to u s and above u s removed by i ts very ,
definition from the fluctuations of personal o p inion .
The Moral L aw is exterior to man and superior to ,
him Over and above the world of nature i s super

.
92 TH E PHIL OSOP HY OF N IE TZSCHE
p osed the moral world the world of Soll en, the ,
world of the categorical imperative The world .
of morals dominates the world of nature and the

history of the evolution of the world i s in a sense , ,
the history of the conflict between these two worlds ,
humanity becoming civilised in the measure that

the world of morals asserts i ts supremacy and ,
relapsing into barbarism whenever the world of

nature gains the upper hand .
Man is perpetually torn by the contest within him .
On the on e hand h i s natural instincts and passions

,
seek to assert themselves refuse to be suppressed , ,
and fight for existence On the other hand these .

,
natural instincts and passions are perpetuall y

opposed by the mysterious voice of conscience that ,
terribly talkati ve personage which moralists have

inven ted in order to represent the moral world .
Every time a natural instinct or passion of man

seeks to assert itself it finds itself opposed by a
,
still small voice

,
which murmurs That i s °
”
immoral therefore it is wrong
,
Thus l s morality .
a sort of counter b al ance to nature -

.
As long as mor ality was connected with religion ,
its imperative was less flagr antly absurd For man .

,
doubtless realising the abnormal position which he

occupied he grain of matter or speck of dust being
, , ,
opposed as a moral creature to the boundless and

, ,
immoral universe invented another world which he

, ,
imagined in the likeness of this present world only ,
superposed to the latter only far greater because , ,
eternal because creator of the world of nature in

,
whi ch he lives And thus the balance turned to the

.
advantage of himself and of the moral world ; for

the latter being represented by a fraction of the
natural world and by the whole of the supe rnatural
,
TH E MO RAL LAW 93
world and i ts supernatural powers was the only ,
world which counted for aught By this means .
the world of nature was rendere d despicable was ,
belittled cal u mn i ed represented as the work of

, ,
the Powers of Darkness while the moral world , ,
with its supernatural sanctions overwhelming and ,
overshadowing the natural world became the real ,
world .
The task of Christianity which identified th e ,
good with the divine and which taught that every ,
thing good came from God and everything evil

—
,
from the de vil that is to s ay from the world of

—
,
nature which is the de vil s creation was thus ren

’
dered easy And in truth the moral l aw requires a

.
supernatural sanction We have only to compare the .
Gospels which can be understood o f every child

, ,
with the laborious and herculean e fforts of Kant in ,
order to understand the diffi culty of establishing what

the French call une morale l ai q u e on a firm basis .
However we will pass o ver the religious asp ect of

’
the question which will be di scussed later on and

—
, ,
confine ourselves to the mor al e torqu e that i s to

s ay to the moral law without supe rnatural sanction
,
of any sort which pretends to find i ts basis either in

,
the human conscience or else attempts its j u s ti fi ca

,
tion as a sociological necessity pure and simple , .
And in truth it is seldom that an attemp t i s made

, ,
nowadays to prove the existence of the moral l aw

on purely theological grounds Even the professed .
apologists of the various religious beli efs are aware

o f the extremely unstable nature of those beliefs ,
and are glad to find some more solid foundation for

morality than the existence of Go d For theologians .
in distress as well as for all those wh o although

, ,
rej ecting o p enly sup ernatural beliefs nevertheless ,

94 TH E PHILOSOPHY OF NIETZ S CH E
cling to their belief in morality and in the moral
l aw as a last remnant of the ol d faith Kant with , ,
his Critique of Practical Reason has proved a ,
welcome benefactor .
What Nietzsche claimed to do was to place him

self above and beyond the moral l aw abo ve and ,
beyond the good and the bad From this objecti ve .
standpoint he claimed to have reversed all the tables

of values which humanity has worshipped up till
n ow and to substitute for them his own n ew tables

, ,
whose laws should be the opposite of those p r o

claimed by the lawgivers of past times and up till
the present day .
’
Immoralism is the basis of Nietzsche s creed and ,
yet Nietzsche is compelled to admit the existence

of certain rules which govern human society ; and
the best proof of this is that he arrives at the estab
l i s h m en t of two distinct systems of morals : that of
the masters and that of the slaves B ut we must .
admit that Nietzsche s n ew table of values which he

’
would substitute for the on e prevailing at the present

moment may fairly claim to be a table of immoral
,
values For if we admit that sympathy respect

.
, ,
for the rights of others goodness of heart are , ,
moral qualities it is incontestable that hard

,
ness cruelty contempt for the supposed rights of

, ,
the weaker are immoral

, .
’
Another question is that of Nietzsche s originality .
E vidently Nietzsche is not the first philosopher to

question the validity of the Kantian imperative with ,
its notion of absolute and immutable duty To .
’
take only on e example Nietzsche s own master
, ,
Schopenhauer had made a luminous and exh au s

,
tive cri ti qu e of the Kantian imperative But .

THE MORAL L AW 95
Schopenhauer had admitted and very distinctly ,
preconised the value of moralit y and the necessity

,
of morality for humanity But this is precisely what

.
Nietzsche calls in question and the fundamental ,
problem of the value of the very notion of morality

itself is his starting point Morality has been the
.
neutral territory on which in spite of all mistrust , ,
disagreement and contradiction one has met in ,
common accord ; it is the sacred ha ven of peace ,
where philosophers and thinkers rest from their

e fforts where they breathe and live again
,
he ,
”
declares in the Gaya Scienza But Nietzsche .
h as circumnavi gated the idealist lake and di s

covered n ew lands far remo ved from this neutral
,
territory of morality We nameless u n p re ce

.
,
dented almost incomprehensible early products

—
,
o f a fut u re which i s still a riddle w e need a new

—
means to a n ew end namely new health better , , ,
stronger more resisting merrier health than that

, ,
which has prevailed up till n ow He whose soul .
longs to have made acquaintance with all the values

and all the desires which humanity has nursed up
till now wh o longs to have circumnavigated this
,
idealist lake wh o wishes to learn from h i s own

,
experience as is fitting in a conqueror and explorer

,
of Ideals he must first of all possess r obu s t

—
heal th robust health such as one must always
,
conquer and reconquer because one must also ,
perpetually sacrifice it And now after having ,
been a long while on our j ourney we Argonauts ,
of the Ideal perhaps more courageous than cle v er

, ,
often enough shipwrecked and yet healthier than

—
,
ou r opponents could wish u s dangerously healthy

—
,
in fact i t seems as if as a re ward an undiscovered

, ,
Land stands before our eyes whose frontiers no on e

, ,
knows a land beyond all other lands a world so
, ,
ov er flo wi n gl y wealthy in be auty in strange things , ,
in mystery in terrifying and also di vine things as

, ,
to excite beyond measure our curiosity and ou r

” 1
desire of possession .
But before this promised land of the future this ,
Canaan of milk and honey can be conquered it i s , ,
essential that the moral prej udices which prevai l

to day should disappear
-
For what in reality is this .
moral l aw of which philosophers are for e ver talking ,
and which is thrust on u s at every moment until i ts

presence becomes an O bsession ? It is certain that
the moral law first originated with man The rest .
of nature is absolutely and profoun dl y immoral .
So long as the ol d teleological conception of the

world processes prevailed s o long as man was
-
,
opposed to nature was represented as something ,
distinct from and higher than nature it could be

, , ,
asserted that man was a moral being And as a .

,
matter of fact the moral l aw finds its only true

,
sanction i ts only reasonable sanction in religion

, , .
For on the supposition that God exists that a

, ,
supernatural world is above the world of nature ,
and superp osed to it and dominating it this super , ,
natural world could be held as representing as ,
incarnating the moral law ; and thus man created

,
in God s image in the image of the world of morals

’
, ,
i s an essentially and a primordially moral creature

, ,
and thus also the world of morals incarnated in the ,
Omnipotent Power of God i s the only world that ,
counts this world of ours being a mere atom a

, ,
mere passing fantasy of the omnipotent Power .
From this Biblical point of view the explanation ,
of the moral l aw and its justification are rendered

, ,
Werke v 34 2 343 1
,
.
, .
ITIE PHILOSOPHY OF NIETZSCHE
r
98
subsequently reintroduced as postulates of Practical

Reason as necessitated by the existence of the
,
categorical imperative taken by Kant for proven ,
a p ri ori .
But Kant s system of practical reason has long

’
been attacked on various sides The most important .
breaches in the system have been e ffected by the

utilitarian and e v olutionist schools and by Schopen ,
hauer Knowing as he did the work of Bentham and

.
John Stuart Mill being himself a disciple of Schopen

,
hauer and following immediately on Spencer

, ,
Nietzsche could hardly pretend to ha ve been the first

to call in question the value of the Kantian imperati ve
with its characteristics of universality and uni versal
necessity But the English utilitarians he argued
.
, ,
have contented themsel v es with a history of the

evolution of morals without c alling in question the
,
fundamental validit y of the moral l aw itself Further .
they have given us a history of morals which i s mi s

leading which is unhistorical and which is false and
, ,
unhistorical because these utilitarians have allowed

themselves to be blinded by prej udice and have ,
identified every where the good with the useful the ,
bad with the useless which is incorrect , .
But to return to ou r question We do n ot propose .
’
to examine here Nietzsche s own conception of the
genealogy of morals or the value of the immoral ist
doctrine We are examining the obstacles which
.
Nietzsche finds in the way of establishing his ideal of

life in all its power and plenitude of li fe o verflowing ,
with exuberant vitality and seeki ng to manifest itself

and to expend its strength by all the means in its
power by the creation o f beauty by the infliction of
, ,
su ffering by seeking to know all the secrets of life

, ,
its j oys and tears its hopes and disappointments i ts

, ,
THE MOR AL LAW 99
‘
ad ventures and hardships And on e of the C hief

.
obstacles to the re al isation of thi s ideal of super

abundant l ife is the existence of the moral law .
The moral l aw signifies the subordination of man

to an extern al power j ust as the religious law does
, .
Morality as Max Sti m er pointed ou t in

,
Der
Einzige und sein Eigentum is religion in disguise , .
’
Nietzsche has n o knowledge of S ti rn er s work n or ,
does he appear e ven to have heard of Sti m er or of

that curious rigorously logical and unanswerable
,
”
book The Unique and hi s Property for we shoul d ,
otherwise certainly find an elaborate eulogy of Sti m er

in hi s works But Nietzsche says a l ot of what Stirner
.
said be fore him as he has also said some things

,
which Renan and Taine Flaubert an d S tendhal in

,
the nineteenth La Rochefoucauld in the eighteenth

, ,
century have said Sti m er pointed ou t with merci

.
less logic that the subordination of man to a moral

l aw i s the subordination of man to an external power ,
j ust as is the case with the religions And this moral .
law i s something exterior to man something alien ,
to man for man is a part of nature and nature is

, ,
profoundly immoral The world of the supernatur al

.
having been destroyed by modern exegetical research ,
and the world of the supernatural being the rai s on

détre of the world of morals the world of mo rals
'
disappears also For i s it n ot ridiculous and unreason

.
able to suppose man an insignificant parcel of nature

, ,
opposed to the whole of the rest of nature P An d

if we declare man to be the summit of creation
what do we mean ? If we mean that man i s the
centre of creation and the en d of all creation we fal l ,
into the error of the geocentric theory which supposes ,
this planet of ours to be the centre of the universe ;

we fall back into th e teleologic al error which supp oses ,
1 00 TH E PHIL OSOPHY OF NIETZSCHE
a reas on Zweck in the world process which sees -
,
in the world process the reflection of a conscious Will

-
and here are w e back at the theistic point of View .
If however we mean that man is the most perfect

, ,
specimen of creation from the physical standpoint ,
we are wrong on a matter of fact Physically man is .

,
absolutely inferior to the carni vora and if he possesses ,
any superiority it resides in his more de veloped

brain power which howe ver does n ot at all com
-
,
pensat e for his physical inferiority S O that if we .
accept the existence of a mor al l aw independent and ,
autonomo us unconnected with any theistic idea we

, ,
arri ve at the paradoxical result of opposing man as ,
a moral creature to the rest of nature which is i m

, ,
moral .
But this is precisely what does distinguish man

from the brute and from inorganic nature you reply
, ,
.
There i s implanted in each on e of us a moral l aw ,
identical in i ts ultimate aim for all times and in all

places and this moral l aw speaks to us through the
,
voice of conscience Our conscience comman ds and

.
,
we obey . We disobey and ou r conscience tortures

,
us with i ts reproaches .
To this obj ection Nietzsche has replied by a

critique of the human conscience which although , ,
scattered throughout his various books forms a ,
whole complete and rigorous It is time for us to

,
.
examine this notion of conscience and to put in ,
question its v alidity .
After examination we find as a matter of fact that , ,
ou r conscience is but another term for the accu m u

lation of all ou r instincts whether these be deri ved
,
from heredity or from education or from habit ,
which is a second nature We have all of us accum u

.
, ,
l ated in ou r physical and mental constitution an

1 02 THE P HIL OSOP H Y OF NIETZSCH E
reduced to a minimum sometimes raised to a maxi
,
mum are al ways present and always acti ve An d

, .
h ow much of ou r supposed conscience is merely

the result O f heredity and education P Here we
have two men two friends The on e is religiously
,
.
disposed from childhood up ; he is educated in a

religious family ; he goes to Oxford where religious ,
idealism is the pre vailing sentiment ; he rarely if e ver , ,
travels he is never taken away from the influence of

,
the family and home life The other man is by .
nature sceptical apt at reasoning ; circumstances

,
cause him to tra vel extensi vely to s e e many lands ,
and many peoples ; he has n o family influence to

counteract the e ver growing spirit of independence
-
and self reliance which emancipates him from all re

-
l i gi ou s trammels which prepares him to re cei v e e v ery

,
new idea e very new influence wi th sympathy The

, ,
.
conscience of the first man will be deeply tinged with

that religious and somewhat austere influence which
is derived from his family life and from university ,
influences which can be great The conscience of the

,
.
second man will reflect the emancipating influence

exercised by travelling by much intercourse with ,
foreign peoples and ide al s for the education of travel

is as powerful in the influence it exerts as the educa
tion of a uni versity Here are two men totally
.
di fferent in character this di fference will be mani

fes te d in the manner in which they appreciate events
the conscience of each will be different .
And then the question arises : why do you c on

sider such and such an act to be right such other one ,
to be wrong ? Because my conscience tells me it is

right or wrong y ou say But why is your conscience
,
.
thus called in as arbitrator ? What claim has it to

infallibility ? Your conscience is a part of yourself .
TH E MORAL LAW 1 03
It h as been formed by all sorts of accumulations of

influences hereditary and mesological How can a
,
.
part of yourself be infallible P How can that part of

a whole which is immoral be moral P And by what
standard do y ou j udge of the righteousness of your
j udgments of the j udgments of your conscience ?
,
Ob viously y ou j udge and y ou appreciate according

,
to your mental habits and your mental habits are ,
simply the result of heredity and education And .
WHY do y ou obey your conscience ? Answer that

question my friend I s your obedience real or
,
.
feigned ? DO y ou listen to the voice of conscience

as a hypocrite wh o needs to cloak his vices with the
,
mantle of virtue P Do you listen as a coward ,
afraid to p robe your conscience to the bottom P Do

y ou listen mechanically because y ou are t o o indolent
,
to examine your conscience ? D o you listen an d

obey as a soldier listens to and obeys his o fficer ,
automatically without reflecting ? For there are

,
many ways of listening to the voice of conscience .
But there i s another question : every j udgment

\
which you make which y ou say your conscience

,
makes is it disinterested or is it selfish egotistical ?

, , ,
Y ou embrace your neighbour and have soft words (
for him But I s ay unto y ou your love of your

.
”
neighbour is but your love of yourself fal sified
.
,
.
Already La Rochefoucauld had expressed the same

idea and had called attention to the interested and
,
egotistical character of all ou r acts But whereas .
La Rochefoucauld merely denied the real i ty of

altrui sm but maintained the theory of the supreme
,
value of altruism Nietzsche denies not merely the

, ,
reality of al trui stic sentiments but the value of them , .
Egoism is the best and the greatest and the only real
, ,
thing in life Every thing else is p hantasm and

.
,
1 04 TH E PHILOSOP HY OF NI ETZ S CHE
perhaps error ; but egoism the love of life and the , ,
a ffirmation of one s life and of oneself is real and

’
tangible And it is a natural sentiment perhaps the

.
,
only natural on e What is unnatural what is unreal.

, ,
what is very distinctly ugly is the masquerading of ,
egoism under the mantle of altruism disinterested ,
ness and other specious and sonorous words Every

,
.
act which we commit is inspired by egoism An d .
h ow could it be otherwise ? An act which is n ot

inspired by the desire to preser ve our own life —that is
—
to say to a ffirm ou r own life must be an act inspired
—
,
by the contrary desire namely the desire to destroy ,
life But the characteristic of modern pessimism is

.
precisely a fear of its own logical consequences The .
pessimist wh o regards life as an evil takes refuge in

, ,
scepticism When to day a philosopher gives it to

.
-
be understood that he is no sceptic the world

hears the announcement with regret ; on e examines
him curiously not without shyness on e would like to
, ,
ask s o many questions yes there is no doubt ,
about it among his frightened hearers whose number

, ,
is legion he passes henceforth for a dangerous man

, .
I t seems to them as if they heard a di stant terrifying ,
noise as if some new explosive were being tried some

, ,
mental dynamite perhaps some newly disco vered ,
Russian n i h il i n by this pessimist bon a vol u n tati s

, ,
wh o not only says No and desires the Non Being but -
—
,
—
,
also horrible thought puts his negati ve theories

” 1
into practice There seems n o doubt about it ;
.
theoretically pessimism may flourish as it indeed does ,
to day
-
but practically its consequences are avoided
—
, ,
that is to s ay suicide is avoided Which does not

,
.
m ean that other consequences scepticism the denial , ,
o f will p ower the disgust o f life do not follow

-
, and ,
Werke vii 1 5 2 ,
. .
1 06 TH E PH I L OSOP HY OF NIETZSCHE
the reality of the moral l aw whose foundation is ,
altruism ? The utilitarian school have maintained

that the interest of all and the interest of each
coincide in the long run But in the first place .
, ,
this is reducing the categorical imperative to a mere

calculation of profit and loss And in the second .
,
place the utilitarian theory is demonstrably wrong

,
in fact Indi vidual interests are not in variably

.
identical with the interests of society The interests .
of the masters are not only n ot identical but are ,
very greatly opposed to the interests of the populace

, .
Thus the whole of the categorical imperati ve of

the conscience reduces itself upon examination to the
mental habits acquired partly from heredity partly ,
from education And this imperati ve of the con

.
science by what is it controllable ? By the con

,
science ? Here we are at a deadlock And yet .
the reply must be a ffirmati ve The conscience .

,
accumulation of mental habits derived from di fferent

sources controls itself For the
,
. conscience of
humanity i s a phantom The conscience of
.
humanity i s a term embracing all the di fferent

consciences of the myriads o f individuals which
compose humanity each of them di ffering in a
, ,
degree more or less great from the others ,

.
The truth seems to be this the instincts of e very

—
man that is to s ay that which is fundamental in
—
,
our nature incite us to ajfi rm life in every circum

stance incite u s to realise life in all its plenitude
, ,
to live whol ly The s o called moral law is an

.
-
accumulation of mental prej udices due to various ,
historical conditions which have caused the stronger

,
races those wh o could a fford to live according to

,
their instincts and to gi ve full vent to their passions ,
t o be vanquished by the weaker races triumph the ,

THE MO RAL LAW 1 07
concrete symbol of which is the Christian reli gion ,
the religion of sympathy and pity These weaker .
races weaker physicall y and mentally had ne ver

, ,
th el es s more cunning more p atience more ru s e , ,
than their adversaries Their weapon was the .
moral l aw first under the form of a revelation from

,
G od subsequently under the form of the categorical

‘
imperative The moral l aw is merely the expression

—
.
of the ideals of this weaker race that i s to s ay of ,
their character which is at once treacherous and

,
lying and revengeful and cowardly and miserably

weak The victory of Christianity has done more for
.
the establishment of the moral l aw than any Other

e vent in the history of the world The moral law has .
laid hold of humanity An d yet when we come to .
examine this l aw this moral imperative what do we

, ,
find ? An accumulation o i mental habits derived .

,
partly from heredity partly from education partly

, ,
from experience controllable by nothing except

,
itself whose claim to infallibility and immutability

,
is absurd but which tyrannises u s although it is

, ,
but our own creation the fruit of a somewhat ,
morbid imagination .
Another point to be noticed in connection with

the moral l aw is its extreme anti natural anti vital -
,
-
tendency Morality is the greatest enemy of life

.
and of all that is fundamental in life In the name .
o f mora lity w e are called upon to crush ou t or at
any rate to fight bitterly against ou r instincts ,
against that which lies at the very root of life ,
against that which conditions life This in itself .

,
and if it we re alone would su ffice to condemn ,
morality The aim of life the only possible aim of

.
,
life is the a ffirmation of itself because the obj ect

, ,
, j
o f life as far as we know the only ob ect i s to l i ve , ,
1 08 THE PHI L OSO P HY OF N I ETZSCHE
and to manifest itself and to realise all its possi ,
b ili ti es Th e strong man the re al man he who

.
, ,
lo ves life and is not afraid of it loves all that life ,
contains i ts risks and ad ventures its tears and

, ,
su fferings its disappointments and disillusions as

, ,
much as its j oys and victories And the gr eat .
passions all of them are but signs of exuberant and

,
healthy vitality of a vitality which seeks to break

,
down the barriers impo sed on it by artificial means ,
such as the moral l aw and which seeks the only life ,
worth li ving the i n tegral life For the great man

, .
all the passions are equally legitimate equally ,
necessary to the a ffirmation of life ; hate as much

as love revenge as much as sympathy lust as much
, ,
as chastity anger as much as goodness ; and hate

, ,
revenge lust anger brutality hardness of heart

, , , , ,
are the virile passions the only passions worthy of ,
the great man and of the strong man wh o knows ,
h ow to give vent to them and wh o is s ufficiently his ,
o wn master tO k n ow h ow and when to con trol them .
The mastery o ver one s passions not their des tru c ’
tion or weakening ! The greater the force of the

will the greater the amount of liberty which can
,
be granted to the passions of the soul The great .
man is great on account of the freedom with which

he gives vent to his passions and through the still ,
greater power which he manifests in keeping these

wild animals in check and placing them at h i s
” 1
service . But the weaker race the masses with , ,
their instincti ve hatred of the strong and the mighty ,
at the hands of whom they ha ve had s o often to

su ffer have condemned in the moral law all these
,
“
virile passions as immoral They have invented .
the good man he wh o is also the weak man and ,
Werke xv 480 1
,
. .
1 1 0 TH E PHILOSOPHY OF NIETZSCHE
good alone remain the on e has a right to e xistence
, ,
” 1
the other should n ot exist at all .
This conception is anti natural and false One -

.
sideness is contrary to nature Our passions being .

,
part of our nature are intended to be manifested , ,
subj ect to the ultimate control of the Will There .
i s no question of morality here ; the maintenance

of life the consolidation and a ffirmation of life
, ,
which i s the only obj ect of life s o far as we know ,
demands that free play shall be given to the passions ,
certainly but it also demands that the p as s i on s s hall

be i n the s ervi ce of man an d n ot man i n the s ervi ce of
,
hi s p ass i on s He alone h as a right to gi ve free play

.
to his passions to the great and dangerous passions

,
of hate and revenge and lust of conquest who is also ,
the master of his passions to whom the passions are ,
as a luxury and a luxury necessary to the full r eal i s a

,
tion of life but whi ch must be kept in hand like

, ,
unto the pack of hounds obe di ent to the call of the

hunt s man To be the slave of one s p assions like — ’
—
.
the criminal of the slums is a sign of degeneracy

and weakness But the moral law condemns all the
.
virile passions because those who invented it were

,
n ot strong enough to know the v alue of these pas
sions because they could not give vent to them

,
without at once allowing themselves to be dominated

by them ; and thus the virile passion s represented
to them to these weaklings an element destructi ve
, ,
of life . Not with impunity can on e gi ve free play

’
to one s passions on e must be worthy of this
luxury and rich enough to afford it rich enough in
, ,
strength and in Will Power An d then the stronger -

.
races have invariably utilised the weaker ones as a

field of experiments for the play of their passions .
”
Werke xv 2 1 9 2 20 1
, .
, .
TH E MORAL LAW 111
Thus have the weaker races the inventors of the ,
moral law suffered doubly from the passions

, ,
suffered through themselves and su ffered through

others and it i s but natural on their part that the
,
passions should be condemned by them .
But it does n ot ensue that this condemnation of

the passions is not profoundly anti natural The -
.
passions are a sign of healthy and exuberant vitality

like most thi n gs they must n ot be used abusi vely
,
their use has i ts limits a limit well defined and the

, ,
penalty of o verstepping which is decay and death .
But the strong man knows his strength ; he knows

the limit of his strength and he can a fford to give
vent to his passions he mu s t gi ve vent to them n ot
, ,
only as a safety valve but a means of enriching life

-
,
and completing life The man wh o knows n o p as

.
sions is a weak man a hemiplegic miserable creature

, ,
.
I t i s n ot the brigand or the man of prey that i s

a pathological manifestation but the good man , ,
he who lives shut up in h i s narrow corner knowing ,
nothing of those almost boun dl ess expanses of life

which only the bold and the brave can explore .
The passions are the expression of ou r primitive

self a remnant of the brute but beautiful in
, ,
the revelation which they afford of the strength of

life of the manifold wealth of life
,
.
Morality is a partial paralysis of life For as a .

,
matter of fact it does paralyse the energies of the

,
man wh o listens to i ts commands It orders him to

—
.
sacrifice himself for others that i s to s ay it orders ,
him to suppress the chief the only incitement to

, ,
action which is the prospect of enriching and

,
beautifying his own life It orde rs him to consecrate

.
all hi s activity all his e nergy all his capacit y not

, , ,
to the embellishment of h i s own existence or to the

de velopment of his own creati ve power but for the ,
benefit of others of others who will neither benefit

,
by his activity n or be grateful for it Thus does .
morality n ot only paralyse li fe it renders it ugly , ,
it destroys whate ver beauty may be I n it .
It destroys its beauty by substituting for a mani

fold and exuberant variety a dull and sickening
uniformity or at least by trying to substitute such
a uniformity for it seems as if the attainment of
,
this odious ideal were at least di fficult Let us .
consider the utter unintelligence of such a statement

’
as : Thus and thus ought man to be Reality .
shows us a beautiful richness of types an extrava ,
gant exuberance of forms and changes ; and some

wretched stick i n the corner moralist comes up and
- - -
says : NO ! Man ought to be otherwise He even

knows this church mouse h ow an d what man ought
—
, ,
to b e h e paints his image of man on the wall and

’
cries Ecce Homo
,
But even when the moralist
.
turns to the solitary indi vidual and says to him

’
Thus and thus shouldest thou be he does not ,
cease making himself ridiculous The individual .
is a piece of Fate something which belongs to the

,
past and to the future a l aw and a necessity for ,
everything which is and which will be To s ay .
’
to him Change thyself is equivalent to desiring
the world to change itself indeed to move back ,
” 1
wards .
The moral l aw is thus another of the great obstacles

’
to the realisation of Nietzsche s ideal The mere .
fact of causing man to subordinate his personality to

an external power is in itself a hindrance to the
,
i n tegr al life And if it be replied that man s con ’

.
science is n ot external to him it may be replied that ,
”
Werke viii 8 9 90
1
, .
, .
CH A P T E R V
THE RELIGIONS
WE have said al
ready that Nietzsche s is a deeply ’
religious character Taking the word religion in the

.
sense of being the cult of an ideal few thinkers ha ve ,
been s o idealistic s o passionately idealistic as the

, ,
creator of Zarathustra But to s ay of Nietzsche that

.
his was a religious nature in the sense of belonging to

,
any particular creed would be absurd If there has

,
.
never been a greater idealist than Friedrich Nietzsche ,
there has never been a greater atheist Zarathustra .
is the destroyer of God he teaches perpetu al ly that

,
”
Godis dead . But the idea of an anthropomorphic
God in itself may have been indi fferent to Nietzsche .
Himself a convinced atheist he ne vertheless ne ver r e

,
garded reli gi ous belief Wi th hostility The sectarian .
animosity an d ferocious narrowmindedness of a French

Ra di cal and Freemason was of course a thing u n , ,
’
known to a spirit like Nietzsche s But what Nietz .
sche hates in the idea of God what he attacks most ,
bitterly in that idea is the moral God the God of

, ,
Christianity the God of the poor and humble the

, ,
/
God o f love and forgiveness and sympathy It is .
against the Ch ristian conception of God not against ,
the conception of Go d in itself that his attacks are ,
directed . His attacks against God are directed

against those who have created the Christian God
“
,
”
against the slaves against the Jews against the
, ,
rabble whose ideal is the ideal of Christianity whose

, ,
1 14
THE RELI G IONS 1 15
character is reflected in the God of their creation .
Nietzsche h as n o obj ection to the conception of God

in itself provided that God be represented as the Will
—
,
of Power that i s to s ay provided he be a Go dcreated

,
by a strong race and reflecting the character of that

race their might and courage and i n s ouci an ce and
,
lust of conquest Such a God was Jahweh the

.
,
O ld God of Israel the mysterious and j ealous God

, ,
echoes of whose might reach us in the Old Testament .
A race which belie ves in itself still has i ts own

god It honours in the God those conditions thanks
—
.
to which it h as been successful i t symbolises its own

desires i ts own consciousness of power in a Being to
, ,
whom it can be thankful for that consciousness He .
who i s rich gi ves ; a proud people need a go d to

,
whom they can sacrifice Religion under such con .
di ti on s is a form of gratitude One is thankful for .
oneself for one s power therefore o n e needs a god

’
.
,
Such a god must be both useful and harmful he must ,
be able to be at once friend and foe on e admires in ,
him things good and bad That anti natural castra .

