Glo Fiber Reinforced Concrete Handbook

CONCRETE
SikaFiber® REINFORCED
CONCRETE HANDBOOK
Editor
Sika Services AG
Tüffenwies 16
CH-8048 Zürich
Authors
David Taylor BEng, Sika Services AG
Dr Carsten Rieger, Sika Services AG
Trevor Atkinson, Sika Europe Management AG (retired)
Layout
Sika Services AG
Corporate Marketing Service
© by Sika AG
All rights reserved
Edition 2022
2
SikaFiber® Reinforced
Concrete Handbook
3
FOREWORD
This handbook is intended to give guidance on the practical and technical merits of using
fibre reinforcement in a variety of concrete applications.
Concrete is reported to be the most widely used substance on earth after water and rec-
ognized as a highly cost-effective versatile material used for the construction of housing,
healthcare, education, transport, energy, industrial and many more applications. Without
concrete many structures would simply be impossible to construct. Despite the versa-
tility, concrete is affected with several drawbacks that are inherent to its composition.
Whilst it has very high compressive strength, by generally accepted engineering stan-
dards concrete has a significantly lower tensile capacity and considered relatively brittle
and lacking in flexural strength. Additionally, concrete tends to crack in both the plastic
(early-age) and hardened (long-term) state.
Early-age cracks are defined as cracks that generally develop within the first hours and
days after concrete placement and include plastic shrinkage and plastic settlement
cracking. Long-term cracking, on the other hand, is in part caused by the shrinkage that
transpires over several months, perhaps even years of drying that follows. In either case,
these cracks can jeopardize the overall integrity of the concrete and not allow it to main-
tain or even attain its maximum performance capability.
The introduction of fibre reinforcement not only improves the flexural strength and
toughness of concrete but also provides exceptional resistance to early and long-term
cracking thus allowing concrete to achieve a long-term durability.
Whilst fibre reinforced concrete is now widely accepted in the construction and ready
mixed concrete industry, there are many countries yet to be convinced of its practical,
technical, and commercial benefits. Perhaps some still view fibre reinforcement as a
relatively new and unproven technology when in fact it has been used for many centuries.
lndeed, our ancient ancestors were the first to use similar technology by incorporating
straw into clay blocks and animal hair into plasters/ mortars for the purpose of prevent-
ing cracking during the drying process.
Fibre technology was applied to concrete in the 1950's based on the idea of dosing steel
reinforcement into the concrete mixer instead of fixing it within the formwork. Steel re-
inforcement was cut down into discrete discontinuous pieces to allow them to fit into the
mixer, which became known as steel fibre reinforcement.
4
Since the 1950's a huge number of research activities have been carried out to develop
new types of fibre reinforcement. In today's market the most widely used materials for
fibres in concrete are steel, polypropylene, and other materials such as glass and naturally
occurring materials such as cellulose.
Fortunately, design standards allowing the replacement oftraditional steel bar rein-
forcement with Fibre Reinforced Concrete (FRC) are now more prominent and count-
less documents online cover the merits of FRC, making it more acceptable to Engineers,
Contactors, and Owners. The traditional method of reinforcing concrete with steel bars is
predominantly taught in Civil Engineering schools but there is undoubtedly an increasing
interest and research into the merits of FRC.
Neverthless, the usage of fibre reinforced concrete is still relatively low meaning that
there is a huge potential growth in the FRC market.
With this handbook the reader has a guide to the most relevant topics relative to Fibre
Reinforced Concrete. This will hopefully provide answers to questions relating to selec-
tion, benefits and usage of fibres, without going into too much of the respective scientific
details.
Also in this series of Sika Handbooks:
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SIKA CONCRETE HANDBOOK
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INFORMATION
WE ARE SIKA
Sika is a specialty chemicals company with a leading position in the
development and production of systems and products for bonding,
sealing, damping, reinforcing and protecting in the building sector
and the motor vehicle industry. Sika’s product lines feature concrete
admixtures, mortars, sealants and adhesives, structural strengthening
systems, flooring as well as roofing and waterproofing systems.
CONCRETE CONCRETE
SIKA CONCRETE SIKA SPRAYED CONCRETE
HANDBOOK HANDBOOK
© Sika Services AG / Sika Sprayed Concrete Handbook / 12.2020
© SIKA SERVICES AG / SIKA CONCRETE HANDBOOK / 01.2021
Our most current General Sales Conditions shall apply.

Please consult the most current local Product Data Sheet prior to any use.
SIKA SERVICES AG Contact

Tüffenwies 16 Phone +41 58 436 40 40
CH-8048 Zürich www.sika.com
Switzerland
Sika Concrete Handbook Sika Sprayed Concrete Handbook
5
CONTENT
FOREWORD 4
1 FIBRE BASICS 9
1.1 What is Fibre Reinforced Concrete 9
1.2 Fibre Characteristics 10
1.2.1 Materials 11
1.2.2 Geometry 12
1.2.3 Shape 12
1.2.4 Anchorage 13
1.2.5 Dispersion 14
1.2.6 Cement Matrix 16
2 SUSTAINABILITY 18
2.1 Sustainability 18
2.2 Life Cycle Assessment 19
2.3 Excess Material 21
2.4 Durability 22
2.5 Associations 23
2.5.1 EFCA 23
2.5.2 LEED 23
2.5.3 MFSA 23
2.5.4 FRCA 23
3 STANDARDS 24
3.1 Guidance 25
3.2 Certification 27
3.2.1 EN 14889: Parts 1 and 2 27
3.2.2 ASTM D7508/D7508M 32
3.2.3 ASTM A820/A820M 34
4 FIBRE PROPERTIES 35
4.1 Terminology 35
4.2 Classification 37
4.3 Physical Properties 37
4.3.1 Length 37
6
4.3.2 Diameter 37
4.3.3 Cross Sectional Area 38
4.3.4 Density 38
4.4 Strength 39
4.4.1 Tensile Strength 39
4.4.2 E-Modulus 40
4.4.3 Elongation 41
4.4.4 Creep 41
4.5 Synthetic Chemical Properties 41
4.5.1 Temperatures 41
4.5.2 Moisture / Absorption 42
4.5.3 Chemical Resistance 42
4.5.4 UV Resistance 42
4.5.5 Surfactant Coatings 42
5 FIBRE TYPES 43
5.1 Micro Fibres 43
5.1.1 Types of Synthetic Micro-Fibres 44
5.1.2 Impact on Fresh Concrete 44
5.1.3 Influence on Cracking 46
5.2 PP Micro Benefits 46
5.2.1 Reducing Plastic Settlement Cracking 47
5.2.2 Reducing Plastic Shrinkage Cracking 48
5.2.3 Explosive Spalling Resistance 49
5.2.4 Reducing Permeability 52
5.2.5 Abrasion Resistance 52
5.2.6 Impact / Shatter Resistance 52
5.3 PP Macro-Fibres 53
5.3.1 Plastic Shrinkage Cracking 54
5.3.2 Impact on Fresh Concrete 54
5.4 Steel Macro Fibres 55
5.4.1 Impact on Fresh Properties of a Reference Concrete 56
5.4.2 Impact on Strength of a Reference Concrete 56
5.5 Macro Benefits 57
5.5.1 Increasing Mechanical Strength 57
5.5.2 Increasing Concrete Ductility 58
5.5.3 Replacing Traditional Reinforcement 58
5.5.4 Reducing Construction Time 58
5.6 Fibre Application Guide 59
5.7 Minimum Fibre Dosage 60
6 FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE 62