-
tion of a go d which reduces him to a god of the j ust

only would in th l s case be quite unwished for One
,
.
needs the bad god as well as the good one for it is ,
n ot precisely to tolerance of humanitarianism that

’
on e owes one s ow n existence What would be the .
use of a godto whom anger re venge envy sarc asm , , , ,
cunning violence were unknown P To whom even

, ,
the glorious ardeu rs of the hour of triumph and

destruction were perhaps unknown P One would n ot
understand such a deity ; why should on e have him ?
But when a race decays when it feels its belief in the
,
-
future its hope of liberty finally vanishing ; when

, ,
submission appears to it as the most useful poli cy ,
and the vi rtues of the slave p resent the mselves to the

conscience of its members as a condition of existence
then must also the idea of the god change The god .
becomes ner vous fearful humble recommends the

, , ,
peace of mind preaches against hatred recom

‘ ’
, ,
‘
mends cautiousness and love both of friend and ,
’
foe he i s perpetually moralising he becomes every ,
body s god becomes a private gentleman becomes

’
, ,
cosmopolitan Formerly he represented a people

.
,
the force of a great peo p le all that i s aggressi ve and ,
thirsting after power in the soul of a great people

n ow he is merely the good god As a matter of fact .
there is n o other alternative for gods : either they

—
symbolise the Will of Power and in this case they
are national or racial gods or else they symbolise
—
the impotency to attain power and in this case they
” 1
are necessarily good .
A god symbolising the Will of Power was Jahweh ,
the ol d God of Israel The history of Israel is .
invaluable as a typical history of the denaturali sation

of natural values I can cite five examples of this .
Originally especially in the time of the Kings

— —
, ,
Israel stood in a natural that is in a right relation ,
to all things I ts Jahweh was the expression of the

.
consciousness O f power of self satisfaction of belief ,

-
,
in self one expected from Jahweh victory and
sal vation on e expected from him that nature should

,
bring forth what was necessary to the people

es pe cially rain Jahweh is the God of Israel and
.
con s equ en tly the G o d of Justice and Right thi s is

the logic of every race which is great and powerful ,
” 1
and which has good conscience of its p ower But .
as time went on came the Assyrian conquest and the

Babylonian capti vity and the belief in themsel ves , ,
”
Werke viii 232 2 33 ,
.
, .
1
I bi d . 2 44 , 24 5 .
118 THE P HILOSOP HY OF N IE TZSCH E
general What story does such a transformation ,
such a reduction of the idea of God recount P Th e ,
Kingdom of God has certainly been enlarged

But the god of the greater number the democrat ,
’
among the gods w as nevertheless anything but a

,
proud heathen deity He remained a J ew he re .

,
mained the god of the back parlour of all the dark ,
corners and hiding places of the unhealthy quarters

-
of the globe His world empire remained an under

.
-
ground empire a hospital a ghetto empire And

, ,
-
.
G od himself s o pale so feeble so degenerate

, , Even ,
the palest among pale persons the metaphysicians ,
themselves succeeded in getting hold of him And

, .
,
like spiders t h ey spun around him s o long until at

, ,
last hypnotised by their movements he became

, ,
himself a spider and a metaphysician Now we s ee .
him proj ecting the world out of himself su b specie

Spinoza — and n ow we watch him as he gradually
tr an s fi gu res himself into something ever thinner and
’
paler ; he becomes an Ideal a pure Spirit an , ,
’
The fal l of a
’ ‘
Absolute a thing in itself . .
God : God becomes the thing in itself 1 ‘

.
Thus when Nietzsche attacks the idea of God it is ,
in reali ty the idea of the moral l aw which he attacks .
He attacks that ideal which he represents to be the ,
ideal of the slaves of the toilers of the masses of the

, , ,
rabble of those who are impotent to attain power and

,
yet lust after power Unable to subdue or subj ugate

.
the strong races the masters by physical force and

, ,
in open combat they adopt all sorts of tortuous

,
means cunning ru s e patience “hypocrisy in order

, , , ,
to vanquish those strong races and to conquer power

for themselves The most gigantic piece of tar
.
”
tu fferi e ,
of cunning and ru se ever adopted for ,
Werke viii 2 34 2 35
1
,
.
, .
TH E R ELI G I ONS 119
the subjugation and castration of the strong man is ,
the Christian reli gion The triumph of this religion

.
marks the triumph of the sla ves Th ey have

—
.
h
triumphed through having made t ei ideals ideals
r
of revenge and hatred and env y sharpened by their

—
,
consciousness of impotency the ideals of universal

and necessary good They have transvaluated all the
.
natural values For the strong man good is s y n on y

.
,
mous with strong with beautiful with powerful and

, ,
mighty For the weak man the slave wh o has to

.
, ,
bear the weight of the might exercised without com ,
punction of the strong man good is on the contrary

, , , ,
synonymous with weakness with impotency with , ,
ugliness and poverty Blessed are the meek

.
,
blessed are the merciful blessed are the pure in ,
heart .
’
The ideal of the sla ves the ideal of weak ,
ness and impotency and ugliness is raised by Chris ,
ti an i ty into an universal l aw The slaves need mercy .

,
because they are afraid o f their masters because they ,
are cowar dl y they exalt humility because o b s e qu i ,
ou s n e s s is part of the character of the slave they

exalt the purity of heart they talk about the ,
advent of the Kingdom of God in order to cloak ,
their own envy hatred and malice against all that

,
which they are n ot which they cannot possess beauty

, , ,
strength mental and material wealth With the

,
.
triumph of Christian ity triumph due to the degener

,
acy of the stronger races brought on by their own

fault and by their neglect of biological l aw the values ,
of the slaves
sickly and poor ) also and became ,
”
universal laws prevailing at all times and in all
,
plac es Never was greater e ffrontery shown

. .
During nineteen centuries Christianity h as retarded

the progress of civilisation and obstructed the onward
1 20 THE PHIL OS OPHY OF N IETZ S C HE
march of humanity But Christianit y is itself but a .
successor of the ol d Jewish religion it is itself essen ,
ti al l y Jewish the creation of Jews reflecting all the

, ,
prejudices and mental habits of the Jews The .
Jews are the most remarkable people in the history

of the world because ha ving been confronted by the
, ,
question of Being and Not Being they have with , ,
quite uncanny self consciousness preferred B ei ng -

,
at any p ri ce this price was the radical fal s ificati on

of nature of e verything natural of al l reality both
, , ,
of the inner and of the outer world They shut them .
selves ou t from all those conditions under which a

people can li ve and under which a people may live
, ,
they created ou t of their own imagination a con cep

, ,
tion of the world opposed to all natural conditions

on e after the other they have in verted religion ,
ritual moralit y history psychology in the most

, , , ,
pernicious way and have s e t them in opposition

,
to their natural v alue The Jews are on this .
account the most epoch making people in the history -
o f the world ; through their influence they ha ve

falsified humanity to such a degree that the Christian
c an feel himself an anti Semite without even ha v ing -
conscience of himself as the final consequence of

” 1
Judaism .
The vi ctory of Christianity has been the most

pernicious event in the history of the world because ,
it has signified the elimination of on e standard of

morals and the complete mono poly of another and
baser set The genealogy of morals is to be explained
.
on anthropological grounds There are or were .

,
originally two systems of morals in contradiction with

,
each other The on e is the system of the masters

. .
The race of the masters the superior race the race , ,
”
Werke viii 2 43 1
,
. .
1 22 TH E PH I L OSOP HY OF N I ETZSCH E
race are gifted with greater cunning greater ru s e , ,
and above all greater patience than the race of con ,
q u er ors accustomed
,
to fight in the open and to deal
swift and crushing blows Thirsting after po wer .
,
the slaves utilise those qualities which they possess ,
cunning ru s e patience ; and the Christian religion

, ,
is a result and a tremendous result of the exercise

, ,
of these qualities In th L Qll fl Si mn religion every

.
thin i s W W W Good is rendered s yn on y

.
ous with weak with sickly with poor with ugly

, , ,
the peace of mind and forgiveness even of on e s,

’
enemies are preached and so well have the masses

,
done their work that this table of values the sla ves ,
’
table of values has completely ousted the other table

,
of values that o f the conquerors and masters wh o

,
know neither forgiveness n or peace o f mind The .
slaves table of values has been erected into a

’
uni versal and immutable l aw .
The Christian religion was the work of the rabble ,
o f the lowest classes o f the popula c e Its triumph .
was the triumph of a base instinct thirsting for ,
power and yet conscious of its impotency and ,
employing every subterranean mean s to its . _
end “First among th es e means is hypocrisy an d

.
,
of the i gnoble s ort This talk about the .
5 most
about
’
sanctity about the Kingdom ,
”
of God , about _lo ve and forgiveness is the ,
basest of hypocrisies designed to cloak all the envy

, ,
hatred and malice of a weak and impotent race ,
conscious of its impotency and of its repulsiveness .
In a brilliant page Nietzsche has described the ,
process of m ang factu rrn g Ell ? Christi an i deal fl v j "

.
Would someone like to descend into the m y s teri

ous catacombs where on e can witness the manu
factu r e of an i deal P W h o has the requisite courage P
THE R E L I G IO NS 1 23
Come along from here the eye can penetrate into

this dark workshop W ait a minute my bold
.
,
friend ; your eye must accustom itself to this

artificial and doubtful daylight Now ! it i s .
all right ! Speak up ! What i s going on down

underneath there ? Tell me what y ou s ee 0 my ,
dangerously inquisitive friend It is I wh o am .
’
n ow listening to y ou .
I s ee nothing but I hear all the better I hear

,
.
murmurs and whispers which proceed mysterious , ,
hushed discreet fro m al l corners It seems to me

,
.
that they are lying ; a honey like sweetness en -
v el op s every sound It appears that weakness i s

.
to be changed into a merit by a sort of conj uring

—
trick there i s no doubt about it it is quite as y ou ,
’
said.
And then
And impotency which is too feeble to do any
thing is to be changed into goodness ignoble ,
”
cowar di ce into humility submission to those one
,
hates becomes obedience ( this obedience is due

to someone wh o requires that submission they s ay , ,
and wh o is c al led God ) The feebleness of the weak

.
,
the cowardice with which they are filled the docility ,
which remains at the door and wai ts p atiently all

—
,
this is baptised by a new name : patience which

p asses doubtless also for a virtue The sentence I .
,
cannot avenge myself becomes I wi ll n ot avenge

myse lf or even I forgive them (for they know
—
,
not what they do but w e we know what th ey do )

“
, .
Then they talk about loving their enemies

— and they sweat over it .
And then
They are mis erable there is n o doubt about it
, ,
all the se false coiners although they kee p each other

,
1 24 TH E P H ILOSOPHY OF NI ETZSCHE
—
warm but they that their misery is a proof
s ay
that God distinguishes and chooses them does on e

n ot thrash the curs on e likes best P And perhaps
this misery is but a preparation a time of trial a
—
, ,
lesson perhaps it i s something still better ; some

thing which some day will be indemnified at a
"
—
heavy rate of interest not in gold n o but in
happiness They call this felicity
.
“ .
,
Go on
Now they gi ve me to understand that not only
are they better than the powerful and the masters
o f the world whose spittings they have to lick ( not
,
ou t of fear oh dear no n ot at all ou t of fear but

, , , ,
because God commands obedience to all authority )

— but they are also richer than these or at least ,
they will be richer some day Enough ! Enough ! .
I cannot stand it any longer Fresh air fresh air !

—
.
,
This workshop where one manufactures an i deal i t

seems to me as if it reeks of lyi ng and deceit .
’
No on e moment more ! Y ou have told us

,
nothing of the masterpiece of these necromancers ,
wh o know h ow to change black into white and

innocence : Have you not noticed that which is
their highest achievement their most audacious , ,
insane artificial master stroke ? Take care ! These

—
-
,
worms swollen with envy and hatred what have

,
they done with envy and hatred P Have y ou heard

these words proceed from their mouth ? Would
y ou imagine if y o u,
only listened to their discourses ,
that you are among men full of malignity ?

I understand I open my ears again ( alas !
.
and hold my nose ) Now I be gin to unde rst and the

.
meaning of what they are always sayi ng : We ,
the good we are also the j ust

,
what they claim
is n ot their revenge but the triumph of j ustice
,
1 26 THE PH ILOSOPH Y OF NIETZSCHE
strong means must be employed and as the slaves
possess neither courage n or physical strength n or
talent for organisation they must employ ru s e , ,
cunning and hypocrisy I Q QLQQLJ O vanquish the

, .
W
strong race it was n ecessary to r en der th at race ill

—
.
,
u
Christianity h as su cc e eded th ere i s no doubt about

—
-
z l i
i t i n this task In order to obtain its victory an

.
,
enormous dose of hypocrisy was necessary The .
whole invention of the supernatural world w as

hypocrisy In order to render the qualities which
.
di stinguish the weaker race attracti ve it was n ece s ,
sary to identify the su fferi n g and the poor and the

miserable with the elect o f God God himself .
,
syn onymous with the Will of Power in all its

pride with the masters became synonymous with ,
the consciousness of impotency in the hands of the

sla ves The lust of power became in the mouth of
.
,
these hypocrites the striving after the Kingdom

,
of God . Revenge hatred envy malice became , , ,

”
transformed into lo ve even o f enemies into , ,
hatred o f the evil and impious Cowar di ce b e .
”
came patience and l ow obsequiousness became
,
humility and was elevated to the rank of a

,
virtue ordained by Go d The whole of this Christian .
atmosphere of lust accompanied by consciousness of

,
impotency and en veloped in a soft cloak of hypo crisy ,
is reflected in the New Testament alike in its

doctrines blessed are the meek blessed are ,
the pure in heart blessed are the merciful

, ,
whosoever shall wish to enter the Kingdom of God ,
it is necessary for him that he should become as

a little Child and in the story of the Passion with
-
,
the lesson it conveys of swal lowing every insult ,
every blow every indignity with forbearance

— ,
—
another name for cowardice and ending with
,
THE RELI G IONS 1 27
that typical prayer : Father forgive them for ,
they know n ot what they do .
Th e founders of Christianity had shown proof of

great skill The cross wi th i ts bleeding victim was
.
an admirable instrument for appealing to the for

gi v en e s s and charity of men —that i s to s ay for ,
destroying all that which i s hard and virile in human

nature Christianity was also favoured and greatly
.
,
favoured by circumstances The great Roman

,
.
empire type of all that which I s strongest and greatest

,
i n man w as already torn by internal strife and

“
,
di smembered by foreign invaders The barbarians .
wh o invaded Europe the barbarians from the ,
steppes and from ! the plains and mountains of Asia

— —
Huns Vandals Mon g ols were indeed beautiful
, ,
types of the primiti v e man overflowing with force ,
and exuberant life but alas n ot as the Greeks or

,
the Romans wh o combined the strength and vigour

,
of the man of prey with the intellectual strength

and vigour s o colossal as to be incomprehensible
,
for us which w as incarnated in an ZEs ch y l u s in a

, ,
Themist ocles in a Thucydides in a Julius C aesar

, , ,
in a Marius Matched against all the subterranean

.
forces of ru s e cunning hypocrisy the beast of

, , ,
prey incarnated in the blond German superb in ,
his indomitable will in his power of destruction but

, ,
possessing no creati ve power this beast of prey was ,
fatally doomed to be vanquished Christianity .
employed in this fight against the barbarian the

best possible method It rendered him ill And . .
yet h ow was it possible to cause the barbarian

to be tormented by h i s conscience h ow came the ,
cross and its palp itating victim to find favour with

these uncouth and savage races ? P robably this
astonishing phenomenon was due to weariness and ,
1 28 THE PHILOSOPHY OF NIETZSCHE
due also perhaps chiefly to the absence o f all
, ,
creative power in the barbarian which robbed his ,
’
power of destruction of that which is destruction s
sweetest and noblest sanction that of replacing what ,
i s destroyed by something still higher still more ,
beautiful However whatever the cause the resul t

.
, ,
is incontestable Christianity rendered the . bar

barian sick It gave him a conscience It tamed
. .
him reduced him to docility by the vision of the

, ,
cross .
It must be noted that Christianity admirably

adapted its methods to the character of those whom
'
“
it proposed to conquer The cross with its idea of .
,
human sacrifice and of the redemption by blood is ,
a heathen notion borrowed without ack n owl edg ,
ment from the cult of Adonis and Dionysus from ,
an idea which anthropological research has shown

to be common to all parts of the world to be pre ,
valent among the Aztecs of Mexico as among the

Shilluks of the S ou d an among the cannibals of ,
Fij i as among the S am orin s of Malabar The sight .
o f the torn and bleeding victim would appe al to

”
the barbarians even if they did not grasp the ,
significance of the legend of pardon attached to it .
As to the weapon which Christianity possesses in

”
conscience its mechanism is at once simple and
,
supremely well adapted to its end The bar .
”
barian wild uncouth happy only in destruction
, , , ,
great in destruction must have an obj ect which he ,
can destroy How if instead of destroying others

.
, ,
he should be s et to destroy himself ? The con

science is the best means to this end Tormented .
by his conscience instructed to probe himself to ,
the bottom haunted by the idea of s i n and of dam

,
nation the barbarian flagel l ates himself instead

,
1 30 TH E PHILOSOP HY OF N I E TZSC HE
between ima ginary beings Go d Spirits ’ ’
, ,
Souls ) an imaginary natural science ( anthropo

’
centric ; entire ignorance of the concept of natural

causes ) an imaginary psychology ( a mass of m i s
understandings interpretation o f agreeable or dis
,
agreeable feelings e g that condition known as ,

. .
nervus sympathicus with the help of the symbo l ic

’
language of religious and moral i di osyncrasy ,
remorse of conscience
’
repentance temptation ,
o f the devil the presence of Go d

,
an imaginary
teleology the Kingdom of God the last j udg ,
1
ment ,
’
eternal life Christianity which s et ,
itself the task of inverting nature of inverting all ,
the natural tables of v al ues had to base itself ,
necessarily on an imaginary and anti natural con -
cep ti on of the world For what is the natural the

.
,
original table of moral values ? As we have seen

, ,
there are by nature two systems of morals distinct ,
from each other opposed to each other The ,

.
masters the ruling and strong race have thei r

, ,
values and in this table good is synonymous with

,
all those qualities which go to make up the character

of the race Good is synonymous with strong
—
.
,
with powerful with brave with violent i n a word

, , ,
with al l th at i n creas es lifes vi tali ty and if immorality

’
if unscrupulous and ferocious egoism if cruelty and ,
suffering increase the strength and vitality of life

, ,
the masters s ay y es to immorality ; for life i s

”
that which must always surmount itself as ,
Zarathustra preaches and the only l aw of life is ,
that which orders us to realise life in its plenitude ,
in its integrity and the only limit to the assertion

,
of life is the limit o f o u r individu al strength To s ay .
to man as Christianity does as th e moral l aw does

, , ,
Werke viii 231 1

,
. .
THE R ELI G IO N S 1 31
become thus and thus do this and this do n ot do , ,

”
the other thing in the name of some abstract and
,
external entity is an absurdity Life left to itself

, .
, ,
asserts itself within the limits of its strength and

leaves undone n ot that which it ought to have
,
done but that which the law of i ts own pre servation

,
commands it imperiously to avoid .
The very essence of Christianity i s hu mi l i ty and

this atmosphere of what he took to be subservience ,
obsequiousness lying cowardice is what caused the

, , ,
great outburst of Nietzsche against Christianity

in his Antichrist And indeed can we imagine
.
, ,
a Greek of the pre S ocr ati an era a Pericles an-

, ,
E s ch y l u s a Themistocles a Sophocles reciting the

, ,
prayer of the Christian to be merciful unto us ,
miserable sinners P Can we imagine an Over Man -

,
such as Napoleon such as Julius C aesar such as

, ,
Cesare Borgia thus humbli ng himself in the dust P

,
”
The code of the masters says Be hard As k ,
n ot for mercy and expect none the code of the

”
Christian says : Forgive Be merciful Can we ,
.
I m agm e a proud man o f the race of the masters
asking forgiveness ? He would not know what

for giveness was Can we imagine him asking for
—
.
mercy asking for quarte

,
r or gi ving quarter ?
Nietzsche was such a man As Professor Lichte n .
berger has remarked Nietzsche was a classic

’
’
born in a democratic age Nietzsche s whole .
classical soul his whole conception of life the ideal

, ,
he has formed in The Birth of Greek Tragedy

o f Greek life of Greek philosophy all contribute to
, ,
make him look upon Christianity as something

beneath him as a religion for weak slaves who
, ,
too cowar dl y and too impotent to gain power other

wis e resorted to all the weap ons of hypocrisy in
,
1 32 TH E P H ILOSOP HY OF NIE TZSCHE
order to attain their ends It was n ot the dogmas of .
Christian theology which he assai led s o much as the ,
spirit of re v enge and ran cun e which he supposed to

lie at the bottom of Christianity .
Another nihilistic religion is the great Asiatic

faith that of the Buddha But Nietzsche w as
, .
careful to distinguish between the Asiatic and the

European religion Buddhism is essenti al ly a
.
religion for races which are older more advanced , ,
more aristocratic than the races of the West .
Buddhism is a nihilistic religion for aristocratic

rac es Christianity a nihilistic religion for weak and
,
degenerate ones Buddhism is a re l igion for aristo

.
cratic races which have lost their strength lost their ,
love of life a result due in great measure to the climate

, .
It was indeed among the luxuriant tropical foliage

, ,
of Ceylon that Buddhism originated Buddh ism .
represents e ven in i ts nihilistic tendencies the

, ,
diametrical opposite o f the vulgar plebeianism

and impotent Will of Power which find their expres
sion in Chri s tianity Al l the passions of hatred and
.
en vy which Nietzsche s aw in Christianity find no ,
place in Buddhi sm H e attains in Asia the highest

.
wisdom wh o is abo ve far above all the pass ions

, , , ,
good or bad which agitate the human breast The

, .
sage is he who has recognised the essential vanity of

all things wh o lives in communion with the Eternal
, ,
to whom good and bad e n vy and hatred are all , ,
ali ke unknown The hygienic condition impo sed

.
by Bu d dhism on al l its adepts is peace the pe rfect ,
peace which is un di sturbed by any of those baser

passions which inferior humanity may know and
must know but which the Brahmin disdains
,
.
Brahminism Buddhism remain always the religions

, ,
o f castes essenti ally aristocratic but the expressio n

, ,
1 34 TH E PH ILOSOP HY OF N IETZSCH E
is temporarily removed as in the French Jacquerie , ,
’
o r in the P easants War at the time of the Reform a
tion or more recently during the Paris Commune

,
and this same conscience preventing the instincts ,
o f on e and the other from manifesting themselves
externally causes both to turn those instincts of

,
destruction against themselves they perpetu ally

torture themsel ves under the apprehension that it
is their conscience which reproaches them Thus .
Chri stianity and its mechanism o f conscience is a

, ,
great life destroyer both negatively and positively

-
, .
But while in on e respect its inhibitive influence

, ,
on the personality of its adherents be productive o f
good and be necessary to the stabil ity of the social

,
structure ; on the other hand that influence is in ,
the highest degree pernicious in that it slays the ,
stronger races those whi ch are humanity s j u s ti fi

’
cation and r ai s on détre Nietzsche expressly-

’
.
declares
I have n ot declared war on the an a mi c Christian
ideal with the purpose of destroying it but in order ,
to put an end to its tyranny and to make room for

new and more robust ideals The continued existence .
of the Christian ideal is on e o f the things to be most
s incerely desired because of those other ideal s which

,
must exist side by side with it and perhaps vanquish

” 1
it
.
The meaning of this is that Christianity is necessary

to the masses of humanity I t is the creation of .
those masses and it responds to their an aemic and

,
somewhat pitiable conception of life For the masses .
a faith is necessary a faith in a l aw external to and

, ,
higher than humanity Morality is necessary to

, .
the construction and continued maintenance of the

Werke xv 4 34 1
,
. .
TH E RELI G IONS 1 35
social stru cture and the proof of this i s that every

sociologist h as sought the j ustification of a moral
l aw on sociological grounds But what morality .
can equal in the power of its sanction

,
that of the ,
Christian fai th with nineteen centuries of tradition

,
behind it ? Nietzsche recognised that nineteen

centuries cannot be e ffaced in a day and that indeed ,
their e ffacement i s n ot necessary nor desirable .
Christianit y is necess ary as Voltaire once put it , ,
in order to p revent ou r being assassinated by ou r

servants if we have any
,
It is a check and a .
,
salut ary check on the evil instincts of the mass

, .
But it is more It is the great consoler of humanity

. .
I t i s n ot science even with a capital which can

, ,
pretend to have replaced religion as an explanation

o f the riddles of life Placed face to face with these
.
riddles of life and of death the mass of humanity ,
will always seek some explanation of them Only .
the few only the éli te can afford to recognise

,
the supreme vanit y of all things can be able to ,
recognise that the only value of life which i s at the ,
same time i ts supreme value is life considered as a ,
mean s for the creation of beauty of ever greater

, ,
be auty Christianity brings to the masses a sweet

.
illusion and a great consolation this alone renders

it necessary It responds to a fundamental need
.
of humanity .
The continu ed existence of the Christian ideal is

desirable in the interests of the superior races them
selves and firstly because that ideal as incarnated ,
in the Catholic Church represents the best means for ,
asserting their own domination It teaches the .
masses obedience contentedness meekness And , ,

.
secondly because in order to establi sh a new ideal

, ,
a more robust ideal it i s necessary that the ancient ,

1 36 TH E PHILO SOPHY OF N I ETZSCHE
on e should still subsist in order to engender i ts ,
successor It seems to me always more and more

.
,
writes Nietzsche that the philosopher as belonging

, ,
necessarily to to morro w and the day after h as

-
,
always found himself in opposition with to day and -

,
must always s o find him s elf his enemy was always

the ideal of to day Up till n ow all these extra
-
.
,
ordinary benefactors O i humanity whom we c all

—
philosophers and who seldom felt themselves to be
the friends of truth and seemed rather to themselves
,
to be kna ves and perilous points of interrogation

all these we s ay found their task their di fficult
, , , ,
unwished for unavoidable task but also their

-
, ,
greatest and worthiest task to be that of making ,
themsel ves the Cassandras of their day It was .
because they had the courage to vivisect bol dly the

virtues of their day that they succeed in revealing
—
,
what was their own greatest secret the knowledge

o f a n ew possibility for mankind o f a n ew and u n ,
” 1
trodden path to hidden greatness .
Christianity then it may be said is not an obstacle

, ,
’
to the realisation of Nietzsche s ideal but rather the ,
contrary This is an error Certainly Christianity

. .
acts beneficially on the masses both as a check and ,
a consolation As such the e ffacement of nineteen

.
,
centuries of culture is neither necessary nor desirable .
But the mon op oly of Chri s ti an i ty is an obstacle ,
and a very great obstacle perhaps the greatest ,
obstacle to the realisation o f Nietzsche s ideal

,
’
.
If Christianity has done and can still do useful

work among the masses it has pro ved the deadliest ,
poison for those wh o are abo ve the masses for those ,
superior men who are the salt of the earth and also
’
humanity s justification It must ever be remem
“Werke vi i 1 62
.
1
. .
,
CHA P TE R VI
SC I E N CE
C HR I S T I A N I TY especially and religion in general is the

, ,
’
greatest obstacle to the establishment of Nietzsche s
ideal The religious idea in general implies the s u b
.
j ec ti on o f man to a power which is foreign to his

nature to a law which i s outside the domain of life
, .
I t implies therefore a restriction of man s liberty it ’
implies a limitation of his strength and energy and

it implies further a diminution of the sole source of
—
fertile and productive l abour namely egoism for ,
it seeks to withdraw man s admiration for himself and

’
to centre it on an alleged higher Power It te aches .
him to neglect himself and to sacrifice himself for

others without apparently percei ving the illo gical
,
ch aracter of an argument whi ch is based on an

impossibility for if each on e were solely actuated by
altruism none would permit his neighbour to sacrifice
,
himself for him ; and thus all sacrifice would be

rendered impossible Christianity in particular i S
.
, ,
'
w
the religion of the lowest classes of humanity a creed ,
1
invented by the slaves the outcasts the refuse of
, ,
:
humanity and reflecting the passions mean and

, ,
l
contemptible of these classes All those passions and

,
.
sentiments which enrich and ennoble and beautify

life,
the afi rmati ve sentiments pride j oy health , , , ,
the love of the sexes hatred and war veneration

, , ,
refined taste and manners a strong will the c u lti

, ,
vation of a powerful intellect the Will of Power , ,
1 38
SCIE NCE 1 39
for the world and for life ever y

h an kfu l n es s ,
thing that i s rich an d can gi ve everything that ,
brightens and adorns and divinises life for eternity ,
the whole force of illuminating virtue as Nei tzsch e ,
writes all these are condemned and persecuted b y

1
,
Christianit y .
But Christianity i s to day a vanishing and dwindling-
force It is not Christianity which t o day moves the

.
masses I t is not to Christianity that appeal i s ma d e

.
by modern philosophy En glish ins u larism and .
prej udi ce are still accustomed to vain attempts to

reconcile the trend of modern ideas with Christianity .
But the students of Oxford home of lost causes , ,
and of Cambridge living in an atmosphere of religious

,
idealism s ee life through a prism Never has Oxford

, .
merited its historic name better than in its calm

defiance of the progress of scientific research and free
thought Wh ile the great uni ve rsities of the Continent
.
have lon g since thrown to the winds the mantle of

mysticism and religious inspiration Oxford and ,
Cambridge remain still where Butler was and Paley , ,
and other worthy defende rs of the f aith of the

eighteenth century .
Outside England however Christianity can no

—
, ,
longer be considered a force i f we except S pain It .
is generally considered that the dogmas of the Church

are irreconcilable with the facts revealed to us by
science The force of to day and certainly the force
.
-
,
of to morrow I s sc i ence
-
Alike in i ts practical and
,
.
in its theoretical uses science is the force which appeals

,
irresistibly to modern humanity The eye admires the .
gigantic ironclad or liner which traverses the Atlantic

in five days the express which carries the traveller
,
from Paris to St Petersburg in less than sixty hours ,

140 THE PHILOSOP HY OF N IETZSCHE
the tunnel constructe d through the mountains the ,
bridge which spans the river or rapids the electric ,
lamp which carried on into the night the light of day .
The thinker admires its skilful hypotheses its minute ,
and patient analysis the vast syntheses with which

,
it is cre di ted and wrongly cre di ted And perhaps

, .
another reason for this hold of science upon the

humanity of to day is that science is essentially a
-
child of the nineteenth century and o f the latter half ,
o f the nineteenth century and that its growth and

,
development are in a sort contemporary of the

growth and development o f the living generation .
When we see the astonishing progress made in e very

branch of science during the last fifty years in ,
mathematics in astronomy in physics in chemistry

, , , ,
the various biological and psychological sciences in ,
sociology w e cease to wonder at the spectacle of

,
science everywhere replacing the ancient religion as

the moving force and guide of humanity .
But this n ew faith of humanity this faith in science , ,
is it a faith more favourable to the realisation of

Nietzsche s ideal than the ol d faith ? Does science
’
favour the development of the only life which is worth

li ving of the life which is strong an d powerful and
, , ,
exuberant and rich in creative power P Does science

—
,
help us to realise the only l aw of life to live wholly P

I t is according as to whether science be an aid or an
obstacle to the realisation of the great l aw of life that ,
it must be j udged .
The verdict must be that science is an obstacle to

its realisation and an obstacle scarcely less great than
,
Christianity itself Let us look for a moment at the

.
man of science He is certainly anything but a great

.
man He is a goo d worker a patient collector of

.
,
details an exemplary searcher after dusty archives

,
1 42 TH E PHILOSOP HY OF N I ETZSCHE
is to say of a man unable to command incapable ,
o f exercising authority incapable even of self

,
suffi ciency He is diligent patient orderly moderate

.
, , , ,
always identical in his wants and in his capacities

he has all the instincts of hi s race and an instinctive ,
desire for that which is necessary to men of his stamp

-
for instance a modest independence and a green
,
field without which quiet orderly work is impossible

, ,
honours and distinctions the aureole of an honoured

and respected name which shall s et the seal on his
,
value and utility the conscience of which must

,
always ser ve to repress that secret lack of confidence

which ever lurks in the heart of every dependent man ,
of every gregarious animal The scientist has also .
the maladies a n d tares of an unaristocratic race he

i s full of contemptible envy and he has the eye of a ,
lynx for detecting that which i s base in the character

” 1
of those to whose height he cannot attain .
And as for the philosophy which i s taught by these

narrow minded scientists
-
S cience flo urishes to day and has an eminently

-
good conscience while that to whi ch the whole of

ou r modern philosophy has sunk those remains of ,
modern philosophy awaken nothing but suspicion

,
and discouragement if not ri di cule and sympathy

,
.
’
P hilosophy reduced to a theory of knowledge as ,
a matter of fact nothing but a miserable doctrine

of fasting ( E n th al ts am k ei ts l eh re ) a philosophy ,
unable to cross the threshold and which painfully

declines even the privilege of entering that i s —
philosophy in its most recent expression an end , ,
an agony something which excites sym p athy How

—
.
,
1
could such a ph ilosophy rule P
Werke vii 1 48 ,
. .
1
I bi d . vii . 1 46 .
SCIENC E
The philosophy of modern science in so far as we ,
can call it philosophy aims at the destruction of ,
everything which i s strong of everything exceptional , ,
of everything which is capable of dominating and

’
menacing It is essentially the people s philosophy
—
.
that is to s ay a philosophy of social platitude

,
and re gression Its dominant note is an aggressive

.
materialism whose motto is Neither Go dn or master

, .
Both on the Continent and in Great B ritain i s this

untoward phenomenon to be observe d I n France it .
is in the name of science that the work of levelling of ,
democratising of destroying all that i s noble or that

,
aspires to domination i s being pushed forward Up , .
till 1 8 70 Germany was the land of great idealism the

,
names of Goethe of Kant of Hegel of Schopenhauer

, , , ,
in philosophy ; of Beethoven and Wa gner in music ;

'
S how u s what a nation inspired by great ideals can .
achie ve The intellectual culture of Germany during

.
the latter half of the eighteenth and during the first

half of the nineteenth centuries was remarkable above ,
all thin gs for the v astness and power of i ts synthetic

achievements What has happened since 1 8 70 P
.
Germany has become the land of intense industrial

and commercial activity the land of militarism and ,
of indi vi dual servi tude Science has flourished in .
German uni versities during the last thirty years ,
certainly and the figure of the German professor has

,
become le gendary But this triumph of materialistic .
science has signified the cessation of all vast synthetic

achievement sacrificed to minute and painfully
,
correct works of analysis it has signified along with

the ever increasing power of commercialism the ever
-
growing democratisation of the empire and the con ,
ti n u ou s abasement of the nation al sp irit S cience .
has no reason to be p roud of these results .

The essence of the scientist is cautiousness patience , ,
extreme and pedantic di ligence all of them qualities ,
unknown or almost unknown to the genial spirit

, , ,
to the really great mind The learned man whom

.
Zarathustra has among hi s disciples up on the

mountains and wh o has spent his whole life in
,
minutely analysing the cerebral structure of the leech ,
is typical o f hi s class Take the physiologist or the

.
microbiologist or the chemist in their laboratories or ,
the spectacled professor learned in ethics and moral

science are these types of great men ? They are
workers and doubtless useful workers doubtless
, ,
indispensable workers as their labours ser ve as

,
material for the synthetic achie vements of the creator ,
but they must n ot be confounded with this creator .
They amass the material each bringing his little

,
stock well garn i s h ed e ach having spent a lifetime in

"
,
the examination of an infinitesimal fraction of the

domain of knowledge ; but they are incapable of
anything like a wide view embracing horizons out
,
side their own par ticular on e ; they are incapable of

understanding the meaning of the facts they coll ect .
It is for the creator to utilise these facts to utilise ,
them in the construction of the vast syntheses of the ,
tables of moral and metaphysical values which are as ,
landmarks in the history of humanity But precisely .
this modern phi losophy this philosophy of modern

,
science this materialistic philosophy which is s o

,
fa vourable to the intense development of commer

ci al i s m and mercantilism which regards the produc
,
tion of wealth as the end of life wh ich preaches the ,
doctrine of the Rights of Man which flatters the pre,
j u di ces of the ignorant by talk about the sovereignty

of the people ; this philosophy whose aim i s the
levelling and democratisation of everything whose ,
B OO K II
P OSITI VE PH ILOSOPHY
15 0 TH E PH ILOSOPHY OF NIETZSCHE
The only l aw of life which w e know probably the ,
only l aw of life which exists certainly the only one w e ,
know is the l aw which commands us imperatively

,
to realise life in all its infinite possibilities to manifest ,
life in all its integrity to li ve whol ly This being the

, .
only law of life everything which exists must be

,
j udged according to this l aw That which tends to .
increase ou r vitality and to strengthen and beautify

life is alone good
,
There I s n o such thing as
.
good in itself a thing is good or bad according

as to whether at a given moment it is profitable or
, ,
unprofitable to life If immorality and cruelty and

.
falsehood are for instance fa vourable to the develop

, ,
ment of life to the extension of i ts power ; and if

, ,
contrariwise morality and sympathy and truth are

,
prej udicial to vital development and extension then

the l aw of life commands us to s ay y es to
immorality and cruelty and falsehood and no to ,
morality and sympathy and truth .
But the law of life which commands us to realise

life to the utmost of its possibilities is also the law
of the whole of nature whether organic or inorganic ,
.
E verything which is tends to persist and to develop

,
.
This is the universal l aw inherent to the whole order ,
o f things But in the domain of both i norganic and

.
organic life this tendency of the various forces in

,
presence is subj ect to restriction Space and nourish .
ment are limited and reduced for the hi gher sc al e of

, ,
living being to very narrow limits In consequence

,
.
,
there is a struggl e for existence E very creature .
tends to persist and to de velop but only those whose

—
,
condition is best adapted to exterior conditions i n

,
—
a word those that are fi ttes t sur vive .
Such is the theory o f natural selection which

Dar win first applied to the solution O f the problem
THE WI L L OF PO WER 15 1
h ow do variations of species arise Thi s theory ?
starts from the point which it takes for granted in a

,
sense a p ri ori that the l aw of all life i s the ten den cy

,
to p ers i s t an d to devel op But given the conditions .
under which alone life is possible and which restrict

the number of those wh o can find place to live only ,
the fittest can survive Those who adapt themselves .
best to their environment will persist at the expense

of those w h o fail to adapt themselves as w ell In a
—
.
word the better conditioned that is to s ay the

-
—
, ,
s tronges t persist at the expense o f the less well

—
conditioned that is to s ay of the weaker , .
Such is the great biological law Translate d into .
other terms we may thus define the biologi cal law

,
the Will of Power as the elementary expression of

Life.
For what do we witness in the operations of the

biological law ? We witness a certain number of
forces at work E xistence being the fact a p ri ori
.
,
we s ee these forces striving to maintain themselves

—that is to s ay stri ving to act—within the limits
,
of existence . But the action of these forces i s n ot

reciprocal ; it is antagonistic Action is the condi .
tion of the persistence of these forces and the greater ,
the actio n the stronger the persistence We witness .
the elimination of those force s whose action is weaker

and less developed Now it may be said that each
.
of these antagonistic forces is moved by a wi l l to act ,
and by a wi ll of p ower as each strives by a more , ,
powerful action to neutralise the action of the

,
antagonist forces The tendency to persist i s a

.
tendency to assert oneself to increase one s power ,

’
as the very fact of a tendency to persist existing a ,
tendency to acti on a wi l l of acti on is implied and

, ,
a will of action cannot be other than a wi ll of p ower ,

152 THE P HIL OSOP HY OF NIETZ S CHE
as the aim of action i s mainten ance persist ence
—
, ,
de velopment that is to s ay P ower , .
Now let us apply this concept of the Will of Power

n ot merely to the world of organic and inorganic
nature but also to the ideological world to the world

, ,
of our ideas and concepts What do we witness in the .
ideological world ? We witness also a number of

,
—
forces at work each striving to persist that is to s ay ,
each of them acting and acting in view of their

—
,
maintenance persistence and development that is

,
to say in view of their power In other words each

—
.
, ,
force of the ideological world each idea therefore ,
is actuated j ust as the forces of biological nature by

, ,
a wi l l of p ower The forces of the ideological world

.
,
however are not actuated by a Will of Power inherent

,
to them The world of ideas has n o existence in

.
itself independent of us The Will of Power mani

,
.
fes ted consequently in the ideological world is but

the expression of a power which exists as refl ecti on
in the ideological world and which is inherent only ,
I n us .
The Will of Power is that which is fundamental in

the world It is the elementary fact which we must
.
,
accept as being in a sense a p ri ori As origin and

—
.
, ,
beginning we can s ee only on e t h ing Force A .
number of forces stand in presence and the history of ,
the world is a history of the action of these forces

in other words of the manifestations of the Will of
,
Power The central idea and fundam ental postulate

.
o f Nietzsche is this : th ere i s n o for ce s up eri or to for ce .
And this is n o tautology Up till n ow we ha ve always

—
.
imagined or tried to imagi ne o r at least all the

,
religions and philosophies since the time of Socrates

—
have tried to imagine that there is something
—
superior to force namely the ide a The religions ,
.
154 TH E P HI LOSOPHY OF N I ETZSCH E
to the con di tions of exi stence whi ch permit only of
—
,
its realisation by the s tronges t that is to s ay those ,
wh o are best adapted to those con di tions of existence .
It is force whi ch is victorious over the less strong .
Life in its uni versal tendency to persist always seeks

, ,
those means for realising its aim whi ch are best suited
to that realisation E very condition which favours
.
th e development of life consequently the realisation

,
of the l aw o f life is good Thus the standard by

,
.
whi ch all t hi ngs must be j udged is their u ti l i ty to l ife

at a gi ven momen t an d i n gi ven con di ti on s .
Darwin was the first to apply the fruitful principle

of natural selection to the world of organic nature .
It has since been applied with conspicuous success to

the domain of inorganic nature and we have been ,
shown its action on the struggle for existence between

the component elements of the atom But scientists .
as well as metaphysicians have always taken for

granted the existence o f certain laws of nature ,
immutable and eternal to the operation of which,
the whole cosmological process is subj ect .
Nietzsche has pushed the theory of natural selection

and of the sur vival of the fittest further on into the
domain o f the ideolo gical world and by those means ,
he has endea voured to strike at the very roots of all

scientific belief Science regards the world life
.
, ,
humanity as the manifestation of a force certainly

, ,
but of a cosmic force eternal and immutable inde

, ,
pendent of humanity The cosmic force the world

.
,
substance takes on di fferent forms and the idea is

, ,
but a particular emanation of a particular combina

tion of the cosmic force with a specified and highly
speciali sed condition of matter The individual is .
,
indeed a manifestation of the cosmic process of the

, ,
THE W ILL OF POWER 155
world substance but he has conscience of the whole

-
of which he forms a part through the medium of ,
certain universal laws of which the l aw of causality

,
i s the most important .
Nietzsche has inverted the position adopted by all

thinkers up till the present day For him it is n ot .
,
the individual wh o is a manifestation of the worl d

—
substance but the alleged world substance is but an
,
emanation of the in di vidual a proj ection of the laws ,
of h i s intelligence through space and time .
But this position is no novelty it will be urged ,

.
Innumerable are the philosophers wh o have pushed

scepticism to a denial of the reality of the outer world .
Berkeley certainly preceded Nietzsche on this ground ,
and Hegel and Fichte and Schopenhauer to mention ,
only the most celebrated All these thinkers how .

,
e ver important the divergencies between them on
other points were agreed in placing the centre of

,
things in the human mind in making the world the ,
representation of that mind the reflection of i ts i n ,
tell i gen ce Nietzsche is far from being an innovator

.
on the ground of subj ectivism .
This is perfectly true And more especially the .

, ,
theory of Schopenhauer of the world as will and

representation has been extensively utilised by Nietz
sche But where Nietzsche did certainly innovate,
.
where he unquestionably did effect a reform in the

history of philosophy as M de Gaultier h as pointed
,
.
ou t was with his conception of

,
no force superior
” 1
to force For every thinker antecedent to Nietz
.
sche has admitted the l aw of causali ty and the

mathematical axioms for I nstance E very thinker
‘
,
.
antecedent to Nietzsche has admitted the existence

1
Ju les de Gau ltier Nietzs che e t l a Réforme P hi losophi que .
( Pari s ,
au M er eur e de Fr a nce ,
15 6 TH E PHILOSOPHY OF NIETZSCHE
of certain immutable laws of nature by virtue of ,
which we oursel ves exist and without which we should

n ot exist Berkeley wh o denied us the right of
.
,
arguing from phenomena to noumena ; Schopenhauer ,
for whom the world exists only as the mirror of ou r

—
selves as our representation both admitted certain
,
fundamental laws of nature by virtue of which we ,
are able to reas on I t has always been held that

.
only in virtue of certain immutable laws of nature

do we exist only in virtue of these laws can we
,
kn ow and p ercei ve and reas on .
In particular the notions of space and time have

always been regarded as given a p ri ori as having ,
an existence in themselves as necessary to all know ,
ledge According to Kant space is not an empirical

.
,
concept for in order to perceive something as material

,
it is necessary to refer ou r sensations to something

external to us therefore the representation of space
exists previously to those obj ects which we proj ect
into space E xperience i s possible only by the
.
representation of space and cannot give birth to ,
the notion of space Time is likewise an intuition

.
a p ri ori condition of succession and chan g e

, .
Humanity has during a certain period of its

,
intellectual evolution always striven after a form of

,
reality distinct from reality itself This e ffort attains .
its most vehement expression in the domain of

ideology and translates itself into the pretended
,
discovery of a thing in itself behind the pheno

menal world of a transcendental moral l aw and
, ,
of a transcendental aesthetic l aw ( employed in the

usual sense o f the word aesthetic and n ot as Kant ,
employs it ) The idealistic school have denied the

.
validity of the phenomenal world o nly to affi rm the ,
reality of the noumenal world The m aterialist .

158 THE PHILOSOPHY OF NIETZ S C H E
j ust as existence itself is given These ideas are .
but the expressions of a force which has created them .
Humanity fin ding itself in certain conditions of

,
existence required knowledge as a necessary means

,
of persisting of maint aining itself

,
The ideas of .
c ausali ty of space and time are ideas wh ich under

, , ,
the actual conditions of existence prove most ,
beneficial to humanit y as a means of acquiring

knowledge consequently as a means to maintaining
,
itself in the struggle for life These ideas have no .
reality whatsoever in themselves ; they represent

the truth for humanity under certain conditions and ,
the truth is an instrument in the struggle for exist

ence and should perchance the actual con di tions
, ,
of existence change the truth of to day would no

,
‘
longer be the truth of to morrow and the concepts -

,
which we regard as conditionin g life to day would -
perhaps have to be inverted to morrow In a sense -

.
,
we may regard the ideas o f causality of space ,
and time as a p ri ori conditions of existence ; but

,
only as regards the actu al con di ti on s of existence .
These ideas ha ve no reality in themselves ; in the

beginning it is possible that many concepts of
reality were in presence and if the concepts which
we regard to day as immutable those of causality
-
, ,
o f space and time have s u r vi ved it is because these

, ,
concepts are the best adapted to the conditions of

existence it is because they are necessary to exist
,
ence in the sense that knowledge being an essential

, ,
condition of the maintenance of the species in the

struggle for life and these concepts gi ving that
,
knowledge which is best adapted to its maintenance ,
these concepts may be regarded as i n di sp en s abl e

i n s tru ments for the p res ervati on of the l ife of the
sp eci es .
TH E WILL OF POWER 159
Thus the idea of the struggle for life applied with ,
such success by Darwin to the world of org anic life ,
and extended since his time to the world of i norganic

nature is applied by Nietzsche to the domain of
,
abstract knowledge If an idea be regarded as true

. ,
an d be regarded as true by the universal consent of
mankin d as is the case with the ideas of space

, ,
time an d causality it is n ot because that idea

,
p ossesses an y reality in itself ; there is but one

reality of which we have conscience and that reality ,
i s Force of which the law of life is an expression

,
it is because that idea is necessary to the existence

of the species under given conditions But we .
may very well conceive o f a species placed under

different conditions of existence and to whom our ,
concepts of knowledge such as the ideas of caus al ity

, ,
of space and time would be unknown The i deo .
logical world i s a table of values its contents

are not entities in themselves but represent each ,
a certain value to humanity in the struggle for

existence The error of philosophers h as consisted
.
in neglecting the fundamental concepts of know

ledge as factors i n the struggle for life and in con ,
si der i n g them only i n thems el ves .
In placin g ourselves at this point of view the ,
controvers y as to the validity of these fundamental

concepts disappears As to whether the ideas o f
.
space and time and causalit y ha ve empirical re ality ,
we can answer no The sole reality of the entities

.
of the ideological world consists in their greater o r
less u ti li ty for humanity The foundations of know

.
ledge possess thus merely a utilitarian value Truth .
i s not an entit y superior to humanity exterior to ,
humanit y immutable and independent Truth i s

,
.
s ynonymous with what i s useful for the maintenance

1 60 THE PHILOSOPHY OF N I E TZ SCH E
of the species Truth is an instrument in the
.
struggle for existence ; that which the species finds

to be best adapted to its preservation that is truth
,
to the species And that whi ch is best adaptable to

.
certain conditions consequently that which rep r e

,
sents truth under certain conditions may become ,
untruth and falsehood under other vi tal conditions .
When Nietzsche says that he will prefer falsehood

to truth should falsehood be proved to have greater
value to life he is speaking of the metaphysical
,
fiction of truth which represents it as fixed and

,
immutable and which under the form of the moral

, ,
l aw i s the concrete expression of the prej udices of

,
a particular class The metaphysical tran s val u a

.
tion of all the natural values has made truth into

an independent and immutable entity ; whereas
the natural e valuation of truth shows truth to be
merely synonymous with that which is most useful
to the life of the race under certain conditions .
The eternal pursuit of the various philosophic

schools after truth resembles the e fforts of the
alchemists to convert every metal into gold Like .
the alchemists the philosophers are pursuing a

,
chimera which has no existence Once we apply .
the theory of natural selection and of the survi val

of the fittest to the domain of abstract knowledge
once we recognise the fact that the ideological world
i s but the expression of that force which manifests
itself in the l aw of life itself we shall recognise also
the fact that truth is something necessarily relative ,
necessarily n on existent as an expres s ion of the

-
absolute The world of ideas is the expression of a

.
force which cau ses everything that is to persist ,

.
It i s the Wi l l of P ower of a race which tending to ,
persist in the stru ggle for life selects for the assertion
,
1
Christianity What is thi s moral l aw whi ch
.
triumphed with Christianity which triumphed with ,
the Kantian philosophy with the French Revolution , ,
which triumphs to day with modern ideas ? The -
moral law i s but a symbol of the Will of Power ,
of a force which has become idealised i n order that , ,
by means o f its identification with the world of

alleged noumena i ts v alue as a means o f a ffirming ,
the power of those who in vented it as a means of ,
combat may be enhanced In the world of morals

,
.
,
as in the world of knowledge the metaphysical idea ,
of truth is the purest fiction Truth i s in morals .

,
“
as in knowledge merely a means to an end ; and the

,
end is the affi rmati on of a certain race of a certain ,
type of a certain species We will come later to

, .
Nietzsche s theory of the two systems of morals

’
that of the masters and that of the slaves It , .
suffices to s ay here that according to Nietzsche the , ,
masters or superior and eugenic races regard! as

, ,
moral e verything that we to day under the reign -

,
o f the supremacy of the inferior races regard as ,
immoral For the masters good is synonymous with

.
,
strength and power and beauty and courage ruthless , ,
unscrupulous ferocious The slaves unable to com

,
.
,
bat the masters wi th their own weapons adopted the ,
moral l aw as their instrument in the struggle for

s n p r em acy With Christianity the inferior races
.
triumphed and immediately a trans valuation of the

,
ancient values those of the masters was e ffected

, ,
.
The qualities of the inferior races weakness , ,
N ietzs che i l t attack on S ocrates i n th e

h as m a de a v o en
”
GOtzen dam m er un g i n whi ch h e d es cribes hi m as,
belongin g
”
by bir th to th e lowes t clas s of th e people to th e rabble an d , ,
th rows d oubts on th e genuinen ess of h i s G reek ori gin Werke ,
viii 68
.
THE WILL OF POWER 1 63
cowardice ru s e patience were elevated to the

, , ,
rank of virtues and baptised with new names ,
( love ,
charity forgi v eness meekness
, ) and identified
, ,
with an alleged eternal and higher state of things ,
which are n ot of this world but above it In this .
way the inferior race assured a greater stabilit y

,
to i ts triumph Identified with the world of

.
noumena or of supernature the moral l aw i n s tru

, , ,
ment of combat was less liable to be called in ques

,
tion The origin of the moral law as an expression

.
of the Will of Power of an inferior race stru ggling for ,
supremacy is thus overlooked, .
In the domain of knowledge as in the domai n of

— —
morals and also in that o f art there i s n o such
entity as a thing in itself E verything must be .
measured with regard to i ts utilit y for the human

species at a gi ven moment and in certain conditions .
That which w e call truth is but an instrument of

combat it is synonymous with that which assures
,
the supremacy of a race or of a species Reality .
there is none other than the Will of Power of which ,
the l aw of life is the manifestation and which is ,
synonymous with the force that causes everything

whi ch is to persist in being It is i n obedience to
,
.
t h at force that we select those instruments best

adapted to the realisation o f that tendenc y Those .
instruments we call true but they are only ,
instruments in the ser vice of the Uni v ersal Force ,
neither immutable n or eternal but changing accord ,
ing as the conditions of existence themselves chan ge .

CHAP TER II
THE THE O RY O F K NO W LE D G E AS E ! P RESS I ON O F THE
WI LL O F P O W ER
WE have seen that Nietzsche applies rigorously the

theory of natural selection to the domain of ideology .
Our knowledge is not knowledge in itself but the ,
expression of an adap tati on to a certain environment .
That which we know or think we know is a purely

, ,
subj ective creation or rather it is n ot even subj ecti ve ,
for the subj ect i s itself a resultant we have n o

knowledge of subj ect or O bj ect since we ha ve no
knowledge at all in the exact sense of the word Th at .
which we call knowledge is simply that which i s

useful to the life of the species which aids the species
,
in persisting ; it i s a manifestation of the Will of

Power of that species As such it possesses neither
.
immutability n or a value in itself apart from those

conditions under which it is created by the species .
As Dr Rudolf Eisler writes

The forms of our thought process according to -
,
Nietzsche do not reflect in any way the reality of

,
things but only serve to co ordinate the chaotic ele

,
-
ments of o ur e xperience Far from reproducing the

.
conditions of reality they tend rather to falsify the con

,
tent of our experience The categori es of the u n ders tan d

.
i ng are n othi ng bu t th e hu man i s ati on of ou r exp eri en ce

Vermenschlichungen der Erfahrung They do not
proceed from experience are n ot caused or motivated
,
by experience and are not inborn concepts reposing on

,
supernatural knowledge On the contrary they are

.
,
produced in and thro ugh e xperience they are caused ,
1 64
which w e are accustomed to consider as fundamental .
They ha ve gi ven those concepts an indepe ndent

existence and have overlooked the fact that they
—
,
represent nothing more than a means to an end that

they are a symbol of the Will of Power which mani
fests itself in the l aw of life and which pushing every ,
living being to persist in being pushes it also to select

,
those weapons for its defence which are best adapted

to that purpose .Knowledge is an instrument of
combat The fact of certain ideas such as those
.
,
of space and time and causalit y being accepted as ,
universally valid merely pro ves the supreme value

,
of these concepts as a means of maintaining and

developing life nothing more
, .
The categorical imperative which commands us to

search after truth must be able to j ustify itself as
a means of maintaining the life of the species as an ,
expression of the Will of Power Our passion for .
Beaut y is likewise an expression of the Will of Power

of the will of creati on The thing in itself and
.
beauty in itself reduce themselves to the same

fundamental Will of Power Why do we desire to .
kn ow reality ? What is the secret of this thirst after

knowledge which is e verywhere manifested P B e
cause knowledge is a means of gaining power of sub ,
j e cti n g the world to our power That world alone is .
comprehensible for us which is ou r own creation .
Knowledge acts as the instrument o f power .
It follows therefore that knowledge increases accord

ing as ou r power increases What is the meaning of
.
knowledge P He re as in the case of the moral values

,
good and bad is the idea to be taken in a strictly

,
’
biological sense In order that a gi ven species may

.
persist and de velop its power it must calculate its ,
conception of reality in such a way as to be able to

TH E THE O RY OF K N OWLED G E 1 67
construct by means of this conception a plan of

—
existence The usefulness of knowledge n ot some
—
.
abstract theoretical desire not to be deceived is the

real motive which underlies the developm ent of the
organs of knowledge these develop themselves in
such a way that by observing the results obtained by
,
them we are able to maintain oursel ves in existence

,
.
In other words a quantit y of knowledge depends upon

,
the degree in which the Will of Power of a species

de velops itself a species conceives a certain quality
and quantity of Reality in order to become master
,
of that reality in order to press that reality into its

,
service .
There I s n eI th er Spirit n or Reason n or thought

,
’
, ,
nor consciousness nor soul nor will nor truth all

, , ,
these are useless fictions There is no question of

.
subj ect or obj ect there i s only question of a given

,
species which can persist only if it possesses a

,
relati v ely right idea of things Especially is a relative

.
re gularity of i ts perceptions necessary .
Here we must note again that the words will

and truth are to be read in their metaphysical
—
sense as free will and as an eternal and i mm u t
able truth external to humanity and superior to it
—
.
”
Thus the most widely believed truths such as
the law of causality for instance which philosophers ,
have wron gly considered as being a pri ori to all exp eri
—
ence are for Nietzsche nothing better than concepts
which must be accepted for the present until n ew ,
conditions of life fa vour the rise O f new concepts ,
adaptable to those n ew conditions This belief in .
certain alle g ed uni v ersal truths is a belief without

which the existence of the species would in all prob
ability be menaced But the truth immutable and ,
”
Werke xv 2 75 ,
. .
168 TH E PHILOSOP HY OF NI E TZSCHE
eternal , of these concepts is n ot proved by thi s
n eces s i ty of belie vin g in them for such truth is not
dependent on the mere existence of humanity The .
two qualities which Kant recognised as constituting

the criterion of the truth of a proposition i e its —
—
. .
uni versality and its necessity merely demonstrate

that such a proposition is true in the sense of being
necessary to the persistence of the species under
certain conditions But such a proposition does not
.
quit the region of belief and it i s a belief conditioned

by circumstances independent of it .
The position of Nietzsche is clear The only .
reality of which we can have any knowledge and we ,
c an ha v e knowledge of it onl y because w e are oursel ves
e m anations of this reality is force We witness an

,
.
innumerable quantity of forces in presence each force ,
antagonistic to the other each stri ving to persist at

,
the expense of the other the stronger and fittest

,
persisting at the expense of the weaker and less fit .
Life is but the manifestation of this Univers al Force ,
and the law o f life is the realisation of the maxi mu m of

life We witness the struggle for existence struggle
.
,
of species against species struggle of each species

,
against the brute forces of nature The Will of Power

.
,
inherent in each type and which is the l aw of life

, ,
the Will of Power which pushes e very species to

seek to acquire greater power e very indi vidual to seek
—
,
to acquire greater power that Will it is which is

expressed in the whole world of ideas in the theory
of knowledge which is the instrument of ou r preserv
,
ation in a chaos which we know n ot and of which we ,
can only render ourselves the masters on conditions
that we co ordinate its elements which is synonymous

-
,
with subordinating them in the theory of morals ,
which are the expression of a particular race of men

1 70 THE P H ILOSOP HY OF NI ETZSCH E
in i ts categories in dialectic in the value of lo gic
, , ,
proves only the u s efu l n es s whi ch experience has

shown these to possess for the persistence of life ,
not in any way their truth .

’
That a quantity of bel i ef must exist that j udg

ments are necessary ; that no doubt exists with regard
to all important concepts —this is a condition
necessary for all life ; consequently it is essential
—n ot th
,
th at s omethi ng s hou l d be bel i eved to be tru e at
s omethi ng r eal ly i s tru e .
Q uestions as to the substance or form of the

thing in itself considered independently of the r e
,
cep ti vi ty of the senses or of the activity of the

understanding must be brushed aside with the
,
further question : How can we know that a thing

exists P The world of things is ou r invention .
Many other species ma y very probably have many

di fferently concei ved worlds o f things equally ,
true for them because as necessary to their

,
maintenance and development as ours is to us .
Nietzsche poses the question as to whether our

faculty for creating logicising co ordi nating falsifying
, ,
-
,
be n ot itself the best guaranteed Reality In a word .