6.1 Starting 62
6.2 Philosophy 63
6.2.1 Strain-Softening and Strain-Hardening 64
6.3 Mechanical Properties 67
7
6.3.1 Structural and Non-Structural 67
6.3.2 Structural According to European Standards 67
6.3.3 Structural According to American Standards 67
6.4 Design Concepts 68
6.4.1 Reinforced Concrete Design 68
6.5 SikaFiber® Software 71
7 CONCRETE APPLICATION 75
7.1 Slabs on Ground / Grade 75
7.2 Tunnel Linings 79
7.3 Rock Support 84
7.4 Precast Concrete Manufacturing 90
7.5 Pumped Concrete 92
7.6 Ultra High Performance FRC 93
8 TESTING 94
8.1 Beam Testing 94
8.1.1 European Beam Testing 94
8.1.2 ASTM Beam Testing 110
8.2 Energy Absorption 114
8.2.1 Square Panel Test 115
8.2.2 Round Panel Test 118
8.3 Fibre Strength 120
9 PACKAGING AND DOSING 124

9.1 Packaging 124
9.2 Dosing 126
9.2.1 Manual Dosing 126
9.2.2 Automated Dosing Equipment 126
10 CONCRETE FINISHING 128

10.1 Good Concrete Practice 128
10.2 Finishing Methods 130
11 INDEX 132
8
1 FIBRE BASICS
1.1 WHAT IS FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE 1

Fibre Reinforced Concrete (FRC) is a composite
material combining concrete and discontinu-
ous discrete fibres that are uniformly distributed
throughout the concrete to create a 3-dimensional
system of reinforcement. The inclusion of fibres in
concrete and other cementitious materials, such
as mortars and renders, improves many material
properties including
́́ ductility
́́ toughness
́́ crack resistance
́́ strength
́́ reducing explosive spalling
́́ reduced permeability
́́ impact / shatter resistance
́́ fatigue resistance
Materials primarily adopted for FRC are steel, polypropylene, glass, and natural fibres.
In today’s construction market FRC is often the first-choice reinforcement for many im-
portant applications including slab on ground or grade, composite metal decking and tun-
nel linings. It is often used as a cost-effective, easy-to-use alternative to traditional steel
reinforcement, or to enhance other properties.
Fibres are easily added to the concrete/ mortar either at the batching plant or on-site.
When used as a replacement for steel reinforcement, FRC removes the need to order
steels bars or mesh and at the same time not having to store these bulky materials on
site. FRC also reduces the labour-intensive process of cutting, placing, and fixing rein-
forcement. Overall concrete placement using fibres is faster, safer and will save money.
FRC is a growing interest for civil infrastructure owners in achieving greater concrete
durability and longevity and has seen more and more projects move towards the use of
high-performance concrete (HPC) and ultra -high performance concrete (UHPC).
9
The use of HPC/UHPC brings added risk of explosive spalling damage in the event of seri-
ous fire. Particularly in tunnel applications, polypropylene micro fibres are recognised as
an effective measure to reduce dangerous explosive spalling. This increase in interest
has drawn many Engineers to seriously consider the enhanced durability benefits of FRC
either in combination with traditional steel reinforcement or as a replacement for certain
applications.
1.2 FIBRE CHARACTERISTICS

There are several basic characteristics which influence the behaviour of fibres in concrete.
Fibre dispersal
́́ Packaging
The material
́́ Dosing
́́ Steel
́́ Number of fibers
́́ Polypropylene
́́ Mixing
́́ Glass
́́ Homogenous distribution
́́ Cellulose
Concrete anchorage
́́ Cement matrix
́́ Bond strength The geometry
́́ Transferring forces ́́ Length
The shape ́́ Diameter
́́ Hooked ́́ Aspect ratio
́́ Embossed
́́ Flat
́́ Undulated
Figure 1.2: The basic characteristics of a fibre which determine performance in FRC
It is important to understand the performance of FRC is not solely dependent on one fibre
characteristic, such as tensile strength, but also on the quality of the cement paste and
number of fibres per cubic volume of material. In short, it is the performance of the com-
posite material and not simply a fibre characteristic which are the driving criteria.
10
1.2.1 MATERIALS
A huge variety of fibres can be found on the market made of different materials with
different geometries. The most used materials for fibres in concrete are steel, polyolefin
(polypropylene, polyethylene, or a combination of), or other synthetic materials, glass
(alkali-resistant) and natural materials like cellulose.
The main materials referred to in this handbook will be synthetic polypropylene fibres and
steel.
Table 1.2.1.1: Main properties of materials commonly used to make fibres in concrete
Fibre Material E-Modulus Tensile Strength Strain to rupture Density 1
[kN/mm²] [N/mm²] [%] [g/cm³]
Steel (normal) 210 400-2500 3–4 7.8
Steel (non-corrosive) 170 2100 3 7.8
Polypropylene (PP) 1-8 165-600 20 0.9 – 0.91
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) 30 880 -1600 6 1.31
Natural Sisal 9 -38 400 - 700 4 1.3 – 1.5
Vegetable fibres 4 - 40 0 - 1000 5 – 10 1.5
Glass fibres 80 2500 5 2.7
Carbon fibres 300 450 - 400 1.5 1.7
Polypropylene may sometimes also be referred to polyolefin. Polyolefins are a general

term for polypropylenes and polyethylene’s. According to ASTM D7508/D7508M polyole-
fin is any long-chain synthetic polymer composed of at least 85% by weight of ethylene,
propylene, or other olefin units (monomers), except amorphous (non-crystalline) polyole-
fin.
Table 1.2.1.2: Main properties of the fibre matrix material

Matrix Material E-Modulus Tensile Strength Strain to rupture Density
[kN/mm²] [N/mm²] [%] [g/cm³]
Cement stone 7 - 28 <8 0.04 2.0
Mortar 20 - 45 <6 0.01 2.3
Concrete 20 - 45 <4 0.01 2.4
In principle, the material used for reinforcing another material should have a higher elastic
modulus, a higher tensile strength, and a higher strain to rupture. However, in the case of
fibre reinforced concrete this does not necessarily need to be fulfilled as:
́́ Fibre dosages used for normal FRC are generally too low to influence the tensile
strength or the elastic modulus of the composite material.
́́ Fibres work at different stages of the hardening process of the concrete. The concrete in
the first hours after placing has a much lower tensile strength and a much lower elastic
modulus than after a few days.
́́ Fibres for concrete are designed to be pulled out of the concrete matrix and increase the
resistance of the fibre reinforced concrete in the cracked state.
11
1.2.2 GEOMETRY
The geometry of the fibre plays a significant role
for the anchorage of the fibre, especially the rela-
tionship between the length and the diameter of
the fibre, this is called the aspect ratio.
lf
Aspect ratio =
df
Experience shows that aspect ratios between 40 and 80 have a good performance.
The aspect ratio is an important factor for the behaviour of the fibres in the fresh and
hardened concrete state. For example, a very long and thin fibre (high aspect ratio) would
generally show better performance in the hardened concrete due to fact that it has a lon-
ger embedded length and more fibres over the crack. However, this may create difficulties
with mixing of the fibres and may tend to ball together resulting in poor distribution. The
other extreme would-be fibres with a too small aspect ratio. For example, a very short
and thick fibre may provide good distribution in the cement paste but would not embed
well into the matrix meaning that the performance in the hardened state concrete would
be reduced.
1.2.3 SHAPE
Many different types of fibres can potentially be used for FRC, the main type are:
1. SYNTHETIC MICRO-FIBRES
́́ Straight monofilament fibres
́́ Fibrillated fibres
Polypropylene (PP) Micro mono-filamented Polypropylene (PP) fibrillated
2. SYNTHETIC MACRO-FIBRES
́́ Straight embossed stiff fibres
́́ Undulated stiff fibres with smooth surface
́́ Soft flat or oval fibres
́́ Soft, thin twisted fibres
Embossed PP Macro Undulated PP Macro
12
3. STEEL MACRO-FIBRES
́́ Hooked end
́́ Flat end
́́ Undulating (Continuously deformed)
́́ Straight fibres
Type 1: Type 2: Type 3: Type 5:

Drawn Wire Slit Sheet Melt Extract Modified Drawn Wire
Type 4: Mill Cut (twisted)

1
1.2.4 ANCHORAGE
To transfer forces between the cracked concrete and the fibre it is important to demon-
strate there is sufficient anchorage, or bond, between the fibre and matrix material. This
can be done in different ways.
a) a rough embossed surface

b) rigid undulating shapes
c) soft and flexible
d) hooked end
A chemical bond can be applied to the surface of PP fibres to promote chemical interac-
tion with the concrete. Typically, many steel fibres have hooked or flat ends for a better
anchorage or they may be undulated (continually deformed) for an increased pull-out
resistance.
For a good anchorage and a good performance in the hardened concrete a long and thin
fibre would be ideal. The fibre would be nicely embedded and would not slip out. However,
if the fibre to matrix bond is too good it can result in fibre rupture. Fibre rupture is when
the tensile strength of the fibre is exceeded.
Knowing the relationship of bond strength between fibre and matrix, the critical length of
the fibre can be calculated in relation to the diameter and the fibre tensile strength. The
critical length is the length of the fibre where the bond strength is equal to the tensile
strength of the fibre. When bridging a crack, a maximum of half of the fibre length is ex-
pected to be embedded in the concrete.
13
df ftf df
lcritical = x
4 τfm
Lf < 2 x lcritical
where: ftf = Tensile strength of fibre (MPa)

τfm = Shear strength between fibre and matrix (MPa)
Figure 1.2.4.1 Calculating for the critical length
ftf
Tensile strength
l > 2lcrit l > 2lcrit l > 2lcrit

Fiber length
Figure 1.2.4.2 The critical length of the fibre depends on the tensile strength of the fibre material.
The critical fibre length of smooth fibres can result in fibre lengths that cannot be mixed
into the concrete as they tend to ball from aspect ratios above 100. Decreasing the fibre
length will help disperse the fibres more easily.
1.2.5 DISPERSION
In addition to having a good anchorage in the
hardened concrete, it is essential to achieve
complete distribution of the fibres to achieve a
homogeneous mix, and to benefit from the full
performance benefits of FRC. Full dispersion of
fibres can be influenced by the correct selection of
fibre according to the concrete/mortar mix and the
mixing process. The addition/mixing of fibres may
vary depending on the fibre type used i.e., steel,
synthetic micro, or synthetic macro-fibres and for
loose and collated (glued fibres) products.
Long and thin fibres may tend to ball together and cause problems with mixing, resulting
in poor distribution and much lower performance characteristics. Short and thick fibres
generally tend to show few problems with mixing and have much better dispersion quali-
ties, although the overall performance will be impacted since the fibre is likely to be much
lower than the critical length. Fibres show a good performance in hardened concrete with
an aspect ratio of between 40 – 80. The primary objective is to ensure that fibres are fully
dispersed as quickly as possible in the parent material without balling (fibre hedgehogs).
14
Packaging is also very important for a fast and
homogeneous distribution of the fibres. Many
manufacturers state that fibres should be added
to the mixer as the first material. However, where
fibres are supplied in small pucks, which are bound
together with a water-soluble film, the pucks may
be included to the mixer once all other materials
(including water) are added.
1
Fibres may be supplied in degradable bags or boxes. Fibres packed in degradable bags are
added directly into the mix, slowly. Where fibres are supplied loose, in boxes, the contents
must be emptied slowly and uniformly into the concrete, and boxes discarded.
Mixing time for FRC ultimately depends on the efficiency and shearing action of the con-
crete mixer. High quality forced action pan mixers will offer quicker mixing periods. Truck
mixing is sometimes less efficient, and as a general guide fibre-concrete should be mixed
for a minimum of 5 minutes at full mixing speed once all the concrete ingredients have
been added. Or adding 1 minute per cubic meter mixing time if the fibres are added after
the concrete has been mixed.
The performance of degradable bags may be affected by certain concrete admixtures e.g.,
liquid micro-silica. Therefore, it is important to check compatibility with the manufac-
turer.
In all situations it is important the manufacturer’s recommendations for addition and

mixing of fibres are fully adhered to. Should difficulties be encountered when following
such instructions, it is advised to seek assistance and further guidance from the fibre
manufacturer.
15
1.2.6 CEMENT MATRIX
The quality of the cement matrix is an important influencing factor for the bond strength
with the fibre and ultimately the FRC performance. The same fibre may show a very dif-
ferent performance when embedded into a porous matrix compared to embedding into a
dense matrix.
w/c~0.55 w/c~0.42
Figure 1.2.6: Fibre in relationship to the matrix material
Concrete strength is essentially a measurement of the porosity, which can also be related
to the fibre bond strength within the concrete. This means that a specific fibre may not
have the same performance in different types of concrete. Usually, a fibre will have an
optimum performance with a certain concrete strength, and it is entirely possible that the
same fibre performance could be lower when a higher strength concrete is used.
If the concrete strength reduces the anchorage of the fibre to the matrix also decreases
making it easier for the fibre to pull out. When the concrete strength increases the fibre
anchorage can be too good and the fibre will rupture before the fibre can be pulled out.
Both result in a lower performance of the fibre-reinforced concrete.
16
1
17
2 SUSTAINABILITY
2.1 SUSTAINABILITY
As environmental sustainability is becoming more relevant and urgent every day, the
building industry is addressing this topic by becoming more efficient is key areas:
́́ Improving energy and resource efficiency

́́ Reducing water demand
́́ Building efficient building and infrastructure
́́ Using hazard-free and safe products
The LCA study presented in this chapter concludes that fibres reinforced concrete offers
sustainability benefits compared to traditional reinforced concrete with steel wire fabric
solutions.
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) provides a method to quantify and evaluate potential en-
vironmental impacts throughout the product’s life cycle. In this study, raw materials for
two concrete slab mixtures were assessed. It contains cradle-to-gate impacts for each
component in the mix-design. Impacts from concrete mixing and application are excluded
from the study, as well as use phase impacts, end-of-life treatment, recycling and to final
disposal.
PRODUCT PROOF
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a standardized method to assess and compare the inputs,
outputs and potential environmental impacts of products and systems over their life
span. LCAs are recognized as a convenient way to evaluate the sustainability perfor-
mance.
The LCAs conducted by Sika are performed according to ISO 14040. The impact assess-
ment methodology used is CML 2001. The data for Sika LCAs are based on public data-
bases such as ecoinvent, GaBi by Sphera and specific data collected from Sika production
plants and products.
Software and Database: GaBi 10 software, ecoinvent 3.7.1 and Sphera CUP2021.2
LCIA Method: CML 2001 Method (CML 2001 - Aug. 2016)
18
2.2 LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT
For the fibre reinforced concrete example, three impact categories are used as indicators
to rate the environmental effect.
́́ Global warming potential (GWP 100 years)
́́ Cumulative energy demand (CED)
́́ Photochemical ozone creation potential (POCP)
In this example, a fibre-reinforced concrete slab on ground, with light loading and a good
bearing stratum is being compared with a traditional steel reinforcement solution, com-
prising of mesh or mat sheets. Only raw materials for each concrete slab are assessed,
and impacts from the application are not considered.
The concrete slab size is the same for both scenarios and is taken to be rectangular or 2
square area of 1000 m2 x 150 mm thick. The basic process of casting the slab is to firstly
to prepare the ground and install the ancillary services etc. In this example penetrations,
re-entrant corners etc are not considered. For purposes of the LCA the example is to cast
the concrete on the ground using two techniques.
1. Concrete containing 4 kg/m³ of SikaFiber® Force-50