,
if th at whi ch s upp os es the exi s ten ce of thi ngs be not

alone real P And if the e ffect of the outer world on
us be not also the resultant of the subj ecti ve will ?
Other beings react on us ou r made u p world of -
illusions is a co ordination and subordi nation of their

-
” 1
action a sort of weapon of defence
,
.
Nietzsche di ffers from his master Schopenhauer , ,
in that the former suppresses e verything which is not

pure Becoming whereas the latter s Will is essentially
,
’
Be ing Beyond the world of phenomena Nietzsche

.
,
lea ves nothing There is no reality distinct from

.
1
Werke xv 2 73 2 74
,
.
-
. I bi d xv 28 0 2 8 11
. .
-
.
THE THE O RY OF K N OWLED G E 1 71
phenomena and the world of truth itself as an

, ,
entity apart does not exist , .
How the world of truth became at last a fable .
The history of an error .
i The world of truth attainable b y the wi se the

—
.
, ,
pious the virtuous the virtuous man lives in the

,
world of truth he i s the world of truth ,

.
[ Most ancient form o f the Idea relatively clever , ,
S imple convincing
,
Another renderin g of the pro
.
position I Plato am the truth

“ii The world of truth unattainable at present but
.
, ,
—
.
, ,
promised to the wise the pious the virtuous to the , ,
sinner that repents .
[ Progress of the Idea it becomes more vaporous

—
,
less di fficult to seize hold of i t becomes femal e ,
Christian .
iii The world of truth unattainable u n p roveabl e

.
, , ,
n o t promised but a thought which brings comfort

,
a duty an imperative
,
.
[The erstwhile sunshine appears but veiled in ,
fog and scepticism ; the Idea become sublime pale , ,
northerly KOn i gs b ergi an ]

“iv The world of truth—unattainable ? At all
.
,
events unattained And also unknown Co u se . .
quently neither comforting nor i mperative : how

could something unknown act as an imperative ?
[Gray morning First yawn o f Reason
. Cockcrow .
of Positi vism ]
—
.
v The world of truth an Idea which is quite

—
.
useless which binds us to nothing an unnecessary

, ,
superfluous Idea consequentl y a refu ted Idea : let

,
us abolish it !
[Broad daylight breakfast return of bon
sens and merriment ; Plato blushes ; great j u b i l an cy
of all free thinkers ]
1 72 THE PHILOSOPHY OF N IE TZSCHE
vi We ha ve suppressed the world of truth : what
.
world remains ? The world o f illusions perhaps ? ,
But no Together wi th the worl d of tru th we h ave ,
s upp res s ed al s o the worl d of i l l u s i on s
[Midday moment of the shortest darkness end

of the longest error summit of humanity I N C I P I T
” 1
ZARATH U S TRA ] .
This is the great secret which Zarathustra comes

to preach to mankind Zarathustra i s a sceptic and
.
,
pushes scepticism to the length of ceasing to belie ve

that he believes thus ,
In the domain of science it is said and rightly ,
sai d con viction finds no place Only when science

,
.
resolves to content itself with a modest hypothesis ,

‘
with an experimental for the present standpoint ,
then only can it be allowed to take place within

the realm of knowledge Does this not mean.
,
in other words that first when con vi cti on ceas es to be

,
con vi cti on can it find a place as an element of know

,
1
ledge P
Belief in the obj ective reality of truth as an entity
superior to humanity and disassociated from its ,
conception as a means to the maintenance and

development of the species under gi ven conditions ,
as an emanation of the Will of Power of a species ,
such a belief is purely metaphysical There can be .
no doubt about it the believer in truth the man w h o

, ,
is truthful in the sense of belie ving in science a ffirms ,
through that belief his faith in the existence of a world

other than the world o f Nature of Life of History , ,
and in s o far as he affirms the existence of this

other world must he not in the same measure deny
,
its counterpart which is this world of ours ? One

Werke viii 8 2 8 3 ,
.
, .
1
I bi d
. v . 2 72 .
1 74 THE PHILOSOPH Y OF NIETZSCH E
inferior members lived in an obedience such as n o
monastic order has e ver known they obtained I , ,
know not h ow some information with regard to the

,
famous symbol with regard to that essential principle

,
o f the order the knowledge of which was exclusi v ely

,
reserved for the superior dignitaries sole depositaries ,
o f this ultimate secret : N othi ng i s tru e every thi ng ,
i s all owed
’
. Well that was freedom of thought a
, ,
freedom which allowed of the belief in truth itself

” 1
being negatived .
This symbol of the Order of the Assassins Nietzs che ,
has made it his own For him as we have seen truth .

, ,
i s but the expression of th e Will o f Power e verywhere ,
active manifesting itself in life requiring all life to

, ,
endeavour to realise the maximum of vitality wit hi n

it Truth is but an instrument for the realisation of
.
this end It is true all that which embelli shes and

.
,
strengthens life and adds to its creative power If .
we find that immorality is more useful to life than

morality or should we find some other categories
of the understanding more useful to life than those of
substance and cause of unity and plurality or should
,
we discover that ou r concepts of s pace and time do not

respond in an adequate measure to our Will of Power ,
to ou r desire to increase our power by subordinating

the chaotic elements of our en vironment to us then
we should ha v e to prefer immorality to create n ew ,
categories and new concepts of knowledge And

,
.
precisely the cr eati on of n ew val u es is the noblest task

of the creator o f the Over Man whose ad vent Zara
,
-
th u s tr a has come to preach Life is a vast field of .
experiments for the creator it exists solely as a means

for affording the creator ofval u es scope for his acti vity ;
’
the creator is life s j ustification and the task of the
Werke v 4 68 4 69 1
, .
-
.
THE TH E ORY OF KNOWLED G E 1 75
creator i s to render life ever more beautiful ever more ,
fertile ever more powerful To attain this end

,
.
,
destruction is as necessary as creation For the old .
values those v alues which represent the work of an

,
inferior element and which hinder the progress of life

, ,
which s ap i ts vitality by seeking to destro y the only

—
real sources o f that vitality these O ld v alues must
be destroyed before the new ones can be re vealed .
Zarathustra has come as a great destroyer as well as

a great creator .
It may be asked whether Nietzsche has n ot by the ,
extreme scepticism which he di splays in the domain

o f abstract theoretical reasoning himself destroyed ,
hi s own position By admitting that our categories

.
of the understan di ng and also the fundamenta l

,
concepts of space and time are true for us in s o ,
far as they represent the best means of preser ving the

life of the species in the struggle for existence he h as ,
admitted their truth in the only case in whi ch these

concepts or the categories interest us Existence .
being given and certain conditions being gi ven it

, ,
ensues that the natural tendency of every living being

to persist will translate itself in the forging of those
,
instruments best adapted to that ultimate purpos e .
The world of truth which should exist outside this

world of ours as an entity apart would not have the
, ,
slightest interest for u s It is evident that for us the

.
only truth which counts is that whi ch adapts us to

,
ou r en v ironment and s o increases our power and ou r
vitality But i s it any less the truth because of

.
this P Does not the fact that certain concepts such -
—
as those of space and time are universally accepted ,
prove that there does exist some adequate relation

between ou r theory of knowledge and Reality P
’
Granted that Nietzsche s pro p osition be correct that ,
ou r concepts of reality and the categories of the under
standing have been formed because these concepts and
these categories are the best means of subor di nating
ou r environment to u s of increasing ou r Will of Power
—does the fact that the origin of those concepts and
,
categories is to be found in the struggle for existence

in any sense in validate them P Quite the contrary .
The fact that certain concepts possess a uni versally

recognised v alidity shows these concepts to be true
true for us in our present conditions of existence and
, ,
that i s su fficient Speculation as to what may be the

.
concepts formed by other species in other con di tions ,
of existence or as to what might be ours were ou r

,
conditions of existence changed is an unfruitful ,
labour .
And even Nietzsche himself is compelled to admit

the e xistence of a truth which is the Will of ,
Power We may suppress the world of noumena and

.
”
of phenomena w e may even suppress the
,
ego and ,
argue as does Nietzsche that already the supposition

, ,
of a subj ect is etwas Hi n zu erdi ch tetes but we

cannot suppress the fact of existence itself That .
primordi al fact we are obliged to accept as truth .
The various conditions of existence and our knowledge

of them may be and very likely are as Nietzsche says
, , ,
Annahmen bis auf Weiteres But s o far at any .

,
rate ou r knowledge of them limited and very greatly

, ,
limited as it is is true in its fundamental postulates

,
.
How would it be possible to imagine our being able

to subordinate the chaotic elements of our en viron
ment without knowledge of those elements P Nietz
sche admits that it is precisely in View of such
subordination that we have forged the instruments [ [
of ou r knowledge invented ou r concepts of space and

,
time imagined the categories of the understanding

,
.
s truggle for existence and yet retain all their v alue for
,
th e species In the same way ou r concepts of space

.
,
and time by the mere fact of their being necessary

,
to life are true for u s and have their value for us

, , .
Nietzsche proclaims that a conviction must cease to

be a con viction before it can enter the domain of
knowledge and yet he admits that without certain
,
convictions the species would be annihilated which ,
i s exact He thus arrives at a contradiction with

.
himself .
T o s u m up : Nietzsche s fundamental idea that ’
ou r concepts of knowledge and the categories o f the ,
understanding are empirical in their origin and take

, ,
their rise as instruments of the Will of Power of the

species in the struggle for existence is exact to ou r , ,
mind and we certainly think it far more rational

than Kant s theory of the origin of the categories
’
.
But where we think Nietzsche wrong is in his attempt

to deny that our ideas of space and time and other ,
fundamental concepts of knowledge in s o far as they ,
are means adapted to establishing a relative equi

librium between oursel ves and ou r environment ,
furnish us with a true representation of that environ

ment Certainly we fully concur that the r ep r e
.
,
s e n tati on thus afforded us of Reality is an inadequate
representation it is far from embracing the totalit y

of the con di tions of Reality but the representation
given us is sufficient for ou r maintenance as a species
it permits us to subor di nate to ou r ends a suffi cient
number of the elements of Reality to enable us to ‘
persist and in s o far ou r representation must be

, ,
taken to embody an expression of the relation of

Reality to ourselves which is adequate to our existence ,
and which is consequently tru e .
’
Nietzsche s contention that nothing is true
THE TH EORY OF KNOWLED G E 1 79
may be met with the remark that the mere assertion

of nothing bein g true must necessarily be based
on the belief in a truth — namely the truth that n o
,
thing is true . Truth is synonymous with Zweck

m fis s i gk ei t with utility as a means of attaining an
,
end that end being the maintenance of a species

,
.
W e think Nietzsche s proposition quite j ustifiable

’
in itself That which benefits the existence of the

.
species is necessarily true for that species But .
when Nietzsche reproaches the learned atheists and

anti metaphysicians of to day with a m etap h y
- -
s i cal belief in truth he fails to s ee that this belief

,
he necessarily entertains himself also when he for

m u l ates the proposition truth is an in strument in
the struggle for life This proposition is based on a
.
belief in i ts truth The fact is that n o proposition

.
can be enunciated without a belief in its truth ,
without seeking to base it on truth Truth may be .

,
and is an instrument in the struggle for existence

,
.
But i s it any the less truth for this reason ?

Nietzsche declares that truth is synonymous with
Z w eck m as s i gk ei t
’
,( appropriateness ) and thinks

thereby to have abolished truth ; and he does not
perceive that he is claiming this v ery proposition
which he formulates to be j ustified as true !
,
-
But there is an obj ection which Professor R ittel

’
meyer has made against Nietzsche s theory of know
ledge which we think based ou a misunderstan ding .
Professor R i ttel mey er writes

Nietzsche informs us in the psychological e xp os i
tion of hi s position that that is true which assures the
,
most intense feeling of power and safety But j ust as .
there are ideas whose antithesis would give u s a much

greater sense of security and power and which are ,
nevertheless held to be true so does an idea lose i ts

capacity to communicate a sense of security and
power in that very moment when it ceases to be con
s i dere d as true Nietzsche has here inverted the
.
logical succession of psychological procedure It i s .
n ot because an idea communicates to us a sense of
security and power that it is held to be true but ,
because such an idea is considered true it gi ves

—
under certain circumstances a sense of force and n
” 1
safety .
It would be interesting to know what ideas they are

whose antithesis would give us a much greater sense
o f security and power and which are ne v ertheless held
,
”
to be tru e When Professor R i ttel m ey er write s
.
that an idea loses its capacity to communicate a

sense of security and power in that very moment
”
when it ceases to be considered as true s o is he but ,
expressing the same idea as Nietzsche An idea loses .
i ts capacity as an idea when it ceases to be considered

as true as Untrue it has n o longer any value for
the species and precisely because it has no further
value in the struggle for existence it has become u n
true I t is not Nietzsche but Professor Ri ttel m eyer
.
,
wh o has inverted the logical sequence of p s y ch ol ogi

cal procedure The conception of a species deliber
.
ately holding ideas which are antagonistic to its

existence is an imp ossible on e Such a species would .
n ot sur vive Our fundamental concepts of know

.
ledge have been evolved in the course of ou r gradual

adaptation to ou r environment and represent a ,
relative equilibrium between us and the outer world

this equilibrium could not possibly exist were ou r
ideas of the outer world false and O pposed to all
reality Professor Ri ttel m e y er falls here into the
.
1
F . R i ttel m eyer : Fri e drich N ietzsch e und das Erkenn tn i s
problem , p .
9 6 ( Lei p zi g ,
182 THE P HILOSO P HY OF NIETZ S CHE
Nietzsche unlike Schope nhauer suppresses e v ery
, ,
thing which is n ot pure Becoming ; and by his

inclusion of the world of ideas within the sphere of
the struggle for existence by the parallel which he ,
establishes between the scheme of sur vival in the

ideological world and that in the biological world ,
he di ffers from hi s predecessor .
Nietzsche has carried the conception of natural

selection and the survival of the fittest further th an
’
any other theorician of knowledge and Nietzsche s ,
theory of knowledge i s based on all i ts points on bio

logical science The empiricism of the materialist
.
school he has carried to an extreme scepticism But .
precisely in this scepticism lies the di fference which

separates h i m in the domain of the theory of know
,
ledge from the materialist school For Nietzsche

,
.
,
m s p i te of certain contradictions is essentially a ,
subj ectivist His penetrating analysis of the concept

.
of Obj ect his insistence on the relativity of all

,
knowledge the fundamental importance which he

,
attributes to the subj ective factors in the domain

of knowledge constitute a great advantage over the
,
doctrine which places the only reality in th e outer

world of which the prodigious activity of ou r cerebral
,
structure i s but in a sense the reflection .
In this combination of voluntarism and empiric

i s m lies Nietzsche s value as a phil osopher of the
’
theory of knowledge His conception of the ideo .
logical world as subjected to the same laws of tend

ency to persist and survi v al of the fittest as the
biological world is an essentially fertile conception
, .
It is one in entire harmony with his whole philosophic

doctrine which reduces life and all its manifestations
,
to emanations of the primordial Will of Power But .
it is in fertile ap ercu s and in brilliant flashes of

TH E THEO RY OF KNOWLED G E 183
intuition that Nietzsche s theory of knowledge is rich

’
rather than in sustained argument and systematic

exposition Systematic exposition was what N i etz
.
sche detested the most of all thin g s his theory o f

knowledge like his theory of morals and his socio
, ,
logical ideas are so many expressions of his personal

—
,
ity of a man who is at once a genius and a lover of

paradox fond of exaggeration brave loyal aggres
, , , ,
sive prepared to follow his thought wherever it might

,
lead him W e have said that it is in his combination

.
of voluntarism and empiricism that Nietzsche s value

’
in the history of the theory of knowledge lies it is

for those who come after him to develop his thought ;
and if that thought is to be developed with advantage ,
it must be on the lines of such a combination.

CHAPTE R I I I
THE MO RAL S Y S TE MS —MASTERS A ND SLAVES
EVE N as the Will of Power manifests itself in the

domain of abstract theoretical ideas so does it mani ,
fest itself also i n the domain of practical ideology .
Just as ou r theory of knowledge represents an i n s tru

ment in the struggle for existence an instrument for ,
maintaining the species and increasing its power ,
s o do the various systems of morals in presence
represent the tendencies of various races struggling

both for existence and supremacy For there is n o .
such thing as repose e verything is in a process of

Becoming and that which remains statio nary perishes
, .
The condition of existence is progress ; immovable

ness or regression entails decay Humanity must
—
.
increase in strength and beauty which is strength

—
under another form or humanity will not sur vive .
As a matter of fact the systems of morals in presence

are reducible to two the system of morals emanating
from the masters from the superior races and the
,
system emanating from the slaves from the inferior ,
races For the war of classes in which the materi

.
,
alist school of histori ans s ee the cardinal factor in

history Nietzsche has substituted the war of the
,
races The history of the human race according

.
,
to Nietzsche has been the history of the perpetual

,
struggle for existence and supremacy between the

masters or the strong races and the slaves or
—
, , ,
the weak races The former brave strong daring

.
, , ,
1 84
186 TH E PH I L OSOP HY OF NI E TZSC HE
in vincible The slaves employ an ideological weapon
.
,
since they possess none other The moral l aw i s the

.
reflection of the character of the slaves and rep re ,
sents their conception of life as opposed to that of the

masters The characteristics of cowardi ce timidity
—
.
, ,
obsequiousness which are the marks of the slaves

are elevated in the moral l aw to the rank of virtues ,
and become lo ve of one s enemies obedi ence to God

’
, ,
meekness of heart The covetousness en vy hatred

.
, , ,
malice uncharitableness of these degenerate beings

, ,
thirsting after power and yet terrified by their masters ,
break forth in the moral law Christianity is the .
great victory of the slaves and the inferior races .
These triumphed thanks to two factors : firstly a ,
decay of the superior races brought on by various

concomitant causes ; secondly thanks to the moral ,
law embodied in the Christian religion .
In the course of a j ourney through the many more

~
or less refined and more or less uncultured systems
of morals which have formerly prevailed or prevail ,
actually on earth I discovered several traits always

,
recurring regularly and bound up one with another ,
until at last tw o fundamental types presented them

selves to my eyes with a fundament al di fference
between them There are systems of morals belong
.
ing to the masters and systems belonging to the

,
” 1
slaves.
The essential di fference be tween these two systems

of morals is due to the racial di fference Of the two
types with whom they originated The race of th e
'
masters is but another name for the eugenic race ,
anthropologically superior to the brachycephalous or

mesaticephalous types The characteristics of this
race—bravery love of danger for its own sake
.
, ,
”
Werke vi i 2 39
1
, . .
—
MO RAL SYSTE MS MASTERS A ND SL AVES 1 8 7
hardness enduring intrepidity boldness love of
—
, , , ,
“
conquest and adventure all th eSe characteristics are
to be found I n the morals of the race whi ch viewed , ,
from the modern standpoint from the st andpoint of

“ "
m odérn ideas corrupted by Christianity by science , ,
by the practical reason of philosophers is a ,
p rofoundly immoral race The characteristics of the .
slaves on the o ther hand are faithfully reflected in

, ,
that system of moral s which raises sympathy love , ,
humility charity to the rank of virtues The two

,
.
systems of morals are diametrically opposed to each

:
other .
The aristocratic ideal finds i ts expression in the

Greek culture of the age of Pericles in the great ,
Roman civilisation in those grand types of humanity

,
which the Renaissance produced in Napoleon , .
Culture and refinement ; the greatness of the soul

whi ch 15 great b y reason of its abundant wealth W h ich ,
g i ves not in order to receive which does n ot seek to ,
elevate itself by reason of i ts goodn es s ; extravagance

as type of true virtue great weal th of p ers on al i ty as
,
” 1
its con di tion Such is the type of the aristocrat
.
,
of the master of the Over Man whose motto which

,
-
, ,
’
i s on e of Nietzsche s most admirable mottoes i s , ,
”
Live dangerously .
But the ideal of the Over Man i s n ot an ideal for -
th e many It is given onl y to the few to the very

.
,
fe w to be
, masters of creati on an d destruction .
Th e Over Man is the warrior W hose duty and mission

-
it i s to s et an i deal before humanity to create for ,
humanity a table of values which shall give a value to

life And in order to do this the O ver Manmust
.
,
-
know life under all i ts many asp ec ts he must know ,
it as evil as well as good For him life i s as a vast .

,
Werke xv 4 5 5
1
, . .
188 THE P HILOSO P HY OF NIE TZSCH E
laboratory and j ust as o nl y the trained chemist or
,
the trained biologist is fit to experiment in a chemical

or biological laboratory so is the Over Man the ,
-
only one to whom the destinies of mankind can safely

be confided .
It is necessary for humanity that it should have an

ideal ; and that ideal can be created only through
su ffering and hardship Every elevation of the
.
h uman type has until now been the work of an

— —
, ,
rri s tocr ati c societ y and thus will it always b the

t e
lwork of a society which believes in the necessity of a

hierarchy of rank and values and which has S lavery ,
n ecessary under some form or another Certainly

o n e must n ot conceive any h u m an i tan an illusions
‘
concerning the origin of an aristocratic society (con

sequently concerning the origin of every elevation
of the human type ) Truth is hard Let us avow
. .
Without fear the manner in which every higher

culture has originated Men whose nature was still .
natural barbarians in the most terrible sense of the

,
word human beasts of prey in possession still of

, ,
unbroken Will Power and lusts flung themselves on ,
weaker more moral more peaceful races which were

, , ,
perhaps industrial or agricultural ; or else on ol d ,
decaying ci vilisations in which the last gleams of li fe

,
still shone forth in a brilliant glow of mingled intellect

and corruption Th e aristocratic caste was in the
.
beginning always the barbaric caste I ts strength .
lay as much in i ts spiritual as in its physical capacities

” 1
its members were the mos t compl ete indi viduals
-
.
Every great thing in the history of humanity

has been the work not of humanity itself but of
, ,
an eli te of an aristocratic él i te above humanity

, .
E very invention which ministers to our comfort ,
Werke VII 35 36
1
,
. 2 -2
.
190 THE PH ILOSOPHY OF NIETZSCHE
be kept up to the mark the creator wh o moulds the
destinies of the race for thousands of years as if they ,
were w ax can do s o only pro vided he be hard

, ,
pro vided he be able to scourg e without mercy to ,
purify by fire and sword Humanity is the great ,
ground whereon the creator of values may operate .
The anthropologically inferior races however , ,
moved by that same Will of Power which pushes

everything that is to persist and assert itself ha ve
, , ,
since the advent of Christianity gained the upper ,
hand and succeeded in almost eli m inating the superior

race and its aristocratic ideal The inferior races are .
physiologically weak and degenerate ; their intel

lectual capacity as we have said is sometimes of a
, ,
very high order but reflects their physiological

,
nature Their triumph is due to various concomitant

—
.
causes the neglect by the superior races of biological

laws entering into play at least as much as the
patience ru s e and refined trickery of their
,
adversaries Christianity has been the gr eatest in

.
.
strument in the victory o f the slaves Christianity .
had to deal with an epoch peculiarly suited to the

propagation of its doctrines The Roman Empire was .
fast decaying While the governing races were

.
wasting their strength and their opportunities in

frivolous amusement the lower classes were sun k in
—
,
deepest degradation The ideals of the past ideals

.
which had produced a Marius a Julius C aesar a

—
, ,
Brutus were gone an d no new ideals had replaced

,
them Incompetence and imbecility n ow reigned

.
where strength and power and farsightedness had

reigned before Amidst this heap of ruins material
.
,
and moral with the masses thirsting after vengeance

,
and filled with the lust of conquest Christianity was ,
bound to flourish On the other hand Christianity

.
,
—
MORAL SYSTEMS MASTERS AND SLAVES 19 1
had to deal with young races barbaric and beautiful ,
in their uncontrolled Will of Power in their exuberant ,
force but as we s ay young and lacking backbone

, , ,
.
The conversion of the Germanic races of the race of ,
Hermann and Thusnelda to Christianity is on e of the

, ,
most remarkable e vents of history Christianity GS11 .

"
quered these wild and uncouth rac es b y insti lling

i to them the dea dl y poison of
“ conscience and
‘ps i n . Th e exti b er an t vitality of the barbarian uh ,
abl e to manifest itself at the expense o f others mani ,
fes te d itself at the expense of himself Christianity .
admirably adapted its weapons to the peoples it sought

to conquer j ust as to this day the Catholic Church
,
adapts itself to each indi vidual country in which

it takes root The idea of sacrifice by blood of the
.
,
immolation of a victim subsequently de voured by

,
the worshippers and deprived of its meanin g as a

—
,
symbol of redemption which symbol would at first

be incomprehensible to barbarians such an idea—
would appeal to the instincts of cruelty and sa vagery
of these wild barbaric peoples .
The ideal o f the sla ves triumphed with Christianity

’
as it has trium phed with all modern ideas Equality .

,
lib er ty democracy are in the air Modern ideas ha v e

,
.
triumphed in the modern State as they ha v e ,
triumphed in modern science Especially is the cult .
of science a democratic an essentially democratic

, ,
idea The religion o f science of which we hear s o

.
,
much appears at once a rel i gl on based on the belief

,
in Truth like all religions ; and a utilitarian r e

,
li gi on which ministers to the comfort of all and on ,
the progress of which i s based the hope that every

”
body m ay some day possess seven acres and a cow .
The erudite bookworm t h e true representative of

,
.
science i s th e diametrical o p posite of the gen ius of

, ,
the creator of the really great man The age of
,
.
decline in the history of a people is the age of

the supremacy of the savant as opposed to the ,
synthetic philosopher wh o cr eates and b eau ti fi es life .
To day the sa v ant is re vered

-
I t is the result of .
scientific progress and is a sign one of many of

, , ,
the degeneracy which characterises the whole fabric

of modern civilisation .
For the modern man is a fflicted with degenerac y ,
with a profound degeneracy a degeneracy mani ,
festing itself in all modern ideas Ther e seems to be .
an end to the creative genius of the human race an ,
end to the life in beauty in force in power ; such

'
, ,
as the Greeks and the Romans had manifested The .
man of great passions of deadly passions the adven , ,
turer wh o sails boldly along unknown seas amidst all ,
sorts of hidden perils in search of unknown lands this

, ,
man is to day looked askance at nay persecuted and

-
, ,
re viled There is a general bel i ttl emen t of the race in

.
progress The aim of the modern State of modern

.
,
science of everything mode m is the greatest happi

, ,
ness of the greatest number the most Vile ideal ever ,
presented to man As if happiness or peace of mind

.
, ,
or placid self satisfaction could constitute an ideal

-
What is needed is the establishment of a n ew ideal ,
which shall re vi ve that waning vitality which bids fair

to v anish altogether in a short time And that ideal .
c an only be established through war and bloodshed
and su ffering and tears for only by these means can ,
humanity be awakened from its insensate dream of

peace and placidity only by these means can a
—
,
robust healthy vigorous race a race of comman ders

—b e formed
, ,
The dise ase of the Will prevails al l over Europe ,
but in unequal distribution it m anifests itself most

194 TH E PHILOSOPHY OF NI E TZ S CHE
’
Unfortunately Nietzsche s wish does not seem to be
destined to ful fil itself It is a combination of Far .
Eastern complications and internal revolution which

have for the presen t at any rate destroyed the
, ,
Russian danger .
To day the evaluations of th e slaves of the inferior

-
,
races are everywhere triumphant The democratic

,
.
movement and its consequences socialism and

, ,
anarchism are the logical result of this victory

, .
All men are proclaimed equal in defiance of all ,
biological l aw The aim of life is no longer the

.
creation of a race of Over Men but the giving of

—
-
,
happiness oi a small flat uninteresting happiness , ,
to everyone The value of life has been reduced to

.
a question of pounds shillings and pence Suffering , .
is to be abolished in accordance with the absurd,
sentimentali sm of to day which results from a de -
generate physique and which is but another name

,
for abj ect cowardice Th e h appiness of the greater .
number and the happiness of the smaller number of ,
the eli te are two absolutely opposed states The

,
.
happiness of the greater number signifies a happiness

of mediocrity ; no desire for adventure instincti ve ,
di slike of danger hatred of anything approaching

,
to hard work calm quiet a well ordered metho di cal

, , ,
-
,
life with su fficient to eat and drink a newspaper

, ,
every morning and a bit of green country in the

summer Such is the ideal of the democracy And
. .
that ideal has been enforced to such an extent that

the strong men of to day supposing such men to exist -
,
in this age of mediocrity are killed by the atmos ,
h r e o f their en vironment The strong the rich are

p e .
, ,
rendered ashamed of their strength and riches The .
venom of sympathy poisons them that sympathy ,
which destroys the happiness of the strong without

—
MORAL SYSTEMS M ASTERS AND SLAVES 195
relievin g the weak of any of their abj ect hideous

ness .
The sole chance for the strong man of to “day ,
wh owishes to preserve hi s dign ity a nd courage an d

“
_
independence i s solitude, Flee my friend int o

.
, ,
”
th y solitude c ounsels Zarathustra
, I s ee thee .
deafened by the noise of their great men and stung

by the stings of their sm al ler ones .
The people have little understanding for the really

great for that which creates But it has understand
,
.
ing for all the players and actors of great things .
The world re volves around the creators of n ew

values it revolves invisibly But the people and .
the glory revolve around the comedians Thus .
1 ’
goes the world .
See on e result of this great democratic movement

-
the growth of demagogy and the e volution of the
professional politician who trades on the credulity of
the imbecile credulity to which universal su ffrage
,
gi ves a prime See the results of this democratic

—
.
progress in France the France of former days of ,
chivalry and heroism and great faith the France ,
which produced Napole on become the France of ,
the third Republic of Panama o f the Jews See

, ,
.
Germany what has become of that idealism of which

,
the land of Gretchen was once so proud ? What is the

result of the empire founded on universal su ffrage
an dparliamentari anism and concession to the masses ?
The result has been a degeneracy of the German i n

te l l ect And some of the most brilliant pages of
.
Nietzsche are those which he devotes to a scathing

criticism of the modern German mind a mixture of ,
absurd nationalism and contemptible obsequiousness .
For Nietzsche is no patriot The Over -Man .
”
Werke vi 73 ,
. .
196 THE PH ILOSOPHY OF NIETZ S CHE
necessarily considers patriotism as appertaining to
the arsenal o f worn ou t superstitions like the various
-
,
religions Nietzsche is a good European as he

.
,
himself expresses it
T p i n a on
y
th e common w
. l
ground of i n tern ati on al i s all those free minds and

independent thi nkers who like hi m are outside the
'
, ,
p al e of modernity But he is nothing less than an
internationalist after the socialist pattern On the .
contrary if on e thing could j ustify the policy of

,
”
little States and national exclusi vism as he calls it , ,
it is war He predicts for the twentieth century an

.
era of great wars the most terrible which mankind

,
has witnessed in modern times And to j udge by the .