2. Concrete reinforced with a light mesh in the top of the slab.
Light mesh is open to interpretation and for this example it is assumed to be 3.0 kg/m²
with an additional 10 % for lapping, therefore 3.10 kg/m². For estimating the impacts of
the steel mesh, a dataset for steel wire rod was used.
The concrete performance is the same, with the exception in the case of FRC, the super-
plasticiser has been adjusted to have the same workability as a non-fibre concrete solu-
tion.
Table 2.2.1: Concrete mix designs for the LCA analysis

Parameters Fibre reinforced concrete Traditional steel reinforcement
Mix design Cement 350 kg/m 3
Cement 350 kg/m3
Water content 182 litres´ Water content 182 litres´
Sand 857 kg/m3 Sand 857 kg/m3
Gravel 1007 kg/m³ Gravel 1007 kg/m3
Sika® ViscoCrete® 4.2 kg/m³ Sika® ViscoCrete® 2.8 kg/m3
Additives SikaFiber® Force-50 4 kg/m³ None

Total amount 600 kg´
19
Global Warming Potential [kg CO -eq.], CML 2001
²
Potential contribution to climate change due to greenhouse gases emission
100
80
Reinforcement
GWP [%]
60 Water
Additives
40
Gravel and Sand
20
Cement
0
Concrete Steel Mesh Concrete SikaFiber®
Figure 2.2.1: Global Warming Potential with and without SikaFiber®
Cumulative Energy Demand [MJ]

Total amount of primary energy from renewable and non-renewable resources
100
80
Reinforcement
60
CED [%]
Water
Additives
40
Gravel and Sand
20
Cement
0
Figure 2.2.2: Cumulative energy demand with and withoutt SikaFiber®
20
Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential [POCP]
100
80
Reinforcement
GWP [%]
60 Water
Additives
40
Gravel and Sand
20 2
Cement
0
Figure 2.2.3: Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential with and withoutt SikaFiber®
2.3 EXCESS MATERIAL

Excess material should not be disposed into waterways, drains or sewers and shall be
disposed responsibly through a licensed waste disposal company in accordance with the
relevant legislation and local/regional authority requirements.
Fibres can be extracted from excess fresh concrete using suitable filtering equipment.
Polypropylene fibres will float on water and can be removed, while the heavier particles
sediment downwards. Polypropylene fibres are non-hazardous materials and in theory
can be recycled as plastics, if they are clean and are accepted by the relevant recycler.
Steel fibres can be removed using magnetic equipment. Steel fibres can also be recycled if
also they are accepted by the relevant recycling plant.
21
2.4 DURABILITY
Durability may be defined as the ability to last
a long time without significant deterioration.
Throughout history, concrete has proven itself to
be a most flexible and durable construction mate-
rial. Modern day building and civil engineering proj-
ects rely heavily on the usage of concrete. Howev-
er, conventional concrete is susceptible to cracking
because it has relatively low tensile capacity and
ductility. Cracks are pathways for gases, liquids,
and deleterious solutions entering the concrete,
which lead to the early onset of a deterioration
process in the concrete and reinforcing steel where
present.
The main durability enhancing feature of Fibre Reinforced Concrete (FRC) is its ability
to both minimize and control cracking. This effectively limits the rate at which deleteri-
ous substances such as water, chlorides, and carbon dioxide can enter concrete elements,
thereby prolonging the service life of the structure. Micro and macro fibres are both best
suited to help provide this long-term durability.
An advantage of synthetic fibres is their high resistance to acidic and alkaline environ-
ments, therefore are unaffected by alkalis in cement paste. They are not attacked by
salts or chlorides in aggressive environments and therefore are corrosion free. Synthetic
fibres will soften and melt at high temperatures around 150 to 160 °C, thus losing their
mechanical properties. While this may be a problem for macro synthetic fibres in struc-
tural applications, where there is a risk of fire, micro synthetic fibres were found to help
reduce the potential for explosive spalling and are later described in this manual.
Steel is known to be susceptible to corrosion. If steel fibre reinforced concrete is placed

in a corrosive environment, then the contribution of fibres located at the surface usually
must be ignored. Particular attention is required when considering the use of steel fibres
in very corrosive environments e.g. marine, de-icing salts; where the concrete may expect
to crack e.g. sprayed concrete. The corrosion process will especially accelerate if the con-
crete is under tension. In some situations, the overriding factor are the staining effect
of the corroding fibres on the surface, which may be aesthetically unpleasing. Generally,
steel fibres are protected by the high alkalinity of the cement paste, like traditional steel
reinforcement. Unlike steel reinforcement, the small volume of fibre is considered unlikely
to produce sufficient stresses to cause major cracking issues, unless the concrete sections
are very thin. As the concrete carbonates, consideration must be given as the steel fibres
are no longer protected in a passive environment. In the presence of air and water these
fibres too have the potential to corrode. Since the fibres are discontinuous, galvanic corro-
sion should not be an issue.
22
2.5 ASSOCIATIONS
Sika is working around the world with different Concrete and Admixtures Associations,
to support and promote increasingly sustainable development using concrete admixture
technologies.
2.5.1 EFCA Sika is a member of EFCA, the European Federation of Concrete

Admixtures Associations. EFCA was formed in 1984 from a part-
nership of 12 National Admixture Associations, and now repre-
sents all major admixture manufacturers. EFCA represents the
interests of the members with increasing European construction
legislation and standardisation. 2
2.5.2 LEED LEED stands for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
and originates from the USA in 1993. The first LEED v1.0 was
published in 1998 and latest update v4.1 was released in 2019. The
objective of LEED is to provide a framework for healthy, efficient,
and cost-saving green buildings, and a LEED certification is ac-
cepted in many countries. LEED covers all building types, building
phases and is relevant to new construction, refurbishment, and
maintenance.
2.5.3 MFSA MFSA stands for the Macro Synthetic Fibre Associa-
tion and is a group of companies who came together
to advance the knowledge of macro synthetic fibre
(MSF) concrete reinforcement.
Since the beginnings two distinct groups have emerged which the MFSA have brought
together. These are mainly the fibre manufacturers and the various fibre user groups.
The aims are to promote the benefits, the safe and responsible use of MSF, as well as
developing relevant Standards, codes, and guidelines.
2.5.4 FRCA The Fiber Reinforced Concrete Association is focused on further-

ing the development, knowledge and market of fiber reinforced
concrete (FRC), both synthetic and steel fibers. It consists of ma-
jor manufacturers, suppliers and marketers of the world’s most
popular FRC solutions in the concrete industry.
23
3 STANDARDS
This section identifies many of the guidance documents which are available to under-
stand fibres and fibre reinforced concrete.
The main Standards related to performance referred to in this handbook are from Europe-
an-EU & North American-ASTM.
DOCUMENT PUBLISHER TITLE USE

REFERENCE
EN 14889-1 European Standard Fibres for concrete –
Part 1- Steel Fibres Definitions, specifications,
EN 14889-2 European Standard Fibres for concrete – and conformity
Part 2- Polymer Fibres
ASTM A820 / A820M American Society for Standard Specification for
Testing and Materials Steel Fibres for Fibre-
Reinforced Concrete Materials, manufacture,
properties, workmanship
ASTM D7508 / D7508M American Society for Standard Specification for certification and packaging
Testing and Materials Polyolefin Chopped Strands
for Use in Concrete
24
3.1 GUIDANCE
There are numerous other documents relevant to fibres and fibre reinforced concrete.
Some documents may originally have been drafted for steel fibres although have since
been adopted for synthetic fibres. Some of these documents will be referred to also in
this handbook.
The aim of these documents is to give practical advice about the types of fibres, material
properties, test methods for characterisation, design concepts, mixing placing and ap-
plication. In using these documents, the reader should have experience with conventional
steel reinforcement.
American Concrete Institute

REFERENCE
ACI 209.2R American Concrete Institute Guide for Modelling and Used for slabs-on- 3
Calculating Shrinkage and ground/grade
Creep in Hardened Concrete
ACI 318M American Concrete Institute Building Code Requirements General aspects of FRC
for Structural Concrete
ACI 360R American Concrete Institute Guide to Design of Design, specification, and
Slabs-on-Ground construction methods
ACI 506.1R American Concrete Institute Guide to Shotcrete Products, application,

equipment, labour
ACI 544.4R-18 American Concrete Institute Guide to Design with Design and specification
Fibre-Reinforced-Concrete
National Standards
REFERENCE
CNR-DT 204/2006 Italian National Research Guide for the Design and Materials, design
Council Advisory Construction of Fibre-Reinforced concepts, construction,
Committee on Technical Concrete Structures
Recommendations for
Construction
DAfStB German Committee for Part 1: Dimensioning and FRC design using steel
Reinforced Concrete construction fibres
Part 2: Definition, properties,
manufacture, and conformity
Part 3: Instructions for execution
JSCE-SF 4 Japanese standard Flexural strength and toughness Test method
of fibre reinforced concrete
NZS 3101 New Zealand Standard Concrete Structure Standard SFRC design and fire
resistance
SIA 162/6 Swiss Standard Testing and design basics SFRC design
SS 812310 Swedish Standard Fibre Concrete - Design of FRC design
Fibre Concrete Structures
25
European References
REFERENCE
Eurocode 2: EN European Standard Design of concrete Principles of concrete design
1992-1-1:2004 structures Part 1-1:
General rules and rules for
buildings
Eurocode 2: EN European Standard Design of concrete Passive fire resistance using
1992-1-2:2004 structures — Part 1-2: fibres
General rules — Structural
fire design
EN 14487-1 European Standard Sprayed concrete - Part 1: Fibres for sprayed concrete
Definitions, specifications,
and conformity
Additional Guidance
REFERENCE
fib Model Code for International Federation of Chapter 5 Materials: 5.6 FRC design
Concrete Structures Structural Concrete Fibres/fibre Reinforced
Concrete
ITAtech Report N°7/ The International Guidance for Precast FRC for precast concrete
April 2016 Tunnelling and Under- Fibre Reinforced Concrete tunnel segments
ground Space Association Segments – Vol 1 Design
Aspects
RILEM TC 162-TDF The International Union of Reinforced concrete – Test FRC design and testing
laboratories and Experts and design methods for
in Construction Materials, Steel fibre
Systems and Structures
Concrete Society Technical Reports

REFERENCE
Technical Report 34 The Concrete Society, UK Concrete Industrial Ground Key aspects about industrial
Floors – A Guide to Design slabs-on-ground
and Construction
Technical Report 63 The Concrete Society, UK Guidance for the Design SRFC design
of Steel-Fibre-Reinforced
Concrete
Technical Report 65 The Concrete Society, UK Guidance on the use of Synthetic FRC design
Macro-synthetic-fibre
Reinforced Concrete
Technical Report 66 The Concrete Society, UK External In-situ Concrete Key aspects about external
Paving slabs-on-ground
26
3.2 CERTIFICATION
Since 1985, a European CE marking represents a
manufacturer’s declaration that product placed
in any EU country complies with an EU directive.
The Conformitè Europëenne (CE) Mark was set-up
by the European Union (EU) for regulating goods
sold within the European Economic Area (EEA). All
defined goods produced or entering must have a
mandatory conformity marking before they can be
sold.
By displaying a CE logo, the manufacturer confirms the good's conformity with European
health, safety, and environmental protection standards.
In contrast, North America has the ASTM Standards whereby the manufacturer declares
3
conformity on the product documentation according the requirements stated in the Stan-
dard.
3.2.1 EN 14889: PARTS 1 AND 2
EN 14889-1 and EN 14889-2 were approved and released in 2006. Both Standards relate
to structural and non-structural use of fibres in concrete, mortar, or grout. Part 1 specified
the requirements for steel fibres and Part 2 for polymer fibres. The Standard structure is
divided into definitions, requirements, and conformity.
Table 3.2.1.1: Main contents of EN 14889: Parts 1 and 2

SECTION CONTENT DESCRIPTION
Foreword Information to member states
1 Scope Content of the standard
2 Normative references Cross references to other relevant Standards
3 Terms and definitions Clarification of specific wording
4 Symbols Clarification of abbreviations
5 Requirements How to define the fibre group, geometric,
performance and safety
6 Evaluation and conformity Definition of the initial type testing and factory
production control
Annex ZA Informative Relationship with EU Constructions Product
Directive (89/106/EEC)
27
The Standards referred to in EN 14889-1 /-2 required for purposes of the CE.
STANDARD TITLE Steel Polymer
EN 10002-1 [1]
Metallic materials – Tensile testing – Part 1:
 
Methods of test at ambient temperatures
EN 10218-1 Steel and wire products – General – Part 1:

Test methods
EN 12350-3 Testing fresh concrete – Part 3: Vebe test  
EN 13392 Textiles – Monofilaments – Determination of linear density 
EN 14845-1 Test methods for fibres in concrete – part 1:
 
Reference Concrete
EN 14845-2 Test methods for fibres in concrete – Part 2:
 
Effect on Concrete
EN ISO 2062 Textiles – Yarns from packages – Determination of single-end

breaking force and elongation at break (ISO 2062:1993)
EN ISO 6892[2] Metallic materials – Tensile testing – Part 1:
 
Method of test at room temperature (ISO 68921:2019)
ISO 11357-3 Plastics – Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) – Part 3:
Determination of temperature and enthalpy of melting and 
crystallisation
[1]
This Standard has been withdrawn, is still referred to in EN 14889-1:2006 and EN 14889-2:2006 and will
be replaced by EN ISO 6892:2016
[2]
Will supersede EN 10002-1 in the next update of EN 14889-1 and 2
In addition, the required test method is specified in EN 14845-1