,
’
actual state of Europe Nietzsche s prophecy appears
,
not unlikely to be realised But the result of these.
wars will be the establishment precisely of that n ew

governing caste which Nietzsche looks up to as the
,
only possible saviour of humanity Such a governing .
caste composed of men habituated to command and

,
to rule will give Europe a n e w aim and a n ew ideal

, ,
which will be far abo ve the petty aims and ideals

of present day nationalism
-
.
The Whole doctrine of the masters 1 5 contained in the

proposition that Humanity as“ g mass sacrificed
‘‘
, ~ ,
for t he benefit _oi a S ingle race of s trong men that 15 ,
what would constitute a progress Humani ty exists .
for the benefit of the superior race of the el i te , ,
and this I s a doctrine which Nietzsche did not in vent ,
and which was also the doctrine of Ernest Renan and

of Gusta ve Flaubert Al l the su fferings all the
.
,
miseries o f humanity are necessary are j ustified in , ,
order to permit of the Di al ogues Philosophiques

or La Tentation de Saint Antoine or the poem o f
-
Zarathustra being handed down to posterity And .
what does Nietzsche mean by a race of strong men P

198 TH E P H I L OSOPHY OF NIETZSCHE
notion of s i n are priestly in ventions and admirably ,
“
adapted to the end in View Th anks to these notions

.
,
the evil instincts of the slaves are not prevented from

breaking loose but they are perverted in their di rec
,
tion instead of being directed against others these ,
instincts are directed against self .
What is to be feared and very greatly feared under

, ,
the present r egi m e of democracy and liberty and

equality is that those lucky exceptions of humanity
, ,
those who have remained strong and powerful and

healthy should be subj ected to a process of auto
,
suppression by means of the religion of sympathy and

human su ffering n ow in vogue and which reflects,
exactly the degeneracy of virile instinct and manly

sentiment which characterises our modern ci vilisation .
1
The more illness spreads among the human race
and we cann ot deny the spread of the epidemic the —
more gre atly should we honour those rare exceptions
of bodily and mental power realised by the lucky
specimens of the race the more carefully should we

,
preserve these healthy and strong exceptions from

—
that worst of all atmospheres the atmosphere of the
in valid Is this at present the case ? The invalids
.
present the greatest danger for those that are healthy

n ot the strongest are the cause of the bad luck of the
strong but the weakes t are the cause of their mis

,
fortunes I s this recognised ? In general i t is not

.
the sentiment of the fear of man which one would like

to see diminished in intensity for this consciousness
of the fear they inspire compels the strong to remain
strong and to become when occasion requires it
—
, ,
terrible this sentiment is the means of maintaining

the healthy type of man . That which should
1
I lln ess mus t b e t ak en here as s yn onym ous with physi ological
degeneracy .
—
MORAL SYSTEMS M ASTER S AN D SL AVES 199
terrify us that which is more fatal than any other

,
fat al ity i s not th e s en ti m en t of fear but the senti

, ,
ment of great di sgus t of man and of great sy mp athy

for man Suppose these two sentiments to be com
.
bi n ed one day an d inevitably the most di sastrous of

—
,
calamities must ensue namely the last will of ,

‘
man the Will of the Nirvana nihilism

,
All these
,
.
are men of resentment these ph ysiolo gical mon ,
s tr os i ti es a whole kingdom sh ivering with the

,
hidden desire of venge ance insatiable and i n e x ,
h au s ti b l e in outbreaks of fur y against the lucky ones

and in masq uerades of revenge in pretexts for ,
reven ge when would these attain the final the most ,
sublime triumph which their thirst for vengeance

lon gs for P Incontestably on the day that they
‘
succeed in burdening the conscience of the lucky ones

with their oWn miseries with the miseries of the whole
,
world s o that the strong and powerful begin to feel

,
ashamed of their luck and to s ay perhaps on e to

another It is a crime to be s o happy For there
is too much misery around us ! But n o greater
or more fatal misfortune could h appen than if the
strong and powerful and healthy in mind and .
body should begin to doubt of their ri ght to be happy .
Away with this misbe g otten world Away with

this scandalous feminising of every manly sentiment
That those wh o are sick and degenerate do n ot
communicate their illness and degeneracy to those
r —
that a e healthy this should surely be the first
4
consideration on earth But in order to prevent such

.
an infection it is necessary th at those wh o are healthy

,
should se p arate themselves as far as possible from

those that are sick should take care n ot even to look
,
upon these latter Is it the dut y of those wh o

.
are he althy an dstron g and p owerful to become doctors

200 TH E PHIL OSOP HY OF NIETZSCHE
or nurses P No they could not misapprehend their
—
,
duty more fundamentally that which is higher should

not degrade itself into becoming a tool of that which
is lower the pathos of rank an d distance must for all
,
ete rnity di fferentiate the duties of both And .
therefore fresh air Fresh air An daway far away ,
from all these asylums and hospitals of modern

civilisation And seek good company seek our ,
company Or else solitude if it be necessary , .
But away at all events from the bad odours of cor

ruption and concealed malady ( Aber w eg j e d e n fal l s
von den u bl en D ii n s ten der inwendigen Ver derb ni s s

und des heimlichen Kranken Wu r m fr as s es 1 -
The profound malady which a fflicts modern society

is expressed by that religion of human suffering of ,
which Tolstoi is the best known exponent This -

.
religion re veals a disgust and weariness of life on the

part of those who adhere to it being themselves
weak and puny being themselves Victims of what
,
they call social inj ustice they have a horror of life

, ,
they seek to belittle life to reduce its vitality It is

, .
,
according to them only when we take consciousness

,
of the enormous amount of su ffering in the world ,
when we come to recognise our solidarity in and

through suffering that w e realise what life really is
—
,
a trial which God compels us to submit to in order
to try us For Nietzsche too suffering is an ordeal

.
, ,
through which each one of us must go if we wish to

do something really great No one has recognised .
more fully than Nietzsche the necessity of su ffering ,
the beauty of suffering But Nietzsche precisely

.
,
because he recognises this necessary and beautiful

side of su ffering is a bitter enemy of every doctrine
,
which favours even the slightest mitigation of it .
Werke Vii 4 32 fi
1
,
. .
202 TH E P H ILOSOP HY OF NI ETZ S CHE
to act vigorously and promptly Necessity as h as .
,
been well said is always the mother of in vention

, .
But as ci vilisation ad vanced as the forces of nature

—
,
’
became more and more subdued by man as man s
power over his surroundings increased ever more and
—
more s o has gradually the need of the maximum of
vitality been lost sight of in the measure that man s
,
’
situation in nature has become consolidated There .
is no doubt that modern science has contributed v ery

largely to this diminution of vitality in the species .
The inventions and discoveries of science by giving ,
us an ever greater sense of security and power by

-
,
ministering in a thousand ways to our comforts ,
by relieving us of the necessity of doing a thous and

things for oursel ves by transfo rming our daily life
—
,
more and more into a vast mechanism these di s

cov eri e s have made us indolent and nonchalant ,
where they have not destroyed the beauty and the

poetry of the real life which is the dangerous life
, .
In these days of scientific progr ess the dangerous life ,
seems to us to be void of meaning The whole aim .
and obj ect o f science in its theoretic al as well as

,
in its practical domain is to render life less dangerous

, ,
to relieve us of as much work as possibl e to enable us ,
to live comfortably in all security in a sort of dol ce

, ,
ar n i en te
f .
Such undoubtedly we say is the tendency o f

, , ,
modern sci ence ; and thus science presents a double

danger It destroys the poetry and the beauty of life
.
_
the mercantilism and industrialism wh ich it has
suscitated is the deadly ene my of that idealism in th e
~
best sense of the word which is the etern al fountain

,
of the life in beauty And it has incontestably

.
fostered the growth of all the unhealthy plants of ou r

—
modern culture Of democ racy socialism anarc hism , , ,
—
MORAL SY S TEMS M A STERS A ND S LAVES 203
p aci fi ci s m
and the rest Al l those who partake of
.
th e democratic banquet under i ts numerous forms ar e

also worshippers of the god of science It i s in the .
name of science that the gospel of emancipation of ,
humanitarianism and other anti natural doctrines

,
-
,
are pre ached Every democracy is fundamentally

.
hostile to the Church because the Church recognises

,
a hierarchy because the Church knows the value of

,
the pathos of rank and distance and because our ,
sturdy democrats of to day will have neither God nor

-
master The attack on the Church with which every

.
democracy begins the hostility to the Church

,
manifested in e v ery socialist programme is but a ,
means to an end Science is the new deity to which

.
appeal is made ; and it is in the name of science

that the doctrines of the Rights of Man and other
absurdities are p rom iI l gated .
But the universal sympathy which the religion of

human suffering preaches as well as being a mani ,
fes tati on of profound physiological degeneracy i s ,
also an aggra v ation of that degeneracy Sympathy .
’
i s but the con v eyance o f one man s su fferings to an
other for if we sympathise it is because we s uffer ,
with the victim of an inj ustice or of his own weakness

we suffer equally with him from the evil he alleges
, ,
himself to be a victim of and precisely it is this

sentiment of s ufi eri ng wi th the vi cti m Mitleid
which constitutes sympathy But the Over Man is -
—
.
,
also fil led with sym p athy at the sight n ot of t h e

suffering of the human race but oi i ts degeneracy ,
-
,
of its belittlement .
Hedonism pessimism utilit arianism eudaemon

, , ,
i s m ; all these manners of t hi nking which seek to ,
measure the value of things according to the amount

o f j oy or su ffering which they cause — that is to s ay ,
204 THE PHILOSOP HY OF NIETZSCHE
according to —
secondary and inferior measures are
the fruit of superficial and nai ve j udgment which ,
e veryone with an artistic soul and creati ve power

must look down on with irony and pity Pity for you .
But this i s certainly not pity as you understand it

it is n ot sympathy with social su ffering nor with the ,
victims and invalids of society n or with those wh o

, ,
vicious and vanquished from the beginning are ,
strewn all around us still less is it sympathy with

those discontented oppressed and re volted classes
—
,
of society wh o thirst after power Which they call

freedom Ou r sympathy is a higher and more
‘ ’
.
far sighted sympathy ; w e s ee the race homo

-
s ap i en s becoming smaller and smaller and b ecom ,
ing smaller through y ou r efforts ; and there are

moments in which we contemplate with indescribable
anxiety the results of y ou r sympathy in which we seek
,
to defend ourselves against your sympathy in which ,
we find your seriousness more perilous than any

light heartedness You wish if possible and what
- —
—
.
if possible w as ever more insane P to abolish

suffering And we ? It seems that we desire it
.
intensifi ed beyond what it ever has been Comfort ,
as you understand it that is no aim it is the end of

, ,
all things ! A state of things which renders man

absurd and contemptible that makes his disappear
,
ance seem desirable It i s in the school of suffering

oi intense su fferin g
- — that has been created e very
great thing which humanity has produced This .
tension of the soul which sti ffens itself under the load
of misfortune and thus learns to become strong ;
,
this shudder which seizes it in the face of a great

catastrophe its ingenuity and courage in supporting ,
interpreting utilising misfortune ; and everything

,
which the soul possesses of deepness mystery , ,

206 THE PHI L OSOPHY OF N IETZSCHE
is indestructible like that of the flea the last man
,
lives the longest .
We have discovered happiness thus Say the

last men and they wink
, .
They have abandoned those countries where life

’
is hard for on e has need of heat One likes one s .
neighbour and one rubs oneself against him for one

needs heat .
To fall ill or to be suspicious i s for them a sin '
on e walks with infinite precautions He wh o stumbles .
against the stones or against his fellow men is mad -

.
A little poison from time to time that causes one

to dre am well And a lot of poison to finish with
.
,
in order to di e pleasantly .
One works still for work i s a distraction But on e

, .
takes care that this distraction does n ot become an

e ffort .
They have abolished poverty and wealth ; each

causes too much worry Who wishes s till to com
.
mand P And wh o would obey Both comman di ng

and obeying cause too much worry .
No shepherd and one single flock E veryone

desires the same thing All are equal . Whoever
ventures to think di fferently goes of his own free will
into a lunatic asylum .
We have disco vered happiness thus s ay the ,

’
” 1
last men and they wink
,
.
As opposed to this ideal of the democracy Nietzsche

”
,
‘ l ’
preaches the Over Man Sla very he writes

-
. Is , ,
a necessary condition of eVety true

Nietzsche desires the Systematic culti vation of a race
'
o f masters similar to that of the patricians in Rome

,
and of the aristoi in Athens He desires the .
re e stablishment of the system o f c astes rigidly separ

-
,
Werke vi 1 9 2 0
1
, .
, .
—
MORAL SYS TE MS MA S TE R S AND SLAVES i
207
ated on e from another with j ust su fficient connection

,
between them to enable a renewal of the race to take

place periodic al ly The sufferings and toils of hum
.
an i ty are necessary in order to permit of the existence
of a few creators supreme masters of the destinies of

,
mankind sublime Olympian artists wh o constitute

,
the j ustification of humanity The p rogress of .
civilisation has not for i ts aim the emancipation of the

masses Nietzsche will n ot hear Of such a thing as
.
n Arbeiterfrage and is even prepared to denounce

,
P rince Bismarck himself as a democrat and a socialist ,
because of his social legislation Modern civilisation .

,
which pretends to progress b y emancipating the

masses and which considers every fresh concession to
,
the most discontented sections of the populace as a step

forward in the onward march of progress this piti -
able modern civilisation of ours i s but a caricature of a

civilisation The real progress of civilisation will be
.
realised first then when the ai m of the State will be

,
the cultivation of a superior race The State which

—
.
deVotes itself to this obj ect Will be a real State that

i s tos ay on ewielding authority a n d able to c ommand
"
.
,
Th e real int ere sts of ci vilisation demand the existence

of a vast confused mass of humanity which shall serve
,
as the instrument whereby the race of the eli te ,
of the masters may be culti vated

,
.
The di fference in the moral systems of the masters

and of the sla ves lies thus primordially in the di ffer
ence between the physiological constitution of these
two types The masters physiolo gically strong and
.
,
robust hav e a s ystem of morals in harmony with the

,
character of the race The slaves physiologi cally .

,
weak and degenerate ha ve likewise a system in ,
harmony with their character and which i s con s e ,
quently diametrically op p osed to the system of th e

masters The masters are those creators an d Olym
.
pian artists who create their own values and give in the ,
plenitude of their power a meaning and a sense to life , .
For them e v erything is sanctioned by their force

, ,
creative and destructive Good is synonymous with .
brave powerful beautiful intrepid refined deli

, , , , ,
cate ( this understood i n ter p ares ) ferocious hard , , ,
cruel The masters know n o sympathy They are

. .
essentially hard and desire life in all its plenitude , ,
adventurous dangerous mysterious Other wise with

, , .
the slaves The slaves suffer from a lack of Vitality

.
,
consequently they desire life as peaceful as comfort ,
able as mediocre as possible Lacking physical force

,
.
and the spirit of resource they love solidarity because , ,
they need it because it is their only weapon of defence

, ,
because only by the force of numbers can they hope

to repel the strong man because it is necessary to
—
,
their existence Solidarity that is the secret of all

.
these inferior types of humanity huddling themsel ves ,
together in order to keep warm living miserably ,
because they cannot a fford to live otherwise sharing ,
the same malignant hatred and en vy of all that is

strong of all that is beautiful of all that which is
, ,
superior to them The doctrines of nihi lism which .
they put forth cloaked under the names of good ,

”
ness sympathy peacefulness
,
eternal life the , , ,
kingdom of hea ven are all of them doctrines of the ,
decline of life He whose vitality is in the ascendant

.
loves war and danger and adventure and mystery ;

he is ready nay glad to face any amount O f su ffering
, , ,
in order to attain his end ; he is the man of great

passions who knows not what moderation means for
, ,
’
whom life is to use Nietzsche s beautiful definition
, ,
a means of experience He on the other hand .

, ,
whose Vitality is insu fficient and declining will

gi ve humanity an ideal an aim a val u e Nietzsche
, , .
is encouraged by the spectacle of Napoleon that ,

”
great continuator of the Renaissance to whom ,
Europe has owed all its hopes and all its aspirations
towards a higher state of things during the last
century . It is thanks to Napoleon ( and not at all
to the French Revolution which brought forth n o ,
‘
thing but fraternity between nations and other
absurd sentimentalism ) that a couple of warlike
—
:
centuries are n ow about to begin centuries which

have n o equal in history ; thanks to him that we
have n ow entered into the period of cl ass i cal warfare ,
o f s ci en ti fi c an d at the same time popular warfare on

i ,
a large scale which coming ages will look back on with

,
envy and veneration as a Great Era It will be .
thus owing to Napoleon that the man in Europe will

have triumphed at last over the Phili stine and the
merchant . Napoleon who in all modern ideas
, ,
and especially in ou r civilisation saw something like ,
a personal foe proclaimed himself by this enmity to

,
be the greatest continuator of the Renaissance he

has resurrected for us a complete piece of ancient art
—
,
” 1
the most important perhaps a piece of granite .
Nietzsche sees in cruelty on e of the noblest passi ons

Of the human soul For i t i s t h e p as Si on which incites
'
' '
us to seek ever more and more kn owl edge than which ,
nothing is more dangerous nothing more apt to cause

,
us su ffering and disillusionment And knowledge .
itself It may be for others something di fferent for ,
instance a couch of repose or a means of conversation

—
, ,
or a theme for musing idl y for me it represents a

world o f danger and triumphs in which all the heroic ,
sentiments have their place L ife as a mean s of

.
exp er i en ce with this principle ever before one s ’

-
Werke v 31 3 ,
. .
—
MORAL SYS TE MS MASTERS AND SLAVES 21 1
mind s eye one can li ve n o t only with courage but

’
,
” 1
on e can li v e j oyfully and laugh j oyfully And .
what have ou r modern ideas made of this search after

knowledge which for the intrepid thinker i s a search
,
amidst virgin forests or amidst unknown seas a

, ,
means of ad venture which tempts his lo ve of unknown

perils and surprises P We have the s o called theory -
of knowledge erected i nto a science Knowledge i s .
remo ved from the domain of practical life with all i ts ,
j oys and woes and hopes and fears and transferred

, ,
to the glacial region of abstract reasoning An .
abstract desire of truth an abstract desire n ot ,

”
to be decei ved are substituted for the love of a dven
,
ture and perilous risk as the moti ves for our search
after knowledge The cowardice prevalent to day
.
-
,
in th e face of that which is unknown the desire to ,
avoid all risks all unpleasant surp rises I s well

, ,
illustrated by the de velopment of the Agnostic theory

of life which seeks to hide the truth from ou r eyes
,
behind the veil of the Unknowable This meta .
physical entity i s a convenient screen with which to

conceal that which we do n ot want to know that ,
which we are afraid to know It enables us to postulate .
at least the possibility of a supranatural sanction for

life and with many persons this possibility is
equi valent to a probability if n ot to a certainty ,
.
Taking it as a whole the moral system of the

-
,
i n féti Or races of the slaves is a cowardly system It

, , .
is a system which proclaims life to be an e vil which ,
pr onounces life to be worth neither great efforts n or

great dangers It is too cowardly to put into practice
.
the act to which its arguments all seem logically to

—
lead the act of suicide It prefers less dangerous
.
means such as ascetic practice s and the sup pression

,
W er k e v 2 4 5
1
, . .
of all violence Th e system of moral s which triumphed
.
with Christianity is a system which reduces life to a

hemiplegic con di tion It suppresses precisely that .
side of life which alone possesses value which alone ,
j ustifies life The most consistent adepts of t hi s

.
system of morals are undoubtedly the socialists ,
that most logi cal and also most pernicious race

”
o f men as Nietzsche calls them Nietzsche has
, .
socialism in abhorrence E ven as an organism is .
incapable of li ving wi thout a head so is a society ,
incapable of li ving without chiefs to command it and

lead it The dogma of the equality of all men is a
.
profoundly anti natural conception it is a conception

-
which e ven supposing its realisation to be possible

, ,
would render life hideous by its very monotony ,

.
The beauty of life lies precisely in the exuberant

variety of its types in the accentuation of indi vidual
,
contrasts in the increasing of the distances which

,
separate the classes of society Of anarchism .

\
,
Nietzsche is an equally con vinced adversary Anar .
chism is synonymous with the rule of the mob with ,
the destruction of all art and beauty with the ,
dryin g up of all the sources of human energy and

activity Anarchism like socialism has taken its
.
, ,
rise amon g the lowest classes of the population ,
among the most envious and discontented and mutin

O us classes It is an outburst of envy and hatred
.
,
of hatred of all that which is rich and powerful and

lucky and well born It is essentially a gospel of
—
.
the rabble And yet it may be urged i t has been

—
.
,
urged notably by M Fouill é e that Ni etzsche is "

.
”
himself an anarchist At the bottom writes M .
, .
Fouill ée Nietzsche is himself an anarchist enemy

, ,
of libert y and enemy of equali ty an anarchi st wh o ,
considers that all moral restraint being a b olished

, ,
21 4 T HE P HIL O S OP HY OF NI E TZSC HE
tion He has all the antagonism of an artist for the
.
rabble which from the Olympian heights on which

, ,
he soared he despised Thus we think it a grave

, .
mistake to call Nietzsche an anarchist The social

—
.
system of Nietzsche i n so far as a social system is to

—
be deduced from his writings is an autocracy and
an iron despotism as far remo ved from the anarchist
,
conception of society as the Poles asunder .
The essential about Nietzsche s theory of morals ’
is that every system Of morals is a manifest ati on of

the Will Of P oWer Every such system must be re
.
du ce dto its real value which 1 8 that of an instrument

,
in the struggle for existence According to Nietzsche .
the only morality worth anything is the morality

we h ave created for ourselves each one for himself , .
But this proposition is subj ect to restriction Only .
those wh o are cap abl e of creating values only the ,
Over Man the Olympian artist and genius has

-
, ,
the right to create values Goethe has recognised

.
the truth of this when he wrote :

Nu r der ver dien t s i ch Freih eit Wi e das Leben
”
Der tagli ch si e erob em mus s .
Zarathustra insists particularly on this point .
He is n ot indulgent for those mediocrities wh o ,
swollen with vanity arrogate to themselves a pri vilege

,
belonging only to the chosen few of the eli te .
Art thou a n ew force and a new l aw ? A first

impulsion P A wheel able to turn itself P Canst thou
compel the stars to revolve around thee P
Alas Many are those who are de v oured by the
unhealthy desire to raise themselves Numerous
are the ambitious which desperately agitate Pr ove
to me that thou be not on e of these hungry ones ,
devoured by ambition
MO RAL SYSTEMS—M ASTE RS AN D S LAV E S 21 5
Alas Man y are the great thoughts which pro

duce no more than a breath of wind ; the y do but
swell and become thereby more empty
’
Thou cal l s t thyself free P But I would fain
know the thought which rules thee and n ot the n atri r e ,
o f the yoke from which thou art released .
Art thou of the number o f those who have a ri ght

to shake off the yoke ? For there are many who
ha ve thrown aside all that which gave them some
” 1
value in shaking off the yoke of servitude
, .
It is precisely the O ver Man whose duty and -
p rivilege it is to create new values to give ,
humanity an ideal and an aim and to s et above it ,
a new table of laws It is in order to fulfil this duty

.
and pri vi lege that the O ver Man is to be en g endered

-
.
The inferior race says Nietzsche needs a ,
j ustification I ts r ai s on detre is that it may serve

’ ‘
-
.
the interests of a superior race wh o will use it as a ,
foundation without which it could not accomplish its

task It will be not only a race of masters whose
.
,
duty it will be to lead and govern the flock but a race ,
ha ving its own sphere of life gifted with an excess of

,
strength which permits it realising more and more

beauty more and more coura g e more and more
, ,
culture and refinement pushed to the length of a

,
highly developed Spirituality an affi rmati ve race , ,
which commands every luxury strong enough to be ,
able to rej ect the tyranny of the categorical imperative ,
rich enough to a void itself from falling into parsi

mony or pedantism a race livin g far beyond all good
and evil a hothouse for the cultivation of rare and
,
strange plants This race alone it will be wh o c an

.
cr eate . And he alone wh o can create he alone who ,
can and must daily conquer for himself h i s own liberty
Werke vi ,
.
216 THE PH ILOSOPHY OF NI ETZSCHE
and his own —
right to live h e alone has the right to hi s
own morality . With Nietzsche anarchistic individu

,
al i s m is restricted to the superior race to the strong

,
and vi gorous and healthy in mind and body The .
O ver Man conquers freedom not for its own sake

-
,
but for the sake of the race he conquers freedom ,
because only in possession of full and integral freedom

can he cr eate only when he is free can he ful fil h i s
task of setting a value upon humanity But freedom
.
is condi tional upon this ultimate duty To all who .
aspire to live beyond the domain of good and evil ,
1
Zarathustra poses the question : Frei wozu P
1 “F ee for what ?
r
21 8 THE P HILOSOP HY OF NIE TZSCH E
The great redeemer of humanity who sh al l create ,
n ew v alues for the race and gi v e back to the world

—
,
an ideal worthy of i t this creator of the future is

none other than the O ver Man Ubermensch -
whose advent Zarathustra has come to preach .
Every age accor din géto Nietzsche has its table of

, ,
moral and metaphysical values peculiar to it In this .
present age of ours the prevailing evaluation of moral

values is one Which places the qu al ities of goodness ,
love of justice sympathy altruism in the foremost

, , ,
rank as vi rtues ; an d on the other hand an ath e

m ati Ses the opposite qualities of cruelty hardness , ,
e goI s m But thi s evaluati o n , which the maj orit y Of

.
us are accustomed to consider as immutable has ,
not always prevailed Every eval uation of moral .
values reflects the character physiological and ,
psychologi cal of its creators

,
The evaluation of .
mor al values in an aristocratic age in an age in which ,
a few higher beings command the rest of humanity ,
whose destinies they c ontrol will be an esse ntially ,
aristocratic evaluation The qu alities which the .
ruling race possess and which they c onsequently hol d

,
in honour will be counte d as the highest V irtues

,
such qualities will be those O f bo di ly strength an d

b eauty courage skill love of adventure and daring
, , , ,
in the psychological as i n other d omains culture and ,
refinement of taste intellectual probity and power

,
.
In a democratic age on the contrary when such a

, ,
superior race no longer exists or has lost its power , ,
and when the inferior races are predominant the ,
evaluation of moral values will be di fferent and will ,
reflect the character of the n ow predo minant race

the qu al i ties of this race those qu al ities which t h is ,
race most greatly honours will have b e en trans ,
formed into Virtues the c h ief virtue will be solidarity ,

TH E OVER MAN -
21 9
as it i s in the i r s oli d arity an d force of numbers that

the strength of th is race lies Lacking physical qualitie s
.
and education it will despise those qualities of braver y

, ,
love of danger and a dventure skill which result , ,
from the p ossession of a good p hysique As these .
qualities p ersonifie d by the stronger races represent

, ,
a danger to the security and existence of the weaker

races they will further be con demned as bad
,
“
and immor al All which amounts to s ayi n g that
.
ou r moral evaluations are the direct corollary of ou r
physiological constituti on The moral l aw is not

.
something ap art from ourselves outside ourselves ,

.
It enters within the sphere of the biol ogical l aw which

p ushes everything that is to p ersist an d develo p
,
.
Our m or al evaluations are a means of adj usting

ourselves to our en vironment The multitudinous
.
sensati ons which penetrate us from outside strike

each of us in various ways We s ay yes to those .
sensations which respond to the desires of ou r nature ,
and n o to those which are re pugnant to ou r nature

“
.
”
We j udge the first lot of sensations to be g o od ,
”
and the second l ot to be bad .
N ow a str iking fact which we witness at present

in Euro p e is the gra dual and sure d evelo p ment of a
,
mediocre typ e of humanity at the expense of the

superior races The gregarious anim al living with
.
,
and by the her d has eliminate d or nearly eliminated

, , ,
the solitary in divi dual strong in his solitude On the

, .
on e han d we see a constant growth of morbi d characters
as a result of the progress of ci vilisati on nota bly an ,
enormous increase of nervous disease On the other .
han d we see a ste ady growth of mediocrity a growth

,
’
,
fostere d al ike by the modern S tate an d by modern

science .
This growth of me diocrity and degeneracy i s n ot ,

we have said a phenomenon to be condemned in
,
itself This Nietzsche has expressly recognised

. .
The growth of mediocrity is an absolutely necessary

condition for the establi shme n t of a superior race of a ,
race of masters History teaches us that the ruling

.
races have invariably a Very limited existence The .
aristocracy of Athens w as decayed in tw o hundred

years and yet Athens was comparatively peaceful
,
.
The duties of the eli te are in themselves of a

nature to destroy that eli te within a short period .
Their love of war an d a dventure their ambition , ,
decimate the ranks of the superior races H e who .
is strong and powerful and a lover of life consumes

, ,
his energy without further thought H e spends out .
of the overflowing richness of his vitality H e cares

—
.
not for a long life for that longe vity s o extolled by

—
certain scientists to d ay but what he desires is the
-
intense life the integral life the maxi mu m of life

, ,
.
Thus the existence of a more peaceful medi ocre and ,
stable type is necessary in order to ensure the s u r

v i v al of the human species for if the latter were
exclusively c omposed of the aristocratic and ruling
races it would inevitably di e ou t Thus the slaves .
,
the great mass of humanity me di ocre and uninterest ,
ing must exi st as a pedestal for the monument of

,
genius .
But thi s development of the vast social fabric is a

costly process It re presents an immense exploitation
.
of human labour An d what is the v al ue of this

.
exploitation P What is its aim P If its aim be merely

the greatest happiness Of the greatest number then ,
its aim is l ow its value is of no account This gigan

,
.
tic exploitation of human labour this complicated ,
social processus must in order to be justified fin d an

, , ,
aim which shall give it adequate value An d it can .