STANDARD TITLE Steel Polymer
EN 14651 Test method for metallic fibred concrete – Measuring the
 
flexural strength (limit of proportionality) (LOP), residual
28
SYSTEMS
Fibres in EN 14889 Parts 1 and 2 are designated AVCP system 1 or system 3, according to
table ZA.2.
System 1 are defined as structural fibres and the manufacturer must engage the services
of a Notified Body to assess the performances of the initial type testing, factory produc-
tion control and continuous surveillance of the process.
Non-structural fibres are defined as system 3. A notified body is responsible for assessing
the performances of the initial type testing, whilst the manufacturer is responsible for
their own factory production control and continual assessment.
Table ZA.2 from EN 14889:1 and 2

Product(s) Intended use(s) Level s or classe(s) Attestation of conformity
system(s)
Polymer / steel fibres for structural uses in see Table ZA.1 1
concrete mortar or grout
3
Polymer / steel fibres for other uses in concrete mor- see Table ZA.1 3
tar or grout
System 1: See Directive 89/106 EEC (CPD) Annex III.2.(i), without audit testing of samples
System 3: See Directive 89/106 EEC (CPD) Annex III.2.(ii), Second possibility
Table ZA.1 of a Standard summarises the scope and characteristics of the product which
are relevant for the CE marking, lists the essential characteristics and relevant clauses.
There are three main tests required to be performed for the CE.
DESCRIPTION RELEVANT STANDARDS FIBRE TYPE

Tensile properties (tenacity) and EN ISO 2062 Class I – micro
modulus of elasticity
EN 10002-1 Class II – macro
(evt. EN ISO 6892)
Effect on consistence EN 14895-2 Class I and II
(Vebe Test)
Effect on strength of concrete EN 14845- 1 /-2 Class II
(Beam Test) EN 14651
29
Table ZA.1 from EN 14889 Part 2 Scope and relevant clauses
Product
Polymer fibres in concrete mortar or grout
Intended use
Essential Requirement clauses in Mandated level(s) and/or Notes
Characteristics this or other European class(es)
Standard. (This standard
unless otherwise stated)
Tensile properties / 5.4 and 5.5 none declared values
Modulus of elasticity
Effect on consistence 5.7 none declared value
(workability) of concrete
Effect on strength of 5.2, 5.3 and 5.8 none declared values
concrete
Release of dangerous 5.10 and ZA.1 none requirements are depen-
substances dent on regulations in
the place of use
Durability - - Durability relates to the
concrete incorporating
fibres
TOLERANCES
Tolerances are an important aspect for fibres to maintain a level of quality. Table 1 of EN
14889 stipulates tolerances for length and (equivalent) diameter which shall not deviate
from the declared value. Samples are taken from the production for purposes of initial
type testing and factory production control and the fibre manufacturer must comply with
the requirements.
Once the requirements of the annex in the Standards are achieved, for system 3 the
manufacturer can produce a Declaration of Performance (DOP) and affix a CE marking to
the product in accordance with ZA 2.2 and ZA.3. For system 1 products the certification
body will issue a Certificate of Conformity to the manufacturer, which entitles the manu-
facturer to affix the CE marking and produce a DOP.
30
7 DECLARED PERFORMANCE/S
Harmonised
Essential Characteristics Performance AVCP Technical
Specification
SikaFiber® Force-50
Tensile strength 450 N/mm2 System 1
Modulus of elasticity 7,5 kN/mm2 System 1
Effect on consistence (workability)
8 sec System 1
DECLARATION OF PERFORMANCE
of concrete EN 14889-
Effect on strength of concrete 4 kg/m3 System 1 2:2006
No. 53568252 Release of dangerous substances

Durability
NPD
NPD
1 UNIQUE IDENTIFICATION *) Fiber specification: length 50 mm, diameter 0,715 mm, shape deformed
CODE OF THE PRODUCT- 53568252
TYPE: 8 APPROPRIATE TECHNICAL DOCUMENTATION AND/OR -
SPECIFIC TECHNICAL DOCUMENTATION
2 INTENDED USE/S The performance of the product identified above is in conformity with the set of
EN 14889-2:2006
Polymer fibers for use in concrete mortar or grout declared performance/s. This declaration of performance is issued, in accordance with
Regulation (EU) No 305/2011, under the sole responsibility of the manufacturer
3 MANUFACTURER: Sika Services AG identified above.
Tüffenwies 16-22
8064 Zürich Signed for and on behalf of the manufacturer by:
Name : Tomasz Gutowski Function: Name : Tatiana Ageyeva
4 AUTHORISED Corporate Standardization and Function: Standardization and
REPRESENTATIVE: Approvals Approvals At Warsaw on 06 December
At Warsaw on 06 December 2018 2018
5 SYSTEM/S OF AVCP: System 1
6a HARMONISED STANDARD: EN 14889-2:2006

. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Notified body/ies: 0761
End of information as required by Regulation (EU) No 305/2011
Declaration of Performance Template for translation. Only for Declaration of Performance Template for translation. Only for
SikaFiber® Force-50 internal use SikaFiber® Force-50 internal use
53568252 53568252
2018.12 , ver. 1 2018.12 , ver. 1
1011 1011
1/4 2/4
3
Example DOP SikaFiber® Force-50
RELATED DECLARATION OF PERFORMANCE

18 Product Name Harmonised technical specifica�on DoP Number
Sika Services AG, Zurich, Switzerland SikaFiber PPM 12 EN 14889-2:2006 49104703
DoP No. 53568252 SikaFiber PPM 12 EN 14889-2:2006 85267750
EN 14889-2:2006
Notified Body 0761
Polymer fibers for use in concrete mortar or grout
Tensile strength 450 N/mm2

Modulus of elasticity 7,5 kN/mm2 17
Effect on consistence (workability) of concrete 8 sec Sika Services AG, Zurich, Switzerland
Effect on strength of concrete 4 kg/m3 49454966
EN 14889-2:2006
No�fied Body 1136
Polymer fibers in concrete mortar or grout
*) Fiber specification: length 50 mm, diameter 0,715 mm, shape deformed

Tensile proper�es 30 cN/tex
Effect on consistence (workability) 8 sec
http://dop.sika.com h�p://dop.sika.com
Example of the CE marking for SikaFiber® Force-50 and SikaFiber® PPM-12

ECOLOGY, HEALTH AND SAFETY INFORMATION (REACH) ECOLOGY, HEALTH AND SAFETY INFORMATION (REACH)
For information and advice on the safe handling, storage and disposal of chemical products, users shall refer to the most recent For informa�on and advice on the safe handling, storage and disposal of chemical products, users shall refer to the most recent
Safety Data Sheet (SDS) containing physical, ecological, toxicological and other safety related data. Safety Data Sheet (SDS) containing physical, ecological, toxicological and other safety related data.
LEGAL NOTE LEGAL NOTE

The information, and, in particular, the recommendations relating to the application and end-use of Sika products, are given in The informa�on, and, in par�cular, the recommenda�ons rela�ng to the applica�on and end-use of Sika products, are given in
good faith based on Sika's current knowledge and experience of the products when properly stored, handled and applied under good faith based on Sika's current knowledge and experience of the products when properly stored, handled and applied under
normal conditions in accordance with Sikas recommendations. In practice, the differences in materials, substrates and actual site normal condi�ons in accordance with Sikas recommenda�ons. In prac�ce, the differences in materials, substrates and actual site
conditions are such that no warranty in respect of merchantability or of fitness for a particular purpose, nor any liability arising out condi�ons are such that no warranty in respect of merchantability or of fitness for a par�cular purpose, nor any liability arising out
of any legal relationship whatsoever, can be inferred either from this information, or from any written recommendations, or from of any legal rela�onship whatsoever, can be inferred either from this informa�on, or from any wri�en recommenda�ons, or from
any other advice offered. The user of the product must test the products suitability for the intended application and purpose. Sika any other advice offered. The user of the product must test the products suitability for the intended applica�on and purpose. Sika
reserves the right to change the properties of its products. The proprietary rights of third parties must be observed. All orders are reserves the right to change the proper�es of its products. The proprietary rights of third par�es must be observed. All orders are
accepted subject to our current terms of sale and delivery. Users must always refer to the most recent issue of the local Product accepted subject to our current terms of sale and delivery. Users must always refer to the most recent issue of the local Product
Data Sheet for the product concerned, copies of which will be supplied on request. Data Sheet for the product concerned, copies of which will be supplied on request.
Declara�on of Performance Template for transla�on. Only for

Declaration of Performance Template for translation. Only for SikaFiber PPM 12 internal use
SikaFiber® Force-50 internal use 49454966
53568252 2020.03 , ver. 1
2018.12 , ver. 1 1165
1011
3/4
3/4
31
3.2.2 ASTM D7508/D7508M
ASTM D7508/D7508M Standard Specification for Polyolefin Chopped Strands covers the
requirements for polyolefin chopped strands fibres in concrete. It was developed in ac-
cordance with principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for
the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by
the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee. All polyolefin
chopped fibres used in concrete must also comply with the specification given in ASTM
C1116/C1116M.
Table 3.2.2.1: Main contents of ASTM D7508/D7508M

2 Referenced documents Summary to other relevant Standards
3 Terminology Definitions used in the Standard
SPECIFICATIONS
4 Chopped strands for FRC Information to manufacturers
5 Summary Summary of testing procedures
6 Significance and use Acceptance and correlation testing
7 Sampling and number of specimens Guidance notes
8 Fibre length and permissible variations Guidance notes
9 Linear density, cross sectional area, Procedures
equivalent diameter of FRC strand and
finish content
10 Tensile and tenacity Properties Procedures
11 Conformance Quality control guidance
32
The additional Standards referred to ASTM D7508/D7508M, are either test methods or
further guidance.
STANDARD CONTENT DESCRIPTION
ASTM C1116/ Guidance Specification for fibre-reinforced concrete
C1116M
ASTM D123 Guidance Terminology relating to textiles
ASTM D1776 Guidance Practice for conditioning and testing textiles
ASTM D1577 Denier Test method for linear density of textile fibres
ASTM D1907 Linear density Linear density of yarn by Skein method
ASTM D2256 Tenacity Test method for tensile properties of yarns by
Tensile single-strand method
Elongation
Initial
Modus
ASTM D2257 Finish content Test method for extractable matter in textiles
ASTM D2258 Guidance Practice for sampling yarn for testing 3
ASTM D3218 Acceptance testing Specification for polyolefin monofilaments
TOLERANCES
Product tolerances are defined from testing 30 representative fibres from 10 randomly
selected grab samples from different set intervals. The tolerances are defined in section 8
of ASTM C1116/C1116M.
CONFORMANCE
Conformance can be defined between the purchaser or supplier or using table 1 in the Stan-
dard. A delivery is deemed valid when the test results conform to these agreed tolerances.
Table 3.2.2.2 Table 1 from ASTM D7508/7508M

Chopped Strands Attributes Micro Chopped Strands Macro Chopped Strands Hybrids Chopped Strands
Compliance with Specification Required Required Required
C1116/C1116M, Type III
Denier 580 or less 581 or greater As Designated - Must be stated
Finish Content 1.5 % max. 1 % max. 1.5 % max. on Micro Portion
1 % max. on Macro Portion
Tensile Strength N/A Greater than Micro Portion N/A
344.4 MPa [50 000 psi] Macro Portion - Greater than
344.4 MPa [50 000 psi]
Cut Length 3 - 50 mm 12 - 65 mm As Designated - Must be stated
Fibres must also comply with the requirements of Annex B of ICC ES AC32 for alkali
resistance.
33
3.2.3 ASTM A820/A820M
ASTM A820/A820M is the Standard Specification for Steel Fibres for Fibre-Reinforced
Concrete and covers the minimum requirements for five types of steel fibres.
Table 3.2.3.1: Main contents of ASTM A820/A820M

2 Referenced documents Summary to other relevant Standards
3 Terminology Definitions used in the Standard
4 Classification Types of steel fibre
5 Ordering information Information required
6 Materials and manufacture Guidance notes
7 Mechanical properties Testing procedures
8 Dimensions and permissible variations Procedures
9 Workmanship, finish, and appearance Guidance notes
10 Inspection Guidance notes
11 Rejection and rehearing Guidance notes
12 Certification Guidance notes
13 Packaging and package marking Guidance notes
The additional Standards referred to in ASTM A820/A820M, are either test methods or
further guidance.
STANDARD TITLE
ASTM A370 Test methods and definitions for mechanical testing of steel products
ASTM A700 Guide for packaging, marking, and loading methods for steel products for shipment
ASTM C1116/C1116M Specification for fibre-reinforced concrete
In ASTM A820/A820M, there are references also to documents produced by the

American Concrete Institute (ACI).
DOCUMENT TITLE
ACI 506.1R Guide to fibre-reinforced shotcrete
ACI 544.1R Report of fibre-reinforced concrete
34
4 FIBRE PROPERTIES
4.1 TERMINOLOGY
Fibre types
Monofilament / Single fibre strand which may be circular or irregular in cross section
Multifilament fibres
Embossed fibres Fibres which have been pressed with indentations into the surface
Fibrillated fibres Fibres when stretched out have a branch or net structure 4
Fibre characteristics
Length Distance between outer ends or length of a deformed fibre mm /
after straightening without deforming the cross section inch
Equivalent Diameter Diameter of a circle with an area equal to the mean cross mm /
section inch
Aspect ratio Length/equivalent diameter ratio
Linear density Mass per unit length filament 1 denier = 1g/9000m Denier
Linear density Mass per unit length filament 1 tex = 1g/1000m Tex
Breaking force Maximum force a fibre can resist kN, cN, lb, k
Tensile strength Maximum force divided by the mean cross-sectional area MPa/Psi
Tenacity Breaking force divided by linear density cN/tex
Elongation Ratio of length change to initial length %
E-modulus Initial slope of the tensile strength versus elongation curve GPa
or slope of the tensile stress versus tensile strain curve
35
Fibre Testing
Peak flexural strength or The maximum flexural tensile stress in a beam test MPa/ksi
modulus of rupture MOR
Limit of proportionality The point where on the load/deflection or stress/strain graph, MPa/ksi
the curve departs from the initial linear response.
Residual flexural The post crack strength measured from a bending test after MPa/ksi
strength the peak flexural strength has been exceeded
Re3 The equivalent flexural strength ratio determined from a %
beam test up to a deflection of 3 mm
CMOD Crack Mouth Opening Displacement and determined from mm/inch
beam tests. It is the opening distance between the opposite
faces of a notch which is cut into the bottom of a beam.
Energy absorption Ability of a FRC to sustain loads after cracking and Joules
determined from a load-deflection concrete panel test
Deflection The measure linear displacement of a specimen subject to mm/inch
a loading
Fibre application
Balling Clumps or clusters of fibres that have formed due to various reasons
Fibre count The number of fibres in a unit volume of concrete
Figure 4.1.1: Fresh concrete without balling Figure 4.1.2: Fresh concrete with balling
36
4.2 CLASSIFICATION
EN 14889 PARTS 1 and 2
European Standard EN 14889-Part 2 characterises fibres according to their diameter. The

length of the fibre is not considered in the classification.
Class Ia: Micro-fibres: < 0,30 mm in diameter; Monofilament