222 TH E PHILOSOPHY OF N I ETZSCHE
Europ e and when he has returned to the table of
,
values admitted by the noble races by the masters , ,
w h o create for themselves their own val ues instead

”
of recei vi ng them from outside But the con 1
.
cep ti on of the O v er Man di ffers from all the philo

-
sophical conceptions which have preceded it in that ,
it is essentially the philosophy of a class and of a ,
very small an d li mited class Zarathustra has come .
to pre ach the Over Man not to humanity but to the

-
, ,
chosen few of hu m anity to the superior men who are

,
disgusted with modern ideas and modern ci vilisation .
Up in his grotto in the solitude of the mountains

, ,
Z arathustra has collected a number of these superior

men and given them hospitality Here is the sage .
wh o pessi mistic al ly sees all around him symptoms

, ,
of decay and death and wh o preaches

,
All is
”
vanity . H ere are two kings constitutional kings , ,
w h o have abandoned their kingdoms because being ,
no longer the real chiefs of their subj ects they take ,
no pleasure in the fiction of royalty Here is the .
modern scientist the objecti ve thinker who has

, ,
devoted his life to a study of the brain structure of -
the leech H ere is the magician the professional

.
,
politician wh o has played every rOl e and deceived

,
e veryone in turn but wh o cannot deceive himself

,
any longer and w h o seeks in vain a true genius .
H ere is the Most Hideous of Men he who has slain ,
God he who represents all the miseries and su fferings

,
of humanity during its long evolution from the
anthropoid to man God has been slain by the sight

of S O much hideousness of so much misery and
,
wretchedness for God has had to contemplate this

,
work of his u nceasingly and he has contemplated it

,
until he is slain by it H ere is the last of the Po p es

.
,
La P hil os ophie de N i etzs ch e p 1 49 ( P ari s , .

,
THE OVER MAN -
223
unable to console himself for the death of God H ere .

,
als o is the sceptic he wh o has p artaken of every

, ,
O pinion of e v ery conviction in turn only to abandon

, , ,
each one successively and at last disgusted sceptical

, , , ,
without faith or hope he h as taken refuge in the

,
s olitude of the m ountains with Zarathustra For .
this poor wanderer Z arathustra is fil led with pity .
H e s e es in h i m the image of his shadow for Z ara ,
th u s tr a too has known every con viction has been

, , ,
tossed about on the stormy sea of life and knows l ife ,
in all it brings of illusion and disapp ointment and

deception An d he feels the disgust an d disappoint
.
ment of this wandering soul in distress and he has for ,
him some words of profound pity

”
Thou art my Shadow he s ai d with sorrow ,
.
The danger thou d ost confront is not small 0 ,
free s pirit bol d traveller

,
Thou hast spent a bad
day take care that the night be not worse for thee .
For w anderers such as thee a prison itself ends ,
by seeming a welcome refuge H ast thou seen h ow .
quietly and peacefully the imprisone d malefactors

sleep P They slee p p eacefully for they enj oy their ,
n ew security .
Take care lest in the end thou shoul d st become

, ,
the slave of a narrow belief of a har d and rigorous ,
illusion Hen cefor th everything which is narrow

and solid must necessarily prove attractive to thee
—
.
Thou hast l os t th y aim ! An d thus hast

'
thou lost also thy w ay !

Poor wandering soul poor tired butterfly ,
1
All these refu gees to whom Z arathustra o ffers the

hospitality of his mountain grotto are the superior
men of to day ; they are those hard sceptical
-
,
spi rits wh o are the honour of ou r time disgusted

Werke vi 398 399
1
,
.
-
.
with the growing democratisation of Europe having ,
lost their ideals and their faith and their hope they ,
ar e profoundly pessimistic disgusted with man and

,
the world and aspiring to nothing but the nirvana

,
.
Neither material nor ideal satisfactions are henceforth

adequate to them They are the Victims of modern
.
culture .
But Z arathustra has n ot come merely to preach

the great disgust of man H e has come to give to .
humanity the n ew wherefore which is necessary

for its continued existence Zarathustra has come .
to preach a n ew gospel to give to the worl d a n ew aim

,
and a n ew ideal An d this n ew aim and ideal is

.
symbol ised by the Over Man - .
Behold I show you the Over Man Man is

,
- .
something which must be surpasse d What have y ou .
done to surpass him P

All that which has existed up till n ow has created
something superior to it and do you wish to be the
outgoi n g tide and to return to the ape rather than
surmount man P
What is the ape to man P An obj ect of derision
and shame An d thus must also be man an obj ect
.
of derision and shame for the Over Man -

.
You have followed the road which leads from

the worm upwards to man and much of the worm
has clung to you Formerly you were ap es and even
.
,
n ow is man more ape like than any ape -

.
Behold I show you the Over Man

,
-
.
The Over Man is the justification of all li fe

- .
Your Will it must be that says let the Over Man be -
” 1
the justification of all life .
The Over Man will di ffer profoundly from the man

-
of to d ay from the modern man in that he will

-
, ,
in any way to propagate or to popularise his ideal .
He know s that his code of honour and mor al ity is an

aristocratic code a code for him and his equ al s only
,
and that its popularisation among the masses wh o ,
are unable to u nderstand it would infallibly result in ,
an archy Besides whi ch the great attraction of his

—
.
,
code that it is a code for the few for the privileged , ,
a mark of distinction whi ch di fferentiates him from

—
the mass would disappear were this code ever to
become popular The virtue of the Over Man is
.
-
the Virtue of the Renaissance terrible and fraught ,
w ith danger for the masses Such a virtue is but the .
most luxurious and extravagant form of Vice par ,
taking O f the immorality of all nature since i t is a ,
Virtue in conformity with nature It is in a word .

, ,
the most formidable of all vices if one appreciates ,

” 1
it accor di ng to the degree of its n oci vi ty for others .
The Over Man does not regard truth with the

-
superstitious awe of the rest of mankind Neither .
does he despise truth But he knows that truth is but

.
an instrument in the struggle for life that there is ,
n o such thing as truth in itself and that truth is ,
an instrument of power It is as an instrument of

.
power that he admires truth that he seeks to obtain ,
more and more knowledge ; if life be a means of

acquiring knowledge knowledge is in turn a means
,
of acquiring power Whereas the character of the

.
lesser type of humanity is complex great force of ,
intellect of a certain kind existing side by side with

physiological degeneracy the character of the O ver
,
Man is simple In his e very act his superabundant

.
force and Vitality manifest themsel ves He possesses .
a powerful temperament he is capable of gi ving vent

,
to the strongest passions and strong enough to give

,
Werke xv 4 5 0
1
, . .
THE OVER -
MAN 227
vent to them and strong enough greatest —

also the
—
,
stren g th of all to conquer himself Both in the .
physical and intellectual domain the O ver Man is of -
a pugnacious and combati ve disposition He needs .
the fight in order to persist and de velop The fight .
i s to him the bread of life And for this reason .

,
because the good fight i s necessary to hi s existence ,
and because he loathes the peace of mind re com

mended by moralists as the worst of diseases for ,
—
this reason he seeks a g ood enemy pugnacious and ,
obstinate like himself an enemy of whom he can be ,
le gitimately proud .
An d what then are the means best adapted to the

, ,
culti vation of the Over Man of the superior race of the -

,
future P In the first place great su ffering is necessary

—
.
,
It is in the school of su ffering of i n ten s e suffering

— that has been created every great thin g which
humanity has produced This tension of the soul .
,
which sti ffens itself under the load of misfortune and ,
thus learns to become strong this shudder which

seizes it in the face of a g reat catastrophe i ts ingenu
ity and courage in supporting interp retin g utilising , ,
misfortune and everything which the soul possesses

of deepness mystery dissimulation wisdom ru s e
, , , , ,
greatness is n ot all this acquired in the school of

suffering modelled and cast by great suffering ?
,
We h ave already cited this beautiful passage from

Nietzsche The creator must be hardened broken
.
, ,
”
torn purified by fire and sword
, he must of ,
n eces s i ty su ffer And in order to withstand su ffer

ing in order to be able to profit by misfortune and not
,
succumb to it it i s essential that the creator be

,
hardened that he be hard as brass nobler than

, ,
brass . The Over Man m u st be discipline d and

-
,
ri gidly disciplined It i s in th e school of harsh and

.
228 THE PHILO S OP HY OF N IETZSCHE
rigid discipline that one learns to command and also
to obey For if the Over Man be a commander if it
.
-
,
be his task to s e t an aim and an ideal before humanity ,
he must also know h ow to obey The democratic .
doctrine of neither God nor master is to Nietzsche

both abhorrent and anti natural He who commands -
.
must also know h ow to obey if necessary and his , ,
authority to command must be based on his capacity

to obey .In any case nothing is more desirable ,
than that one should be subjected in good time to a

rigid discipline That which stamps the hard
.
school as a good school and which distinguishes it ,
from the others i s that much is exacted there and

, ,
severely exacted At such a school good work e ven

.
, ,
excellent work is claimed as being normal praise is

,
rare and indulgence is unknown Such a school is

, .
necessary from all points of View for things bodily ,
and mental because it i s impossible to distinguish

,
between these The same discipline it is which

.
produces both the good soldier and the good professor ,
and all things considered there is no good professor

, ,
but wh o has within him the instincts of a good soldier .
What is necessary is to know both h ow to command

and how to obey without cringing ; to be able to
stand in the ranks and yet be ready at any moment
,
to assume command ; to prefer danger to safety ;

to be able n ot to weigh in the balance that which
is permitted and that which is forbidden ; to be a
greater foe of skilfulness of meanness and of para , ,
s i ti s m than of evil What is the lesson which

.
one learns in such a school of discipline P To obey

” 1
and to command .
An d Nietzsche is n ot soft hearted for those wh o -
would b e h i s disci ples I wish those who interest

.
23 0 THE P H ILOSOP HY OF N I E TZSCHE
Tru th is for Nietzsche an expression of a certain
, ,
relation between the cognisant subj ect and the object

known which results in an increase of power of the
,
former over the latter When the Over Man seeks .

-
knowledge he is seeking to increase his power The

, .
sentiment actuating the Over Man is al ways the -
sentiment of the Will of Power The Over Man is the .

-
incarnation of the Will of Power under its noblest

aspect That Will of Power it is which pushes him
.
to seek for the realisation of life in all its integrity

for only in the measure that we can afford to live
fully to be extra v agant and thriftless with our vital
,
—
power only in that measure are we strong and
powerful .
The Over Man then is hard He is egotistical

-
, ,
.
,
an d seeks the integral development of hi s pe rsonality .
H e k nows neither pity n or s y mpa th y nor tender , __ , _
heartedness nor justice He knows but one law

,
.
and that is his own law the 15t his own force ,
.
,
a l awwhich I s at once its own Sancti on an d its own

delimitation The great trial which Zarathustra
.
is compelled to undergo the trial which shall show ,
whether indeed Zarathustra is capable of placing

a n ew table of values before humanity is the tri al of ,
sy mp athy Zarathustra meets in a Vile place where

.
,
nothing grows and only serpents are to be found

h e meets there suddenly an obj ect a repulsi v e and ,
awful looking O bj ect the Most Hideous of Men he

-
, ,
wh o represents all the accumulated load of humanity s

’
sufferings and misfortunes he who has slain God by ,
his very hideousness for e ven God could not look ,
with impunity on so much hideousness and misery .
And when he first sees this a wful looking obj ect -

.
Zarathustr a has a moment s hesitation he endures for ’
a moment th e distress of uncertainty and poignant

THE OVER MAN -
23 1
anguish , an d he falls to the ground But it i s onl y for .
a moment The combat i s swift and deadly but

.
,
Zarathustra i s capable of surmounting himself H e .
rises again after a minute his heart steeled against

,
all pity and goes on his way Zarathustra has

, .
vanquished pity he h as withstood the spectacle of

the Most Hideous of Men of him Whose very hideous
,
ness has slain God and h e h as emerged stronger than

,
ever from the ordeal Pity and sympathy have been

.
crushed and the n ew tabl e which Zarathustra has

come to place above humanity has been sanctified
Werdet hart
The sanction of the Over Man is the doctrine of the-
Everlasting Return which Zarathustra has come to

,
preach in tones of lyrical solemnity It was in 1 8 8 1 .

,
in the forest of Sil vaplana by Sils Maria by a glorious

,
-
,
summer sunshine that the idea of the Everlasting

,
Return occurred for the first time to Nietzsche at ,
6 000 feet abo v e the sea and far higher still above all
things human What i s the philosophy of the
Everl asting Return P
The s u m of forces which constitute the universe
appear to be both con s tan t and determi n ed We .
cannot suppose that these forces diminish even in the ,
smallest degree for were this the case the s u m total

,
-
would ha ve been exhausted long before n ow as an ,
i nfi n i te lapse of time has preceded this present moment .
We are equally unable to suppose that the sum total -
of cosmic forces increases constantly for in order to

increase nourishment is necessary and whence could
,
this nourishment this factor necessary to growth be

, ,
obtained If we believe in an indefinite progression

of the cosmic forces we believe in a perpetual miracle
, .
We are thus left in the presence of one single h y poth e

sis that the s u m of cosmic forces is not indefinite but
, ,
23 2 TH E PHI L OSOPHY OF NI ETZSCHE
definite and constant Now let us suppose those
.
,
forces reacting one on another at haphazard in accord ,
ance with the law of combinations one combination ,
producing necessarily the following combinations ,
and so on throughout eternal time What will .
happen P In the first place we are obliged to admit ,
that these forces have ne ver attained permanent

equilibrium and that such an equilibrium will never
,
be attained Such a combination is n ot per s e

.
an i m p os si b l i ty but were it possible it must have

, , ,
been arrived at ere n ow seeing that time is infinite

,
and had it been produced life would exist no longer

, , ,
as movement i s inherent to life and complete equi ,
librium signifies that state which exists when the

forces belonging to an aggregate and capable of being
opposed by it to the forces of the environment are ,
balanced by the forces to which the aggregate is

—
exposed that is death Now we are confronted by
,
.
,
the fact that a sum of forces which is constant and

determined produces in the infinity of time a series
of combinations Since time is i nfi ni te and since the
.
,
s u m of active forces is n ot i nfi n i te bn t deter mi n ed a ,
moment must come when the simple chances of

combinations reproduce a condition of momentary
equilibrium which has already been realised But .
this combination once reproduced must cause the

, ,
entire series of combinations once produced to occur

again in virtue of the law of universal determinism
, .
In this way the evolution of the world brings back

,
an indefinite number of times the same phases and

combinations ; it is a gigantic wheel revol ving in
etern al time and eternal space Every on e of us has .
li ved an indefinite number of times this life of his ,
and every one of us will continue to li ve this life over

and over again eternally
,
.
23 4 TH E PHILOSOPHY OF NIE TZSCHE
Nietzsche is always a ffirming the truth of certain
propositions althou gh he professes to be an i rr econ
il l
c ab e enemy of the truth —
,
“
Which are not for the
”
multitude Were such a truth communicated to the
.
masses then nihili sm of the worst kind disgust and

, ,
hatred of life would be the natural consequences

,
.
It is essentiall y a truth destined only for such as are

i —
fit to receive t and these are the O ver Men and the -
superior rac e generally .
The Everlasting Return is the sanction of this race .
I t is a sort of test of its strength of its power of ,
resistance and of its love of life The great doctrine

,
.
of Nietzs che the amor fati the Dionysian love of

, ,
life under all its forms of li fe whate ver it may be or ,
bring this doctrine finds its supreme realisation in

,
the O v er Man The Over Man is a fatalist he is also

-
.
-
an illusionist but he is also and above all brave ,
and he is also and above all passionately fond of life .
He is a fatalist wh o knows that an inexorable Destiny

,
hangs over mankind ; he knows that he himself is a

fatality he is an illusionist wh o entert ains no vai n ,
dreams as to the re al ity of things w h o knows that ,
there is no answer to the eternal Wh erefore ? of

humanity that the world has neither aim nor sense
,
nor justification in itself that our knowledge ou r , ,
much vaunted knowledge itself is but an instrument

-
,
in the st ruggle for existence But the Over Man is .

-
brave and he loves life he loves life abo ve all things

, , ,
and he loves life because life is the one fact which is

established because life is the one possibility of
,
realising his ow n power and his own possibilities .
Browning has said of life

For L fe w i ,
ith all it bri ngs of J oy an dWoe
An dHop e an d Fear
Is j t us
ou r ch an ce 0
’
th e pri ze of learn ing Love .
THE OVE R MAN -
23 5
Not of learning love alone rep lies the Over Man ,

-
,
but of learning also Hate an d the great hate as well ,
as the great love i n a word life is just ou r chance

-
,
of the prize of learning Li fe itself and life in all its ,
aspects life in its inte grity the dangerous life and the
, ,
adventurous life and the life which always creates

, ,
and which is essentially the life of action And this .
chance in the v iew of the O v er Man can never be

,
-
,
long enough Life i s s o full of hidden treasures so

.
,
rich with infinite possibilities that eternity alone ,
su ffices to exhaust it Life is worth eternity N ot

. .
only i s life worth li ving once n ow but it is w orth ,

-
living over and over again eternally unceasingly, , ,
because of the chance it gives us of realising its

infinite p ossibilities Such is the great doctrine a
.
—
doctrine in which w e are transported beyond and
above mere op timism or pessimism into a sphere
of enthusiastic a ffirmation which Zarathustra
preaches unto those wh o are weary of life and wh o
regard life with Schopenhauer as
,
the greatest ,
”
crime of all .
And Zarathustra has preached the gosp el of li fe ,
of the love of life of the beauties of life he has

,
opened vast horiz ons to our view beyond which ,
stretch horizons vaster still stretching into infinity ,

.
All these bold birds who fly away to the horizon :

certainly somewhere or other must they stop some “
day must they reach a point beyond which they can

not fly . But should w e conclude therefore that no
further immensity stretches before them that they ,
have gone as far as one can go P All our greatest

masters and forerunners have at length come to a
standstill and it is by no means the proudest or most
,
attractive of situations that of a tired traveller come

,
to a standstill y ou and I must both of us exp erience

it . But what matters it to you or me Other bi rds
wi l l fly farther ! Our insight and belief accompanies
them in their flight upwards it rises straight above
,
our head and above its impotence it sees the flock ,
of far more powerful bir ds than w e are birds wh o are ,
aiming at that which w as also our aim and where all ,
around is the endless ocean ! An d whither do we

seek to go D o w e seek to cross the ocean
Why do w e steer just towards that very spot where ,
up till n ow every sun of humanity has gone dow n

,
Will it be said of us perhaps that we also bou nd for

,
the west hoped to discover a n ew India but that

,
— ,
our fate w as to be shipwrecked among the seas of

Infinity P 1
To this question which Nietzsche
,
”
poses at the end of Morgenrothe Z arathustra ,
answers confidently and j oyfully What matters .
it if we be shipwrecked ? What matters it if we

founder among the icebergs of the Arctic seas or lose
ourselves among the mists of the ocean of I nfinity
Li fe i s a mean s 0/ experi en ce The beauty of life
.
resides in its dangers in its privations in its sacrifices

, ,
voluntarily endured and cheerfully in its great ,
adventures The life which is good is the life which

.
seeks its fullest reali sation through peril and hardship

,
and adventure ev en th ou gh it be shipwrecked in the

, ,
course of its dangerous explorations But precisely .
because of these dangerous operations should we love

life and value life and w e should love life and v alue
,
life to such an extent that we are ready to live this

life over and over again to live it eternally so that w e
,
may go e ver further on the road of exploration so ,
that w e may be able to confront ever n ew perils and ,
thus real i s e l i fe in the true sense of the word .
The Over Man is thus first an dfore m os t a brave man

-
,
1
Werke i v 371 372
,
.
-
.
23 8 TH E PHILOSOPHY OF N IETZSCHE
by his contempt for the moral l aw and by his
,
immeasurable superiority o ver mere man In the .
Over Man will be realised the synthesis of humanity s

-
’
colle ctive e fforts and force The O ver Man by his

.
-
,
v ery existence will justify humanity

,
.
CH AP T ER V
N I E TZ SC H E AN D MA ! S T I R N ER
THE name of Max Sti m er the author of that remark ,

” 1
able work The Unique and his Property
,
is a name ,
almost unknown especially in England ,

And yet .
this work of Stirner is in many respects a remarkable

Professor Basch in the v a u ab l e study of Stirner
'
on e .
,
and his doctrines which he p ublished recently has ,
remarked :
Stirner was noticed first of all as a precursor
of Nietzsche Subsequently on studying the
—
.
,
Unique more profoundly it was discovered ac ~

,
—
cording to Eduard von H artmann that not only i s
this genial work by no means inferior in style to the
compositions of Nietzsche but that also its phi lo ,
sophical value is a thousan d times greater If .
Nietzsche w as the poet and the musician of unyielding

individualism Sti m er endeavoured to be its philo
,
sophic champion Stim er gave to individualism the

.
only psychological foundation on which it could be

established — namely the pre eminence of feeling and
,
-
will o ver the strictly intellectual faculties An d .

,
throu gh this combat which he sustained agai nst

intellectuali sm Stim er found himself closely allied
,
Der E in zi ge Ei gen tum

un d se n i P u bli s h e d i n 1 8 4 3 . .
A Fren ch tran slati on b y M R é cl ai re h as b een publis hed by

.
S tock i n
,
P aris . With regar d to th e career of S tim er vi de ,
J. H . Mack ay : Max S t i m er , se n i Leben , i

se n Wer
( B erlin ,
2 39
24 0 THE PHILOSOPHY OF N IETZSCHE
to one of the leading tendencies of contemporary
philosophic thought Stim er is an anarchist
.
in di vidualist and despite his words of sympathy for

,
the proletariat he is an aristocrat whereas the

, ,
th eori ci an s of contemporary anarchism are all of ,
them democrats and communists But Stim er like

,
.
,
them is an anarchist Like them he insists above all

,
.
,
things on the total liberation of the indi vidual on the ,
substitution of voluntary cc operation for co mpulsory

cc operation of the r egi m e of contract for the r egi me
-
,
of coercion of the regime of association for the

,
” 1
r é gime of the State .
This appreciation of Professor Basch requires to ,
our mind considerable modification We are unable

,
.
’
to agree with Dr von H artmann that S ti rn er s work ,
alike as regards the style and the contents is superior ,
to that of Nietzsche D oubtless Dr v on H artmann .
is em b ittered against Nietzsche owing to the deadly

sarcasms of the latter at his expense As to Stirner .
being a precursor of Nietzsche this is true only to a ,
very limited extent But as several authorities on .
Nietzsche have sought to connect the tw o names ,
and to show i dentities between Stirner and Nietzsche

which are w e think more or less d oubtful we
, , ,
think it advisable to devote a brief discussion to

the subject .
Let us begin by admitting that there do indeed

exist several points of contact between these two
philosophers of which the most striking is the exalta
,
tion of egoism by both Ego sum Ego says Stim er . .
For Me nothing is above Me

,
My obj ect is .
neither good nor bad neither love nor hatred my

—
, ,
object is my own and it is Unique even as I am ,
Vi de B as ch : L I n di vi du ali sme An archi s te : Max S tim er

1 ’
pp iii i v ( P aris
.
-
.
,
24 2 THE PHILOSOPH Y OF NIETZSCHE
Nietzsche has cast h i s eyes on the race on the race ,
of the future strong noble free justifying the whole

, , ,
of creation by its strength nobility and freedom ,

.
Thus Nietzsche is an indi vidualist but he is an ,
indivi dualist not for the sake of the indi vidual as

indi vidual but for the sake of the race Nietzsche
,
.
is filled with a d miration before the s p ectacle of a

Cesare Borgia or a Napoleon these grand specimens ,
”
of the tropical man these examples of the robust
, ,
fearless unfettered human beast of prey But he

,
.
looks upon them as possessing a supreme value in that

through them and on account of them humanity is
, ,
j ustified and the whole of creation is justified Such

,
.
types of humanity as Cesare Borgia and Napoleon

—
,
such types as the O ver Man of the future are works ,
of art gloriou sly beautiful in their strength in their

, ,
ferocious Will of Power But their su preme value as.
works of art is that they are the justification of the

worl d If on the one han d humanity possesses n o
.
, ,
value or beauty in itself and exists only for the ,
benefit of a few superior types ; on the other hand ,
these superior types are to be a d mired not s o ,
much for their purely individual beauty but because ,
by them man is justified and the whole of creation ,
is rendered beautiful and life receives its supreme

,
sanction Their individual beauty shines forth upon

.
the whole of creation and imparts to al l life a value

,
which is permanent and undying The glory of .
on e single on e of these Over Men cons titutes also -
the glory of the whole of existence Suppose we .
have said yes to one single second so have we ,
said yes not only to ourselves but to the whole

, ,
of existence For nothing stands alone whether in

.
,
ourselves or in the world An d if in on e supreme .

,
moment our soul has trembled like unto a harp

,
NIETZSCHE AND MA! STI RNER 24 3
in the fulness of its j oy s o was eternity necessary ,
in order to bring about this one moment and the ,
whole of eternity was in this one moment sanctioned ,
” 1
redeeme d justified an d affirmed
, ,
.
Nietzsche has laid especial stress on the need of

increasing the strength of the collecti vity s o as to be ,
able to form an excess of strength which excess shall ,
constitute a reserve for the future generation Nietz .
sche s whole thought concerns the generation of to

’
morrow the race of the future the race of conquerors

, , ,
of the Over Man Zarathustra lays esp ecial strength

-
.
on the aim and ideal of marriage as being the p r o ,
creation of the creator of the Over Man Nietzsche ,

-
.
,
once more is an indi vidualist for the sake of the

,
future H e preaches the liberation of man the culti

.
,
vation of egoism because only by means of liberty and,
egoism can the Over Man of to morrow be created - -

.
Nietzsche is an egoist most certainly and he ,
—
preaches egoism unrestrained ferocious egoism , .
But does he preach it for the sake of the j oys of the

egoist does he preach it from any utilitarian motive P
,
’
Emphatically no Nietzsche s egoism is an ideal .
egoism an egoism which is to be practised because

,
only through it can an amelioration of the human race

take place It is an egoism which ends by destroy
.
ing itself Nietzsche indeed says : Be egotistical

.
, , ,
culti v ate your individuality re alise life y ou r life , , ,
integrally fully wholly realise your life to the utmost

, , ,
of its possibilities destroy greatly and create greatly .
And in thus cultivating your strength and powers ,
by thus destroying and creatin g you will give to ,
humanity a splendid example of the Will of Power .
Make war if it be in your power massacre create

, , ,
havoc remodel the map of the world at y our pleasure

, ,
Werke xv 4 84 1
, . .
24 4 TH E P H ILOSOPHY OF NIETZSCHE
use the lives of hundreds of thousands of sla v es as
pawns in the great game you are playing with Chance ,
assert yourself and your power at whate ver cost be ,
extravagant and thriftless in blood and treasure out

—
of the boundless wealth of your personality and you
will remain in history as on e of the great landmarks
o f humanity as one o f its masterpieces of art as on e
, ,
of its eternal riddles and also as one of those monu

,
ments which arise rare and far between more solid

, ,
than granite and whiter than white marble and ,
which proclaim to the four horizons life is worth ‘
living humanity is j ustified the world is redeemed

, , ,
’
by me The aim of the egoist in a word should
.
, ,
b e n ot self satisfaction alone

-
but also and above ,
all the redemption through him of all life

, .
Such however is not the thought of Stim er :

, ,
e goism begins and ends with the individual For .
Stirner it is not man or the race which is the

“
,
ideal ; it is the in di vidual the Unique the Ego , ,

.
Whereas Stirner proclaims the essential unicity of the

Ego Nietzsche recognises expressly the solidarity
,
i nter p ares of the superior race of the Over Men ,

-
.
It may be obj ected that S ti rn er s association of ’
’
egoists is the equivalent of Nietzsche s idea of the
moral system of the masters But there is a funda .
mental difference Nietzsche has based his whole

.
theory of the Over Man on the separation of humanity

-
into two distinct races well apart without lien or , ,
connection between them For Nietzsche there is a .
race of masters and a race of slaves and the assertion

of their in di viduality unrestrained and unfettered
, ,
i s permitted solely to the masters Stim er makes .
n o such d i stinction at all events theoretically

,
In .
practice hi s doctrine must result inevitably in the

triumph of the stro nger But Stim er is as Professor
.
,
24 6 THE PHILOSOP HY OF N I ETZSCHE
to be hard towards themsel ves as towards others ,
to be rigorously hard towards themsel ves to be ,
chivalrous and honourable towards their equals in a ,
word to render themselves worthy of their caste and

,
o f their traditions Thus from behind the immoral

—
.
ism of Nietzsche springs up a system of morals a

code of honour i n ter p ar es Nietzsche wo u ld have ,
called it but a code of honour implies some sort of

,
morality underlyin g it The thought which must .
always inspire the masters which must be the ,
l ei tmotif of these masters is the thought of the ,
race of to morrow The whole world process is a

-
.
-
perpetual Becoming without reason or sanction in

,
itself and it is the duty of the masters to create a

,
sanction for it to give it ou t of the plenitude of their

, ,
power a reason Humanity is thus j ustified by the

,
.
superior types which it produces and on these types

lies the responsibility the hea vy responsibility of
, ,
j ustifying humanity .
Thus the masters have their rights certainly they

have the right to d evelop themselves integrally to ,
employ the inferior types of humanity as pawns or

instruments in the great game they are playing .
But if they have rights heavy also are their duties , ,
both towards themsel ves and towards the race .
Their duty it is to adventure themsel ves to risk life ,
and honour a thousand times to li ve in constant peril ,
their duty it is also to be hard towards themsel v es

, ,
the bed of moss is denied them and if they are , ,
permitted to stretch humanity on the bed of thorns ,
that bed of thorns is also their usual place of repose .
The masters are above optimism as they are above ,
pessimism They are ferocious towards others they

.
,
are a scourge for humanity they deliberately inflict ,
the direst sufferings on humanity But they do this .

NI ETZSCH E AND MA! S T IR N ER 24 7
because they know that only in the school of su ffering ,
in the school of intense su ffering can humanity be ,
re g enerated and redeemed And they The Over .
Man the creator is he who must n eces s ari ly su ffer

, , ,
and intensel y suffer who must be broken on the wheel

, ,
torn b urned racked confronted with every hardshi p

, , ,
and every misery because only by these means can

,
he learn to l i ve gr eatly In order to live greatly it .
is necessary to li ve dangerously .
Those who represent the Over Man as the incarna -
tion of selfishness are thus grievously mistaken I t

—
.
is n ot his own pleasure that the Over Man seeks but ,
the j ustification of the eternal Becoming which is the ,
eternal world process but the redemption of humanity

-
,
thr ough suffering through great and intense su ffering

, .
And ou t of this intense su ffering emerges precisely

that supreme obj ect and work o f art which is the
Over Man who by his deeds shall j ustify all t h at
-
,
which is miserable and pitiable in life and raise it to

—
,
a pinnacle of beauty The Ove r Man modelled in the.

,
school of suffering sh all in turn reflect his own glory

,
on the whole of life and life viewed in the wondrous ,
light shed on it by the glory of the Over Man shall -

,
be redeemed and a ffirmed and sanctified and j ustified .
Such then i s the egoism of Nietzsche It i s

, , .
an egoism which confounds itself with what we are

accustomed to call altruism and altruism in the ,
highest sense The egoism of Nietzsche in a word

.
, ,
is the egoism not of the individual but of the race

, , ,
of the superior race who by their egoism and through

, ,
their egoism and on account of th ei r egoi s m j ustify

'
, ,
humanity and redeem life from what it would other

—
,
wise b e a process without sense or reason or aim .
The egoism of Nietzsche de p ass es the individual .
It breaks down the barriers s et up by the fact o f i n

24 8 THE P H I L OSO P HY OF NIETZSC HE
di vi du ati onand beyond the individual beyond the
, ,
circle of individual pleasures and pains it sees the ,
vast panorama of the future of the race it sees the ,
panorama of life in its entirety of life rendered ,
beautiful and rendered worth li ving n ot once nor ,
twice but eternally

,
.
E ven as the egoism of Nietzsche dep as s es the

individual s o does it depass the egoism of Stirner
, .
Stim er fixes h i s regard not on the race not on life in , ,
general but solely on the individual on the Unique

, , .
Every ideal those of humanity of fatherland of the

—
, , ,
race of G od of morality all vanish and disappear

, ,
as soon as the E go a ffirms himse lf glorious and all ,
powerful in his unicity The Unique of Sti m er cares .
n o t for the race he recognises no such thing as i n ter

,
p ares for is he not Unique incomparable ? The

, ,
j ustification of life as a supreme artistic creation the ,
j ustification of all life in its superior manifestations ;

such is n ot th e thought of Stirner His Unique .
remains the Unique and incomparable E go the sole ,
reality whose obj ect is neither good nor bad nor

, ,
love nor hatred but which is solely his own The

, .
Unique of Sti m er seeks not to j ustify all life by his

deeds he cares not whether all life be j ustified in
him by the reflection of his beauty and powe r He
,
.
seeks only himself he cares only for himself S ti rn er s

,
.
’
egoism is limited by the fact of indi viduation It does .
n ot surpass the indi v idual For Stirner the individual .
is not merely the centre of all things he is the on ly ,
thing Far from me that obj ect which is not My

.
obj ect he exclaims The other has no tan gible

,
.
reality for the E go The only reality is the s elf . .
Obviously all idea of a superior race all idea of a

, ,
j ustification of life by this superior race is abolished , ,
since the Ego is Unique incomparable Conse quently ,

.
25 0 TH E PH I LOSOP HY OF NIE TZSCHE
of contract which he favoured more or less vaguely
—
for Stim er i s not a lucid writer would soon cease in
the conflict of all against all when the strongest ,
acquire e verythin g to which their strength entitles

them The system of Stim er would lead necessarily
.
to the triumph of the strong o ver the weak 1

.
Nietzsche s merit is that foreseeing this result of his

’
own system he has succeeded in avoiding that anarchy

,
which he detested above all things and which Stim er ,
favoured For Nietzsche the triumph of the strong

.
, ,
the brutal and pitiless triumph is not a mere victory ,
of animal passions it is in the thought of Nietzsche

, ,
a victory of the fittest over the less fit of the better ,
and stronger races of humanity over the weaker .
Thus it is a triumph which results in an amelioration

of the human race in an increase of its power With , .
Nietzsche the u lti ma r ati o to which everything is

, ,
red uced is the race The egoism of the individual

,
.
is j ustified only in the light of i ts ultimate value to

the race With S tim er the individual is himself
.
,
the u l ti ma r ati o and his own individual satisfaction

,
constitutes the j ustification of his egoism .
H erein lies the principal difference the radical ,
difference between Stim er and Nietzsche We do not

,
.
j udge between them The work of Stim er is a great .
work pitiless in its logic fruitful in many of its results

, ,
.
The Unique the strong man wh o knows no l aw but

, ,
the l aw o f his own force the destroyer of gods and ,
1
That i s to s ay once th e s tronger typ es of hum anity are defin itely
,
i n p os s ess i on of p ower volu n t ary ,cc op erati on an d con t r act -
woul d n eces s arily ce as e as far as th e van qu i s h ed are con cern ed .
Volun t ary cc op erati on an dcon tract are e xcell en t i ns t ru m en ts for

-
en ablin g th e s t r on g to r e ap th e adv an t ages of th ei r s tren gth .
Bu t once th e p ower obt ai n ed it i s cer t ai n th a t s l av ery an d des

, ,
ti s m w ou l d s oon b e s ub s titu t e d for v olun t ary cc ope rati on an d -

p o
con tract .
N I E TZSC H E AND MA! S T I R NE R 25 1
ide als the incomparable E go whose every act reveals

,
the ferocious and unmoral Will of Power behind i t

this i s a striking conception and the work of Stirner
,
may prove a ve ritable consolation to those strong and

proud spirits who are disgusted with the spectacle
of mo dern politics and are broken hearted at the -
sight of the bankruptc y of every ideal which the

century of liberalism and progress has wo rshipped
on e after another and who stand to day in morose
,
-
solitude like rocks amidst the boundless ocean For .
’
such as these i s S ti rn er s work destined and by such ,
as these will it be understood But Nietzsche h as .
gone ou t beyond Stirner H e has adopted S ti rn er s

.
’
conception an d dep as s e d it Transformed by th e

.
g enius of Nietzsche S ti rn er s Unique has become

,
’
more than the centre of his own individuality his

activity has been extended ; and the egoist through ,
his egoism and force and Will of Power has be come ,
the great creator through whom all life and all

,
becomin g are redeemed and j ustified .

CH APTE R VI
THE VAL U E O F N I E TZ SCHE
IN conclu di ng this study of the philosophy of Nietz

sche it is fitting to examine the question of the value
,
of Nietzsche as philosopher thinker and poet That ,

.
the influence of Nietzsche has been gr eat that it has ,
been immense all over Europe and especially in

, ,
France and Germany is in itself n o proof of the value

,
’
of Nietzsche s philosophic thought It is indeed .
, ,
very largely explained by the style of his writing and

by the force of his expression The aphorism is a .
convenient manner of expressing one s philosophic ’
thought It di spenses the writer from any great

.
dialectic effort It expresses in an apodictical form

.
propositions which although they do but represent

.
,
the opinion of the writer appear under this form in ,
the light of an axiomatical truth The aphorism .
in addition permit s of a force of expression of a ,
robustness of language which might be decidedly ,
o u t of place in a dialectical or schematical work .
’
Nietzsche s success with the mass is undoubtedly due
in large measure to the aphorism His success must .
also in large part and unfortunately be attributed

, , ,
to the violence of his language to the virulence of his ,
attacks on ideas and symbols held sacred by human

ity to the exag geration in which he revelled But
,
.
these are the baser causes of h i s success I n the .
world of thinkers and philosophers hi s success i s due

partly to the very grandeur of hi s philosophic thought ,
252
this ideal diametrically opposed to it hindering and
, ,
retarding its realisation Nietzsche sees the anaemic

,
ideal preached by primiti v e Christianity which re ,
gards life as a woe and the earth as a vale of tears

, ,
and which gl ori fi es the weakest and most abj ect types
of humanity — the slave the publican the outcast , , ,
the leper What wonder is it that Nietzsche hated

.
Christianity ? Humanity according to Nietzsche , ,
is j ustified solely by i ts superior types by the Over ,
Men which it produces and who by their force their

, ,
beauty their creati ve power j ustify the whole world

, ,
.
The redeemer of the world i s not he who dies for the

sins of the world the redeemer is he wh o lives and ,
wh o by his life shows man the infinite possibilities of

exis tence who by his life opens ou t n ew horizons
,
which tell of beauty and of force and of great exp an

sion The redeemer affirms life by his glorification
.
o f it Each n ew creation each n ew work of art

.
, ,
each great example is a n ew redemption Not only .
ZE s ch y l u s and Shakespeare Goethe and Beethoven , ,
Praxiteles and Raphael are redeemers of life and ,
affi rm ers of life but also the great warrior : he who

has by his very power of destruction awakened man
, ,
to a consciousness of his strength and of his place
—
in the uni verse and thereby s et a n ew ideal before
,
humanity an Alexander a Borgia a Napoleon , ,
is a redeemer of humanity .
The meaning of Nietzsche is that there are two

—
distinct systems of morals the morals of the Masters
and the morals of the slaves And the ulterior .
significance of this division is that there are two races ,
anthropologically distinct e ven as they are mentally ,
and morally distinct There is a superior race and

.
,
there is an inferior race By this division Nietzsche

.
,
does not mean arbitrarily to divide the human species

THE VALUE OF N IE TZSCHE 25 5
into two anthropological races His meaning i s that .

,
”
given an indefinite number of races or of ethnies , ,
which is the term preferred by the an th r op os oci ol ogi cal

school these races may alike fro mthe physical and
, ,
mental point of view be roughly divided into a

,
superior and inferior race The superior race which.

,
is strong which incarnates the unchecked Will of

,
Power which loves beauty and symmetry which is

, ,
in every respect a race alike of conquerors and of

—
artists of conquerors and artists understood not ,
in the narrow sense of the words but conquerors and ,
artists in every domain whether physical moral or

—
, ,
aesthetic this superior race will have a moral code

reflecting i ts character a moral code in which all the
,
virtues of the Will of Power will celebrate their

saturnalia On the other hand the inferior race
.
, ,
living in constant fear and dread of the tyranny of the

—
superior race the inferior race weak alike in vital ,
power and in initiative weak physically and i n car

,
nating a deep physiological degeneracy this race will

have a code of morals as diametrically opposed to
that of the masters as the physical character of each
,
i s oppose d On the on e hand therefore a code of

.
, ,
morals in which good signifies all that which is strong

and powerful and beautiful and which reflects an ,
exuberant and overflowing vitality ; on the other

hand a code of morals in which the first evaluation i s
,
tran s val u ated to use Nietzsche s favourite expression

’
, ,
and in which good is synonymous with all that i s

weak and degenerate weakness becomes goodness ,
cowardice becomes humility the lust of hate and the ,
war against all that is successful and strong becomes

the fight against sin the slaves and outcasts
become the elect of God to them is promised the
Kingdom of H e aven and it is decreed that it is
easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a nee dl e
than for a ri ch man to enter the Kingdom of Heaven .
Cowardice and meanness and the impotency to

avenge oneself are here exalted and it is expressly ,
recommended that when struck upon the one cheek

, ,
the other should be voluntarily o ffered to the aggressor .
How different to the code of the aristocrat of the ,
strong man conscious of his power and of his greatness

, ,
and whose code is n ot merely an eye for an eye or a

tooth for a tooth but destruction for its own sake de
, ,
struction as an expression of exuberant vitality de ,
struction as a safety valve for a great and formidable

-
Will of Power destruction as a means of creation

,
Creation Such is the great task the g reat mission ,
of the superior man of him whom Nietzsche calls the

,
O ver Man The creation of a new table of moral and

-
.
metaphysical values which shall reverse the table ,
of Christian values the creation of art and beauty ,
in which man shall see h i s own power reflected in ,
which he shall be uplifted above himself in which ,
he shall find the inspiration which shall give him

renewed courage and confidence in himself and in his
destiny The creation of a n ew ideal of a n ew
—
.
,
supreme value for humanity such is the task of the

O ver Man and it is a task which is great which is
-
,
herculean which requires for its adequate fulfilment

,
all those qualities of strength courage and of artistic , ,
inspiration with which the Over Man is endowed

,
-
.
But if the Over Man be necessary for humanity

-
,
s o is the slave and the mediocrity necessary The .
Over Man is necessary as a creator of n ew values

-
for the whole race And in order to do s o he must

.
, ,
redeem humanity from the degradation which

a fflicts it at the present moment as the result of ,
nineteen centuries of Christianity To redeem .

25 8 THE PHILOSOPH Y OF N IETZSCHE
democratic It constitutes the antithesis of the ideal
—
.
which is current to day the ideal of equality and

-
liberty for all men This modern ideal which finds in

.
,
Nietzsche its most formidable opponent is due in part ,
to Christianity in part to the influence of Kant and

of the school of Liberal philosophy which teaches
that every man should be treated as an end in himself ,
not as a means in part to modern science and to the

culture which science favours ; in part to the State ,
which i s itself the outcome of the three preceding

factors And thus Christianity and Liberalism and
.
science and the State all find in Nietzsche a relentless

,
antagonist .
Along with this central idea o f Nietzsche we find ,
some extremely interesting side glances at certain

-
problems of psychological importance such as the ,
origin of sin and the role of the priest among the

inferior race Conscience and s i n
.
—these are
'
the two great weapons the two deadly poisoned

,
-
arrows used by Christianity against the superior

,
races Born at a period in which the entire ancient

.
ci vilisation of Rome was menaced with destruction ,
when the old ideals were fast expiring when hordes ,
of barbarians from the East were hastening the work
of destruction and decay when the old world seemed

,
to be engul fed in one immense cataclysm Christianity ,
had a task which was easy On the one hand it had

.
,
to do with a dyi ng ci vilisation and what more easy

,
than to inspire the remaining elements of the Roman

nobility with the belief that this formidable catas
tr op h e was due to s i n against God On the other
hand it had to do with a n ew race or rather with n ew
, ,
races great in their unchecked Will of Power but

, ,
lacking the stamina of the older races Christianity .
s et itself the task of rendering these young barbarian

TH E VALUE OF N I E TZ S CH E 25 9
races ill ill with the disease of conscience and s i n ill

, ,
with the spectacle of the bleeding victim on the cross .
Christianity succeeded The p recise reasons of its .
success are doubtful but the result is certain ,

.
The role o f the priest among the inferior race is

an important on e The sla ves accor ding to Nietzsche
.
, ,
are possessed of every bad instinct o f re venge and hate

and lust of destruction These instincts have been .
manifested notably during the French Revolution

—one need only recall the burning of the Bastille ,
the September massacres the n oy ades of Nantes

—
, ,
the execution of Marie Antoinette and again during

the Commune of 1 8 71 It is necessary to keep these .
\
bad instincts of the mass in check ; and the priest ,
himself a slave and a degenerate and knowing ,
intimately the character of those among whom he

works and lives acts as a moral policeman for the
,
masses The weapon of conscience is as a two edge d

.
-
sword On the one hand it is the worm which little

.
, ,
by little destroys the happiness and the physique

,
of the stron g man which instils into h i s mind the

,
insidious poison of doubt On the other hand it i s .

,
the means by which the evil instincts of the mass are

held in check and prevented from exp loding .
Thus we find Nietzsche an aristocrat Aristo .
cracy i s the essence of Nietzsche ari s tocr ary of senti ,
ment of taste of thought As an aristocrat he

, ,
.
gl or i fi e s the O v er Man supreme type

-
o f aristocracy
,
as an aristocrat he has a supreme contempt for the

masses ; as an aristocrat he i s hard of heart and
preaches hardness because only in the school of
,
har dness can the veritable aristocrat be found .
And the other cardinal feature of Nietzsche we

find to be h i s love of life h i s int ens e love of l ife of th e
, ,
life in beauty in power and strength His lo ve of
, .
life approaches the heroic ; or rather it realises the

heroic Life is to be lo ved because life is a means of
.
experience because life is a means of creating beauty

, ,
and ever more beauty Life is the supreme work of .
art and as a work of art life is j ustified and life is

,
redeemed .
But life is not i n i ts elf a work of art it is a work of

art j ust in the measure that w e are oursel ves artists ,
and cre ators of art j ust in the measure that we ou t

, ,
of the plenitude of ou r power gi v e an artistic value to ,
life For this reason is the O ver Man necessary for

.
-
,
the Over Man is the great creator the great and

-
,
supreme artist by whom and through whom all life

,
is j ustified and redeemed And the value of the Over .
Man is such the beauty of the life which he represents

,
is s o intense the vision of the possibilities of the

,
stren g th and creative power of all life which he holds

ou t to us is s o glorious life is through him rendered ,
s o supremely valuable that we can in the presence , ,
o f so magnificent a spectacle but wish for life to be ,
etern al because eternity alone can su ffice for the

,
realisation of those boundl ess po ssibilities which the

Over Man has shown us
- .
And the doctrine of the Everlasting Return is

the crowning point of the doctrine of the Over Man
- -
.
The vision of beauty incarnated in the Over Man is -
such that it makes us ardently desire the e verlasting

return of all things so that life may be rendered ,
ever more beautiful ever more v aluable Such is , .
the thought of Nietzsche And Nietzsche does n ot .
appear to perceive the contra di ction into which he

falls The Everlasting Return what does it signify P
.
,
It signifies as Nietzsche has himself told us that every

, ,
hour and every ray of sunshine and every hope and ,

26 2 TH E P HILOSOPHY OF NIETZSCHE
The lyric beauty of the language of Zarathustra
is great but the logic of Nietzsche s argument is
,
’
here less evident On the on e hand life is eternal

.
, ,
life mu s t be eternal life should be desired as eternal

, ,
because life is a pe rpetual Becoming because eternity ,
alone su ffi ces for the realisation of life s beauties ’
because the object of life is the creation of beauty ,
and the creation of beauty cannot be limited by a

concept of time In eternity alone can the O ver Man
.
-
find scope for his creati v e power eternity alone is ,
worthy of the v alues which he sets above humanity ,
o f the monuments which it is his task and privilege
to create And n ow we are told that life is n ot a

.
perpetual Becoming that it is something fixed and

,
rigid and something fixed immutably for all eternity

, .
How then can the creator aim at rendering life e v er

, ,
more beautiful e ver more fertile if we are condemned

, ,
to an e v erlasting repetition P Why should the Over

Man appear to redeem humanity if humanity s fate is ’
e xor ab l y sealed fo r all time by a mysterious Fate ?
What reaso n has this eternal life what sense has this ,
Everlasting Return of all things P Ixion is con

dem n e d eternally to turn the same wheel Sisyphus
condemned eternally to see the rock fall back on hi s
”
head ! And the reward for this eternal Streben ,
for this unending martyrdom ? The reward is the

conscience of having the illusion of being oneself
the agent of one s tortures whereas on e knows all the
’
time that one is but a puppet in the hands of Fate

In truth the idea is heroic and herculean and truly
,
Nietzschean in its heroism To work pe rpetually .
for the amelioration of the race to seek to create n ew ,
v alues which shall gi v e to humanity an aim for a

thousand years to undergo privation and hardship
,
and su ffering in order to be rendered worthy of so

THE VAL UE OF N IET Z S C HE 263
august a — Why indeed work an d

task and wh y , ,
create and su ffer if life be but an Everlasting Return P

Why seek to beautify life if life be but the emanation ,
o f an inexorable Fate P A mor fati I It is a heroic

motto certainly but in what way is it capable of
, ,
inspiring the creator of inspiring the Over Man to

,
-
great deeds P When the creator realises the fact that

he i s i n tru th n o creator but that fatality rules every
,
thing that everything which is whether good or bad

, ,
or hideous or beautiful i s bound to recur alw ays in , ,
the exact conditions in which it was once produced

—
,
and to recur eternally when the creator realises this ,
will n ot the cry of amor fati sound rather in his ears

as a gigantic mockery will he n ot rather be tempted ,
to exclaim : My Go d my God why hast thou for

, , ,
saken me
The doctrine of the Everlasting Return which ,
Zarathustra has come to reveal as the crowning

doctrine of the whole philosophy of the Over Man -
,
remains n evertheless unconvincing Of course we .

,
can know for certainty nothing with re g ard to such
problems as these Death is the gre at abyss which

.
confronts us all to which all are hurrying ; and as to

,
what takes place on the other side of that little strip

”
o f sea n o on e can s ay anything with certainty for
, ,
none wh o have crossed the line have ever returned .
But where metaphysical speculation and religious

,
belief are powerless science may s ay a word ; it is

,
n ot the final word perhaps but the torch of modern

, ,
science both physico chemical and psycho physio

,
- -
logical may help to illuminate the darkness of our

,
path through this labyrinth Nietzsche has committed .
the error the very serious error of taking for granted

, ,
that the number of combin ations of the matter which

composes the universe is a fixed and even limited
26 4 THE PHILOSOP HY OF NI E TZSCHE
number ; whereas the truth is that the number of
combinations of matter is infinite ; s o that the
chances of a repetition of the exact combinations
which have produced the existing conditions of things
are practically n i l The mysticism of Nietzsche
.
is interesting in that it shows the extent to which this

enthusiastic prophet of the Over Man is prepared to
-
push his a ffirmation of life ; and in truth no af

fi r m ati on of life can go beyond that contained in
the philosophy of the E verlasting Return But .
this mysticism must be pronounced to be without

practical value in the history of philosophic thought .
Nietzsche is known to the gre at public chiefly by

certain famous aphorisms such as the affirmation
,
that every great act is a crime such as his asser

,
tion that the greatness of a man must be measured

by his capacity to inflict suffering without heeding
the shrieks of the victim But behind the system of
.
Nietzsche immoralist and atheist and destroyer of

,
all the ancient values of humanity we find another ,
system which i s fundament al whereas the other is

, ,
but a superstructure .
Nietzsche proclaims himself an immoralist and ,
yet no on e has ever sacrificed more in the cause of

morality and truth than the creator of Zarathustra .
’
Nietzsche s immoralism is the result of a moral
sentiment pushed to excess Nietzsche attacked the
—
.
validity of truth itself i n the name of truth Yield .
ing to a conscience s o scrupulous s o refined so , ,
delicate that the least suspicion of intellectual

,
improbity was insupportable to it Nietzsche deter ,
mined to call in question the value of the supreme

—
values the value of truth itself If w e believe in .
truth is it not because we are i nterested in believing

,
masses some slight valu e whi ch the y would other wise
n ot possess .Su ffering i s thus essential to humanity ;
it is necessary as a discipline for the creator and ,
through it are beauty and great things realised and ,
a value given to all life whi ch thus finds itself

,
redeemed justified and affirmed

, .
Nietzsche proclaims himself an immoralist and ,
yet this immoralism of the masters is but immoralism

by contrast with the moralism of Christianity and ,
which is generally prevalent in E urope to day and -

,
it is an immoralism which cloaks a system of morals

lacking nothing in rigidity It i s not the masters .
who live in luxury and vice ! Liberated from all

duty towards the masses towards the pariahs towards
, ,
his i n teri ors the master is held down to a strict and

,
rigid duty towards his equals i n ter ares Those who ,

.
regard the immoralism of Nietzsche as a danger

for society wh o see in Nietzsche an anarchist are
, ,
much mistaken For it must always be remembered

.
th at the philosophy of Nietszche i s not and was n ot ,
destined to be a philosophy for humanity

,
One .
must be superior to humanity through the greatness

of soul ,
through the gr eat contempt Nietzsche ,
writes in the preface to the Antichrist The .
philosophy of Nietzsche is essentially and exclusively

a philosophy for the few for the superior eli te ; it is
,
an aristocratic philosophy And the motto which .
inspired Nietzsche was that which Faust had already

proclaimed to be der Weisheit letzter Schluss
Nur der ver di en t s ich Freih ei t wi e das Leb en
Der tagli ch s i e erob em mu ss
'
It is necessary al ways to keep this motto in mind

when reading Nietzsche ; for it gives the clue to
’
Zarathustra s conception of the Over Man -
.
TH E VAL UE OF NIET Z S CH E 26 7
What is this conception What i s the Over Man P

? -
I n the first place the O ver Man will be the great

,
-
Creator It i s h i s duty and also h i s pri vilege to cr eate

.
the moral and metaphysical values which give a

meaning to life and to hu manity This is his sacred .
duty and his august privilege The Over Man alone .

-
it is wh o is capable of gi ving to humanity an aim and

an ideal which shall hold good for a thousand years
hence In the second place the Over Man wh o
.
-
,
creates in the p l en i tu de o f h l S power the tables of

values for humanity himself li ves and must n eces
, ,
s aril y live beyond an d above all systems of morals

, ,
beyond and above all creeds since it i s he wh o creates ,
the systems of morals and the creeds which serve

for the use of humanity But beyond and above.
,
the morality and the religion of humanity in general , ,
the Over Man has his morality and h i s religion which

-
, ,
if they are beyond and above those of the rest of

humanity are none the less strict and a ffirmative an d
—
,
enthusiastic The O ver Man is above all things a

.
Believer Belief in life and in the life of beauty and

.
,
strength is hi s creed but it is a belief which is

, ,
intense which is enthusiastic which carries all before

, ,
it in the exuberance of i ts joy Belief h as said .

,
M Ferdinand Bruneti ere is inseparable from action

.
,
and belief said Nietzsche i s action and action i s

, , ,
belief.
When you raise yoursel ves above all praise and

blame and when your will the will of on e who loves , ,
desires to command unto all things this is the origin

o f your virtue .
When y ou de spise all that which is agreeable ,
the soft bed and when y ou cannot repose yourself at

,
too gr eat a distance from the soft bed : this i s the

origin of your virtue .
26 8 T HE P H ILOSOP HY OF NI ETZSCHE
When you desire with on e unique will and when ,
the vicissitudes of fate are recognised as a necessity

by y ou this is the origin of your virtue .
In truth we ha ve here a n ew good and a new bad

,
In truth it is as the voice profound and fresh of a

, , ,
1
n ew source !
We s ee here what accordi ng to Nietzsche is the

, ,
highest possibility to which the will can aspire T hat .
highest possibility i s attained when the will contri ves

to give to itself the i l l u s i on of being free when the
will says to :itself I kn ow I am n ot free I know .
I am but the agent of Fate and of an inexorable Fate , .
But the universal necessity of all things both in my ,
individual life and in the whole order of things

—
that universal necessity of which I partake is wi l l ed
by me That will of mine is but an illusion But I
. .
wi l l the illusion And thus illusion and Fate partake

.
,
”
for me of my wi l l
,
In other words the will over
.
,
steps the sphe re of knowledge and partakes of the

illusion by willing the illusion .
But it may be obj ected if the will be but an illusion

, , ,
and if the highest possibility of will power be attained -
in the a mor fati that possibility is singu larly

,
narrowed down What about the famous will of

.
Power of which all life is but the manifestation P

,
What abo ut the Will of the creator the will which ,
shall mark the impress of its seal on the destinies of

humanity for a thousand years P And here again
we are brought face to face with that great contra
diction i n the doctrine of Nietzsche the glorification
of the sovereign Will and of the almighty will power -
,
on the on e hand and the philosophy of amor fati ,
the resignation in the face of the universal necessity

o f all things on the other
,
The contradiction between
Werke V1 ,
27 0 THE PH ILOSOPHY OF N I E TZ S CH E
O fi rm am en t above me bright and deep ! ,
Light of the world in contemplating thee I am

,
inspired by the divine desire

To rise to the heights in which thou art such i s ,
the depth to which I aspire ! To shelter myself

beneath thy purity such is my innocence,
Such have we always been Our sorrows our ,
fears and ou r aims are common to both of us The .
s u n itself is common to both of u s .
We do not speak for we know all things We, .
remain silent and we communicate what we know

only by smiles .
I have a grudge against the passing clouds ,
against those wild cats which crawl ; they take

from both of us that which we have in common
“ namely the great and infinite afi rmati on of all
,
things .
But I bless and I a ffirm always provided thou ,
be around me pure sky source of light

, Then do
,
I carry down even unto the bottom of the precipices

my j oyous a ffirmation .
I am become the on e wh o blesses and wh o affirms

and to become this I have fought long I was once .
a fighter s o that I might on e day have my hands

free in order to bless .
And this is my benediction : to be above all

things like unto one s own fi rm am en t one s own
’ ’
, ,
’
round roof one s o wn azure bell and one s own
,
’
eternal solitude and happy is he wh o is thus able

to bless .
For all these things are baptised in eternity s

source and are beyond everything good and bad ;
,
and the good and the bad are themselves but fugitive
” 1
shadows and p assing clouds !
”
Werke vi 2 40 17
1
,
. .
THE VAL UE OF NIETZSCHE 27 1
Above and beyond the religions Nietzsche ,
places his religion God is dead the belief in God

.
,
is n o longer permitted to the free spirit to the O v er ,
Man For h ow could the creator of v alues he whose

.
,
work the beliefs of humanity are tolerate a God ,
above him If there be a Go d h ow comes it that ,
I am n ot God ? asks Zarathustra The go d of .
the O v er Man is himself H e it is wh o gi ves to

-
.
humanity i ts faith and its ideals .
The golden house of Nero is gone and the cross ,
o f wood on which Jesus Christ w as stretched nineteen
centuries ago i s gone but above and beyond these

,
rises the glorious vision of the new religion A new .
religion such is Zarathustra s cry T he new religion

,
’
.
will n ot be the religion of humanity or the religion

—
,
o f love or the religion of human suffering i t will

,
be the religion of beauty and of enthusiastic affirm a

,
tion of life The vision of the O ver Man rises before

.
-
’
Zarathustra s eyes the vision of him wh o will break
,
the old tables of the law and wh o will create the n ew

,
tables who will give a n ew aim and a new value

,
to all life wh o by his strength and h i s power and

, ,
by the beauty of his works and the grandeur o f h i s

artistic creation will redeem and s an ctity all life in
,
himself .
And thus does the reli gion of Zarathustra above ,
and beyond all re l igions appear as the antithesis , ,
and also as the complement of Christianity Jesus ,

.
Christ died to redeem the world ; but he died for

the poor and lowly the weak and the su ffering for
, ,
all those wh o are weary and are hea vy laden For -

.
such as these Zarathustra has n o pity but only con

, ,
tempt If Jesus Christ died to redeem the world

.
,
it was because the world i s bad because the world i s ,
the refuge of s i n and tears an d because only through ,

him could humanity be rendered worthy of the other
world of the world above this of the world of eternal
, ,
felicity But the O ver Man dies not to prepare

.
-
,
humanity for the felicity of another world but to ,
affi rm this present world of ours The Over Man .

-
is willing and j oyous to undergo e very suffering and

every hardship because this world of ours is beautiful
,
enough and valuable enough for him to be able to

endure any amount of suffering and hardship For the .
Over Man in the overflowing and exuberant vitality

-
,
of his soul su ffering and hardship are necessary to

,
the creation of beauty it is necessary that the creator

should be steeled in the school of su ffering that he ,
should be immersed ever and ever again in the s ea

of su ffering s o as to prevent him from falling into
—
,
that greatest of vices the vice of softness and

‘
luxurious idleness Su ffering is a result of the o ver .
flowing richness of his vitality Out of this over .
flowing richness he is able to worship suffering as a

, ,
necessity and also as a luxury For the O ver Man .

-
,
the world is redeemed but it is redeemed by him ,
and for him for the Over Man is the sense and the
,
-
aim and the r ai s on detre of life ; and if on the -

’
on e hand suffering is the redemption of the O ver

,
Man on the other hand the Over Man is the r edemp

,
-
tion of the world .
Dionysus versus the Cruci fi ed One here is the

supreme contrast It is n ot a difference in the form .
of the martyrdom but the di fference is in the

mean i ng of the latter On the one han d it is Life .
,
itself in its eternal fecundity and reconstruction

, ,
which brings with it every torture and also destru o ,
tion and the desire of the nirvana On the other .
hand su ffering itself under the symbol of the inno

, ,
’
cent on e crucified is made to serve as a protest ,
27 4 THE PHILOSOP HY OF N I E TZ SCH E
an ide al and an aim for two thousand years hence ,
it was to engrave itself in the history of the world in

a manner that is indeed harder than brass nobler ,
than brass And Z arathustra has come as the

.
,
best enemy o f Jesus Christ to give to humanity a ,
new aim and a n ew ideal the antithesis of the ideal ,
s et up in the Sermon o n the Mount nineteen centuries
ago The psalms of Zarathustra are to replace the

.
B eatitudes Zarathustra has borrowed from the

.
'
gospels much of his method Like Jesus he has his .

,
disciples the superior men of to day who dis

,
-
, ,
gusted with life come to listen to the preaching of

,
the prophet of the O ver Man Like Jesus he i n -

.
,
”
s ti tu te s a sort of Last Supper but which by its , ,
j oyousness forms a startling contrast with the original

,
on e . Like Jesus he employs the aphorism and the

,
parable in order to impart hi s doctrines to his dis

ci p l es The method of prophets is always the same
.
whether it be Kon fu tze or Sakya Muni or Jesus ,

-
, ,
or Mahomet or Zarathustra we find the same

, ,
features recur .
But whereas Jesus Christ came to preach a trans

valuation of values on behalf of and in the interests ,
o f the inferior races and the sla v es

,
Nietzsche has ,
sent Zarathustra to preach a trans valuation on behalf

o f the masters and the superior race Thus Jesus .
and Zarathustra are both creators of values but of ,
totally opposite and antithetical values “ Zara

th u s tra is constantly reminded of his predecessor ,
and he regrets the early death of the latter .
In truth he died too early this Hebrew wh o is

, ,
honoured by all the preachers of death by slow

means And it has been a fatality for many since
.
then that he di ed too soon

, .
H e had no time to know anything beyon d the

THE VALUE OF NIE TZSCHE 27 5
tears and the melancholy peculiar to the H ebrew and ,
also the hatred of the good and the j ust this H ebrew ,
Jesus and suddenly he was seized with the desire of

death
.
Why did he n ot remain in the d esert far from ,
the good and the j ust P P erhaps he would then have

—
l earned to live and to love life and also to laugh
My brethren believe me he died too soon ;
, ,
himself would have retracted h i s doctrine had he ,
lived to my age H e was noble enough to be able

thus to retract .
It i s nevertheless well to insist again on the fact

, ,
that Nietzsche does n o t seek the annihilation either

o f the Christian religion or of morality 111 general .
Nietzsche merely seeks and seeks passionately to , ,
destroy the mon op oly of the Christian religion and

o f morality .Christianism and the moral law are
indi spensable i n thei r p r op er p l ace But the sphere .
of activity o f these two institutions is limited although ,
extensive . Christianism and the moral l aw are

the creations of the inferior races of the slaves and ,
the bourgeoisie For the slaves and the

. bour
g e oi s i e they were created they respond to an,
urgent need of these classes and for these classes ,
they are in many respects a boon in other respects ,
a guarantee of security But they are creations of .
these classes they are the creations of a race which

,
is inferior The y are n ot suitable to the life of the

.
superior ra ce they are directly antagonistic to the

,
development of the masters But they have attri .
buted to themsel v es a monopoly to which n ot only

nothing entitled them but which is absolutely p re
,
j udicial to the interests of the superior elements of the

human species These superior elements are above
.
and beyond both Christianity and the moral law .

For these elements Christianity and the moral l aw
,
represent but a means to an end They are for the .
mas se s an illusion and for the masters a protection

—
.
But Christianit y of which the moral l aw is but an

e manation —
h as exceeded its rights it has not been
content to exercise its activity in the sphere in which
and for which it was evolved The notion of con .
science which was intended as a police agent for

,
the slaves as a means of withdrawi ng their vengeance

,
from their masters and concentrating it on them

—
selves this notion has been employed to poison the
minds and s ap the power of the masters themsel ves ,
by instilling into the latter the insidious poison of

doubt .
Against this mono p oly of Christianity against this ,
sap ping by Christianity of the power of the masters ,

’
Nietzsche s most vehement protests are directed .
B ut the continued existence of the Christian ideal

among thos e for whom i t was i n ten ded is in e v ery way
,
desirable ; alike on account of the consolation it

affords to millions wh o would otherwise lose all hope
and be deprived of every aim and on account of
the new ideal which Nietzsche proposes to erect beside
—
it and above i t for the n ew ideal can thri ve only on
condition that it have an adversary worthy of it .
I t is certain that nothing consolidates an ideal s o

much as having to defend itself or having to attack .
A people which has n o enemies loses consciousness

of its superiority and it is the same with ideals
,
.
Things thrive by contrast An d it is through the

.
’
fight in the good fight that Nietzsche s ideal can
, ,
alone be consolidated .
The philosophy of Nietzsche is essentially a

revelation of the author s personality The value of
’
.
278 TH E P H ILOSO P HY OF NI ETZSCHE
in the work of Nietzsche Judged by the st andard .
of pure erudition the value of Nietzsche may be

,
inconsiderable It is very doubtful as to whether

.
’
Nietzsche s idea of the genealogy of morals or his ,
conception of the historic al development of Chris

ti an i ty or his exposition of the origin of the notions
,
of s i n and conscience be correct his e fforts to base

,
his conception of the two moral systems that of the ,
masters and that of the slaves on a peculiar inter ,
p r e ta ti on o f certain adj ectives are undoubtedly vain , ,
as M Breal has demonstrated Quotation is not

. .
’
a feature of Nietzsche s works There is n o appeal .
to authority n o giving o f references n o calling

,
o f witnesses Nietzsche is apodictical i n form and

.
subst ance He substitutes the aphorism trenchant

.
,
and brief for the sustained argument and the

,
reas oned criticism .
What then it may be asked is the value of

, , ,
Nietzsche ? If he does n ot add to ou r stock of

scientific and philo sophic al knowledge wh at value ,
does he possess P And indeed we readily recognise , ,
that Nietzsche is n ot a model to be copied Like .
e very great man like every great thinker Nietzsche

, ,
i s a Unique The method of Nietzsche is suited to

.
Nietzsche only It was indeed the only method

.
, ,
suitable to him A man so unlike others s o i rn

.
,
measurably superior by the depth of his genius and

the delicacy of his sentiment to the immense maj ority
—such a man cannot be a measure with which we
can measure certain things Between genius and .
erudi tion may exist a profound di fference The .
erudite is the honourable and laborious worker ,
thanks to whose efforts the genius can attain to those

divine flashes of inspiration which are as the breath
o f all life and which open ou t to us n ew hori zons of
THE VA L UE OF NI ETZSCHE 27 9
infinite possibilities Shakespeare w as n o erudite

—
.
,
nor Goethe n or Beethoven n or Wa gner but their

, ,
genius h as given life a value an d h as enriched it an d ,
b e au ti fi ed it an d redeemed it .
But to take a genius and p ropose the methods of

this genius as metho ds to be followed as a general
rule would be n ot only deplorable but monstrously
,
absurd . It would be equivalent to depriving the

genius of that very i n i mi tabl e qualit y by which he is a
genius and without which he would be as the ordin ary
,
l ot of men . Genius has its own methods which ,
like genius itself are inimitable Nietzsche i s a

, .
genius Every sentence which he writes bears the

.
im p ress of genius And consequently it bears also

.
, ,
the impress of an inimit able personality of a person ,
ality which i s unique whose methods are inimitable

,
and unique like himself .
Nietzsche must thus n ot be held up as a model .
He i s n o model because he i s too gre at to be a model

, .
Genius is born n ot acquired An d those wh o are

,
.
n ot po ssessed of genius can but acquire erudition ,
which i s likewise indispens able to the human species .
I t i s through erudition that our stock of knowledge

i s incre ased th at ou r p ower over the forces of s ur
,
rounding n ature is consolidated that genius and its ,
inspiration are rendered p ossible Without erudition .

,
the highest forms of human life would be im p ossible ,
for e ru di tion must precede genius .
It may b e obj ected again against Nietzsche that

, , ,
he i s n ot the synthetical man in whom is incarnated ,
the s ynthesis of the intellectual moral material and , ,
physical progress of an era and whom he has him ,
self held u p as the type of the Over Man This ob -

.
j e cti on has much foundation The Over Man must .

-
combine the inspiration of the artist with the eru

28 0 TH E P H I LOSOP HY OF N IETZSCH E
di tion of the m an of science Nietzsche is exclusively .
’
an artist and a poet He has an artist s h atred .
for science and does n ot perceive all the poetry

,
o f science all that science contains of profoundly

,
artistic Nietzsche hates eru di tion and yet does not ,
perceive that erudition does n ot necessarily e xclude

genius although eru di tion is by n o means identical
,
with genius But both m ay cc exist in the s ame

.
-
p erson as in the case of Darwin or in that of Pasteur

, , .
Nietzsche then does not add on e grain to the stock of

, ,
ou r positive knowledge in an y single domain Neither .
does he realise in himself the synthetic type of man ,
th at type which while adding itself nothing to the

,
’
stock of the world s knowledge nevertheless i n car ,
nates the e fforts of an era and constitutes thus on e of ,
the milestones on the road of human progress What .
then is the value of Nietzsche P Our reply again is

the value of Nietzsche is in Nietzsche s person ality ’
.
And truly this v alue is great to ou r mind We ,

.
s ee in Nietzsche the most powerful and healthy
of stimuli against materialism mercantilism p es s i m , ,
ism socialism anarchism p aci fi ci s m and against

, , , ,
all the notions of nineteenth century radi calism in -
general The value of Nietzsche lies in the example

.
he has given us and it i s a great and healthy ex

,
ample of danger faced and overcome of conquest over

, ,
self of adventure gla dl y sought for in the name of

,
truth of sincerity and fearlessness and disinterested

,
ness The value of Nietzsche lies also for us in the fact

.
, ,
that he is as a breakwater stri ving to check the rush

of the on flowi n g tide of democracy and equalisation .
The great an d lasting value of Nietzsche is hi s

i deal i s m The great adversary of theoretical ideo
.
logy was himself the greatest of idealists Nietzsche .
calls upon us to strive after the fulfilment of a great

28 2 TH E P H ILOSOPHY OF NIETZSCHE
has come n ot to bring peace on earth but a sword
, , .
The value of Nietzsche lies in hi s glorification of

suffering as the means of obtaining the redemption
o f life It is only in the school of sufferin g of intense
.
,
suffering that humanity can be steeled to its task

, .
It is only in such a school that all that is best and

noblest in humanity can be produced purified and ,
ennobled by great suffering The great man the .

,
creator of values the Over Man he wh o is at once

—
-
, ,
the ideal of humanity and i ts j u s ti fi cati on h e i s the

on e wh o must be most greatly tortured wh o must be ,
broken burned bruised and grie v ously affl icted

, , ,
because only through suffering can that on e quality

which entitles him above all others to the rank of
- —
O ver Man be brought forth and shine n amely that ,
he hold good .
And this glorification of suffering i s n ot merely

theoretical For Nietzsche knew better than most
.
,
men the bitterness of distress which comes when

,
ideals which on e has long venerated and clearly ,
venerated are n o longer possible H e knew better

,
.
than most men the anguish which separation from

beloved friends entails H e knew better than most .
men the great loneliness the sense of utter abandon ,
ment which overtakes all those wh o live outside their

,
times And Nietzsche su ffered more intensely b e

.
cause he felt more intensely The gre atest tortures .
are reserved for the most delicate natures .
This rude awakening which Nietzsche has given us ,
we need it It remains eternally true that it is in

.
suffering and through su ffering that all that is great

and lasting can be attained Those preachers of .
modern progress wh o s ee in the universal democratic

i s ati on of humanity and in the univers al equalisation
—
,
of man the signs of progress these are false pro

,
TH E VALUE OF N IETZSCHE 28 3
p h ets who are themselves the victims of an incurable

l ack of vitality which cause s them to s ee in life a
,
process which i s not worth li ving and which urges ,
them on to try and reduce the trials of life by re ducing

its vitality by reducing its dangers and inj ustices
, .
For life is fundament ally and essenti ally unj ust and
immoral Everywhere in life w e s ee inequality
.
,
everywhere we s ee the victory go to the strong And .
this elimination of the we ak by the strong is a n eces

sary condition of life Alone in the realm of nature
.
,
man has tried to oppose something has tried to ,
oppose his little inventions to the gre at l aw of nature , .
Man has invented the moral l aw and set it in opposi

tion to the n atural l aw But the moral law is itself
.
but the expression of a lack of vitality The man .
wh o lo v es life who loves life n ot in spite of i ts suffer

, ,
ings b u t becau s e of its sufferings he wh o i s strong ,
enough to seek the complete re alisation of life s ’
possibilities who is prepared to undergo the most

—
,
cruel martyrdom in order to realise them such a

m an will be above and beyond all moral laws which ,
serve but to hinder an d check the integral develop

ment of his person ality .
The value of Nietzsche lies also in that he gi ves us ,
as well as a higher notion of life a hi gher notion of ,
ou r in dividual responsibilitie s and duties N o duties .
”
without rights and no rights without duties says
, ,
the democracy Duty says Nietzsche is s yn on y

.
, ,
mous with right an d our duties increase in the same

,
measure as our rights an d the only rights we can

,
legitimately claim are those rights which we have

conquered for ourselves The Over Man h as his.
-
rights he has the supreme right of life and death over

,
the vague masses of humanity ; he has the right to use

humanity as the sculp tor uses the shapeless block of
28 4 TH E PH I LOSOPHY OF N IETZSCHE
marble in order to fashion it to his own ends but the -
Over Man has also the greatest and most onerous and
-
most perilous of duties : that of giving to humanity

a mean i ng and an i deal .
The value of Nietzsche l ies in the fact that he takes

ou r eyes away from the sorry spectacle of modern
politics and from the sor did interests of personal g ai n

an d lu cre and fixes them on higher things In these
,
.
days of industrialism when everything is reckoned

,
accor di ng to the profit or loss which its adop ti on or

non adoption may entail it is good to be able to
-
,
refresh oneself at the sources of Zarathustra ; it is

good to be reminded that there are more lasting
interests for humanity than those of commercial
speculation ; it i s g ood to b e reminded that there are
higher interests at st ake than the fate of rival an d
pettifogging States .
The value of Nietzsche lies in his virility in his ,
manliness More v irility that is what we want

.
,
.
And virility can be attained like everything else that ,
is precious only in the school of su ffering and through

,
wars and rumours of w ar Virility is a sign of the .
great love of li fe And Nietzsche if he had only

.
,
preached the love of life and the j oys of life and , ,
the beauty of life would have possessed great value

, .
Nietzsche is a reaction and a healthy reaction , ,
against pessimism and nihilism of which the socialist ,
ideal the ideal of the greatest happiness for the

,
greatest number is the outcome,

.
And as a coroll ary to his magnificent ps al ms on the

lo ve of li fe and the j oys of life and the beauties of
, ,
life Nietzsche possesses a great and lasting value

,
for the race The race which lacks virility an dwhich

.
,
looks upon life as an evil ; the race whi ch has lost

confidence in its destiny and which is corroded by an
CONCLUS ION
WE have seen that the immoralism of Nietzsche is

but another name for a moralism which shall be
beyond and above the moralism of to day and of -
yesterday Nietzsche is an immoralist when com

.
pared with Christ He has adopted every maxim

.
which Christianity repudiates and has reprobated ,
every maxim which Christianity exalts In opposi .
tion to the Christian ideal which is one of love and

,
sympathy and forgiveness and gentleness Nietzsche ,
has preached the gospel of hate an d cruelty and hard

ness of heart . Become hard is the gre at keynote
of Zarathustra s teaching
’
But it is a grievous error
.
to suppose that Nietzsche is i mmora in the sense

usuall y attributed to that word The egoism of .
Nietzsche w e have seen is dictated in reality by a

, ,
conception of altruism far more scientific than the

Christian conception Egoism is necessary because
.
egoism is natural because it is the sole incentive to

,
every great action because it is a primordial l aw

, ,
which causes us to prefer self to non self And the -

.
egoism of the masters is dictated by profound reasons

sympathy kills him who sympathises without bring ,
ing any reli ef to the sufferer Sympathy inspires those

.
that are strong and happy with mistrust and causes ,
them to doubt of their right to happiness and strength

in the p resence of so much misery And yet the .
preservation of the strong elements of the race is

essential to the continued existence of humanity .
286
CO N CLUSION 28 7
The strong and the happy must defend themselves

against sympathy as against the most deadly of foes ,
for it is upon them and u p on them alone that the

, ,
future of the whole race depends Nietzsche is not .
an egoist whose ideal is the greatest quantity of i n

dividual pr ofit as he is s ometimes represente d to be
,
.
Nietzsche is an egoist whose ideal is the life in beauty

and in strength whose ideal is a race full of exuberant
,
v itality and j oyous a ffirmation and because this

ideal can be attained only if we p ossess hardness
enough to be able to su ffer without wincing and ,
h ardness enough to be able if necessary to inflict

—
, ,
su ffering without wincing for this reason is Nietzsche

an egoist for this reason does Zarathustra write above
,
”
u s the n ew table of values Become hard .
And the Over Man is no -

immoralist in the
sense usually attributed to the word N0 ; he who .
,
in order to attain the rank of cr eator must be broken , ,
torn purified with fire and sword is no immoralist

, ,
he wh o in order to j ustify himself as a creator of

,
”
v al ues must live far from the soft bed of idleness
, ,
wh o must live dangerously w h o must be ready for

,
any sacrifice no matter h ow bitter is no immoralist ,

.
The enthusiastic prophet of life he w h o has blessed ,
life and a ffirmed life and w h o has held up to us as an

,
ideal beauty and ever greater beauty i s no immoral

, ,
ist To all wh o would fain be free from all bonds

.
,
and w h o would attempt to use the name of Z ara

th u s tr a as a prete xt for immorality and viciousness ,
the question of the prophet is posed and confronts ,
them li ke a blazing torch frei wozu

Nur der verdi en t s ich Freih eit wi e das Leb en ,
”
Der tagli ch si e erob em mu s s .
The w or d immor alist has been incorrectly

applied to Nietzsche Himself in order to emphasise
.
,
the contradiction betw een his doctrine all impreg ,
n ate d with classical tradition and modern ideas , ,
declared himself to be an immoralist But the word .
w as misused In truth never has a moralist existed

.
s o prof oundly sincere as Nietzsche His passionate .
love of truth at all costs his hatred of all lies and

,
insincerity and conventionalism are manifest in ,
every sentence of his works as in every act of his li fe ,

.
His philosophy has not ended in immoral ism The .
result of his philosophy is to establish a line of

demarcation between one system of morals confined
f — f
to the very ew the system o the masters and —
—
another system for the masses the system of the
slaves The morals of the masters are severe and
.
,
of iron severity The master must be worthy of his

.
task he must be steeled to his task His task in

— —
.
,
itself does not one understand it P is itself the most

iron moral l aw for it is the giving of an aim and an
,
ideal to humanity for a thousand years But he wh o .
has al ong with so terrible and au gust a task so

, ,
terrible a responsibility he is necessarily of stronger

,
stuff than those for whom he creates and he is not

subj ect to the same rules as these and along with
the values wh i ch h e creates for humanity he creates
;
his values for himself .
Thus does the immoralism of Nietzsche resolve

itself into the strictest moralism And in the same .
w ay the atheism of Nietzsche resolves itself into a

faith which is as a burning flame and which glows like ,
the evening star in the pale azure s ky The faith of

—
.
Zarathustra faith in life faith in the infinite pos

s i b ili ti e s —
of life is a faith which shall remove
,
mountains And Nietzsche does here but confirm

.
a law which we witness everywhere in operati on ,

29 0 THE P H ILOSOP HY OF NIETZSC HE
the most fundament al of human wants for belief i s
necessary to action and action is necessary to l ife
,
.
The religion of Nietzsche is the religion of life .
An d for Nietzsche life is synonymous with beauty

and power And the life which is Nietzsche s ide al
.
’
is the life in beauty in ever greater beauty in ever

, ,
greater strength and power Z arathustra has gathered .
round him in his hut in the mountains a few disciples ,
among whom is the Most Hideous of Men he wh o ,
represents all the woes and tears and sufferings of

humanity he wh o has slain God by the very hideous
,
ness of his sores And Z arathustra exposes to these

.
his gospel of beauty his ideal of the Over Man his ,

-
,
v ision of life as it should be as it can be his vision of , ,
life redeemed of life sanctified and glorified by the

,
Over Man When Zarathustra has finished his lyric

-
.
p oem it is the Most H ideous of Men the r ep re

, ,
s en tati v e of everything which life contains most
supremely ugly wh o speaks first,
And meanwhile all of them one after another , ,
had come out into the fresh ai r and the cool calm
night Zarathustra himself led the Most Hideous of
Men by the hand so that he might show him the
,
beauties of the night and the big round moon and

the sil very waterfall by his retreat There they at .
last stood silent together all these old men but their , ,
heart w as comforted and full of courage and they ,
wondered secretly that it could be so pleasant on

earth ; but the stillness of the night pressed ever
more deeply upon them And again Zarathustra .
thought to himself Oh h ow they do please me , ,
these superior men but he did not give expression

to his thought for he respected their happiness and
,
their silence .
But then happened the most astonishi ng event

CO NCLUSION 29 1
of that long and astonishing day the Most H i deous

of Men began once more and for the last time to , ,
gurgle and to stutter and whe n at last he succeeded ,
in speaking behold ,
there proceeded a question ,
clear and decided from his lips a clear profoun d

, , ,
question which moved all those w h o stoo d by

,
.
My friends said the Most H ideous of Men what

—
, ,
think you P For the sake of this on e day I am for

the first time satisfie d that I have li ved my life .
And that I do thus bear witness is not yet ,
enough for me It is good to live on earth One day

. .
,
one festivity with Z arathustra have taught me to love ,
the world
—
.
i
Was h s Life P will I ask of D eath
t T hen
—again
.
My friends what think you P Will y ou not s ay

—
,
u nto D eath even as I hav e said Was thi s Life P

1
For the love of Z arathustra then once more , ,
It is the great victory The religion of Life h as .
triumphed Z arathustra has not preached in vain

. .
Life is redeemed life is sanctified by the Over Man

,
-
,
su preme type of human possibility Zarathustra .
has taught the Most Hideous of Men to love life to ,
love life as incarnated in the Over Man And under -

.
,
the impression caused by this confession of the Most

H ideous of Men of him w h o has slain G od the
, ,
assembled little group of disciples to whom Zara

th u s tr a has revealed his secret break forth int o ,
that exquisite song sung to the accompaniment of ,
the church bell ringing in the solemn hour of mid

night the hour which marks the end of the ol d day
, ,
and the dawn of the n ew

E in s
O h M en sch Gi eb Acht
Werk e vi 4 6 1 4 6 2 ,
.
-
.
29 2 P H IL O S OP HY OF NIETZ SCHE
Z wei
Was s pricht i Mit tern ach t P
di e t efe
Drei
I ch schlief i ch schli ef
,
Vi er
Au s ti efem Trau m b i n i ch erwach t
Di e Welt i s t ti ef ,
S echs
Un d ti efer al s der Tag gedach t .
S ieben
Tief i s t ihr Web
—ti
,
Acht l
Lu s t efer n oc h als Herzeleid ,
N eu n
Ze n h
D och l a l e Lus w t ill
w e
E lf !E i gk it
Will ti
- efe, ti
efe E w i gkei t I
Z wol f 1
On e
0 Man Gi v e h e e d 1
Tw o
Wh at sa ith th e m i d n i g ht d ee p P
T h r ee
I l pt
s e in s leep
Four
From deepes t dre am I wake
F i ve
Th e worl d i s d ee p ,
Six
An d d ee per th an th e day can kn ow ,
S even
Deep i s i ts woe
E ight
J y
o — d e e per th a n a fflicti on s till ,
N in e
Woe s aith : B egone !
Ten
But all J oy wil ls E t ern it y
E l even
W ills deep profoun d E t ernity
,
Twelve
TH E R I V E R S I DE P R E S S L I M I TE D. E D I N BU R G H

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T h e P h i l oso p h y

G E O RG E S CHAT TE R TON -HILL ,

PR I VATD OCE N T O F S O CI OLO G Y AT

I . TH E W I LL OF P O WER A S F UN D A M E N TA L P O STU LAT E

II I . TH E M O R A L S Y S T E MS —MA STER S AN D SL AVE S

TH E ma n u s cr i p t this book w as wri tt en as long a g o

as 1 9 0 5 S e v en yea rs cons t i t u t e a long pe riod in t he

li fe o f a y o u ng au t ho r S ince this manu scrip t w a s

wri tt en o the r work has been composed and has

seen t he li g h t o f day amon g s t i t being m y books o n

S o ciolo g ical V al u e of Ch ris t iani t y and v ario u s ,

abl y g o t hr o ugh va rio u s phases o f men t al e vol u t ion ,

he canno t fail t o be inﬂ u enced b y th e nu mero u s

and t o ha v e his ho ri z on cons t an t l y enla rg ed t he r eb y .

I canno t s ay t he r e fore t ha t t he poin t o f View fr o m

which I j u dg ed t hing s se v en y ears ag o is the same as

F or ce r tain r easons t he man u sc rip t w as n o t

has been taken u p wi th o t her wo rk Bu t n o w .

follo wing ad v ice which has b een t endered me I hav e ,

de cided t o p u blish i t wi tho u t C hang ing any t hing

e xc ep t a fe w u ni m por tan t de t ails

The b oo k is as oéj c as possible tha t is t o s a y

I hav e endeav o u red t o plac e as clea rl y as I ca n t he

p u tt ing fo r ward m y ow n op inions I t is N ie t z s che s

tho ugh t a n d N zetzs cé e s t/zoug ﬁ z a l on e whi ch i s

e x posed he r e I t is i m p ossible howe v e r when , ,

e x posing th e t h ou gh t o f ano the r t o be onesel f wholl y

and co mpl e tel y silent ; m y V iews m ay conseq u en tly

in t en t ion t o hav e g iv en e x p r ession t o t he m Sho uld .

t hese views be fo u nd b y those w h o m ay hav e read ,

ideas de v eloped in s u ch o the r wo rk th e e x plana t ion ,

I f this boo k c a n in t he sli g h t es t de g r ee hel p any

one a m ong t he E nglish speaking p u bli c t o a s t rong e r

ad m i ra t ion fo r a n d a be tt e r c o mp rehension o f the

m os t r e cen t o f t he r eall y g rea t Mas t e r s of E u r opean

and a r tis t s t o whi ch m ode rn civilisa t ion owes so

i m m ense a deb t ; t he au t ho r m ay pe rhaps be pa r , ,

don e d fo r v en t u ring t o l ay be fo r e the r eade r t he

Univ e r si t y o f P a ris and au t ho r o f t ha t ad m i rable

in t rod u ct ion t o t he s tu d y o f Nie t z s che s tho ugh t ’

L a P ﬁ zl os oﬁ k ze de N zetzs cé e w hi ch has had s u ch g r ea t

s u c cess in m a k ing Nie t z s che kno wn and a p pre cia t ed

val u able assis t ance .

S c h on l auft s till ti b e r we i s s e Meere

N I E TZ SCHE himself h as said of Schopenhauer that

ﬁ tl y be made of Friedrich Nietzsche himself The .

powerful mind of Nietzsche has exercised an inﬂuence

During the last ten years the philosophy and letters

preached under the attractive form of aphorisms ,

vigorous and apodictical has broken loose from the

trammels of the dogmatic school which had dominated

In Germany the philosophy of Nietzsche has

attention of all thinking circles and h as become as ,

M Ferdinand Bruneti ere remarks in the ﬁrst volume

mode . M Emile Faguet M Alfred Fouill é e

M Eug ene de R ob erty M Henri Lichtenberger

have contributed valuable works to the Nietzsche

Common Mr A M Ludovici Mr J M Kennedy

Dr Mii gge and Mr A R Orage while a translation