Class Ib Micro-fibres: < 0,30 mm in diameter; Fibrillated
Class II Macro-fibres: > 0,30 mm in diameter
Micro-fibres having a diameter less than 0.3 mm are further sub-divided according to
their form, these being monofilament or fibrillated. Class II macro fibres are not further
sub-divided.
ASTM D7508/D7508M
ASTM D7508/D7508M also defines fibres into two categories based on their denier and
diameter. 4
(a) Macro polyolefin fibre which has linear density greater than or equal to 580 deniers
(equivalent diameter ≥ 0.3 mm)
(b) Micro polyolefin fibre which has a linear density of less than 580 denier
(equivalent diameter < 0.3 mm)
The standard also defines hybrid fibres which include a combination of macro polyolefin
and micro polyolefin fibres, multi-length fibres, which consist of chopped strands of vari-
ous lengths of fibre and graded fibres which consists of a gradation of multiple lengths
and multiple denier fibres.
4.3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

4.3.1 LENGTH
The length of the fibre must be declared and is measured from the extremity of each end.
4.3.2 DIAMETER
The cross section of a fibre can be round, elliptical, rectangular, or irregular. Circular, ellipti-
cal, or rectangular cross sections are determined with optical measuring equipment for
fibre diameters less than 0.3 mm and using a micrometre, to a precision of 0.001 mm, for
fibres greater than 0.3 mm.
Fibres with an irregular cross section are said to have an equivalent diameter and must be
determined from the fibre length, weight, and material density.
37
EN 14889-2 METHOD OF DETERMINING EQUIVALENT DIAMETER
Procedure for determining an equivalent diameter
1. The mass of the strand shall be determined to an accuracy of 0.001 g

2. The length of the strand shall be determined to an accuracy of 0.01 mm
3. The equivalent diameter shall be determined from the following equation [1]
4. The cross-sectional area shall be determined according to equation [2]
4 mf · 103
Equation [1] de = equivalent diameter
π · ld · ρ
Where ρ = 0.9g/cm3 Equation [2] - Refer to 4.3.3)

mf = Mass (g)
ld = developed length in mm
D7508/D7508M METHOD OF DETERMINING EQUIVALENT DIAMETER
For strands with a rectangular cross section, the width and thickness are measured
and equivalent diameter is calculated.
4 wt Where d = equivalent diameter in mm

d = t = measured thickness of strand in mm
π
w = measured width of strand in mm
For irregular cross section fibres, the equivalent diameter is calculated from the
linear density (tex or denier).
tex denier Where

4 4 d = equivalent diameter in mm
1000 9000
d = or d = ρ = unit density of polyolefin g/cm3
πρ πρ
4.3.3 CROSS SECTIONAL AREA
Equation [2] π x d/4 cross-sectional area
4.3.4 DENSITY
The nominal density of polypropylene is 0.905 g/cm3 and for steel it is generally given by
the steel fibre supplier in kg/m3.
38
4.4 STRENGTH
The main strength tests for fibres are tensile strength and the E-modulus.
CLAUSE STANDARD TEST STANDARDS
5.3 and 5.4 EN 14889-1 (steel) EN 10002-1[1]
5.4 and 5.5 EN 14889-2 (synthetic) EN ISO 2062 / EN 10002-1[1]
7 ASTM A820/A820M (steel) ASTM A370
10 ASTM D7508/D7508M (synthetic) ASTM D1776 / D2256 / D3218
[1]
Withdrawn Standard but still referred to in EN 14889-Parts 1 and 2: 2006
The methods used in these standards to determine tensile strength and E-modulus are
very different and leave room for interpretation. As a result, potentially all fibre manu-
facturers test their products using different test methods and machine settings. For this
reason, the declared values for tensile strength and E-modulus in product data sheets are
not always comparable. Equally a declared value does not always reflect the quality of the
fibre, or performance in the concrete 4
4.4.1 TENSILE STRENGTH
The tensile strength of a micro or macro fibre is

the maximum stress it can withstand while being
stretched or pulled before breaking. This value is
divided by the cross-sectional area of the fibre and
is measured as force per unit area (N/mm2 / ksi).
Often fibres are not perfectly round, square, or
rectangular, therefore, the equivalent cross-sec-
tional area must be determined from the weight,
length, and density of the fibre.
Tensile strength is usually tested using a Uni-

versal Testing Machine. To prevent slippage, the
Figure 4.4.1.1: Universal Testing Machine with a flat- equipment can be fitted with clamps consisting
faced clamping system, incorporating a tactile exten-
of two flat-faced jaws which are adjusted for the
someter for very precise determination of the strain
fibre length and apply a strain until the specimen
ruptures. (Figure 4.4.1). There are also snubbing type clamps also referred to as capstan or
drums as shown in figure 4.4.2. The use of a flat-faced clamp with a tactile extensometer
or snubbing-type clamping system are recommended to correct the imprecision of the
elongation. Flat-faced clamps may often be associated with testing thin fibres, whereas
the snubbing clamps can be used to prevent slippage for thicker fibres, with a high break-
ing force.
39
It is essential to define the specific pa-
rameters before testing and to make sure
these are included in the test report.
́́ Strain rate (%/min) [1]

́́ Test speed (mm/min)
́́ Gauge length (mm)
[1]
derived from the test speed divided by
the gauge length multiplied by 100%
Figure 4.4.1.2: Snubbing clamp referred to ASTM D 2256–02
Testing is normally carried out on a minimum 30 strands. From the spread of results
the manufacturer can decide which value to declare, although the relevant Standards
(EN14889-1 /-2 and ASTM D7508/D7508M and A820/A820M) defines a maximum allow-
able difference between the declared value, and the upper and lower values. The manu-
facturer will also define from where in the production process the strands are removed
for testing. For example, tensile tests are typically carried out on the embossed fibre (the
finished product) whereas for undulated or crimped fibres the test is better carried out on
the pre-undulated or crimped fibre. The reason for this is because the initial elongation to
straighten an undulated or crimped fibre affects the result interpretation.
4.4.2 E-MODULUS
The E-modulus is a measure for the stiffness of a material. At near-zero stress and strain,
the stress–strain curve is linear which means that stress is proportional to strain. The
higher the E modulus, the more stress is needed to reach the same degree of elongation
in this region.
In tensile testing of plastics, E-modulus typically is determined as a secant modulus.

This means that a line is drawn through the points at 0.05% and 0.25% elongation on
the stress-strain curve and E-Modulus is determined from the line of the slope. The two
points at 0.05% and 0.25% elongation are chosen for the determination of the secant
modulus, as in this range of deformation plastics show linear-viscoelastic behaviour. Lin-
ear-viscoelastic behaviour means, that elongation is reversible. Most plastics show non-
linear-viscoelastic behaviour with irreversible deformations at a strain of greater 0.3%.
40
4.4.3 ELONGATION
Elongation of fibers is a measure of the deformation that occurs before material eventu-
ally breaks when subjected to a tensile load. Elongation is measured as a percentage (%)
of stretch from the material’s original length to the point of failure. It is fair to say that
polymer fibers generally have a higher elongation percentage when compared to steel
fibers. However, the selection of fiber reinforcement material should not be based solely
on this property.
4.4.4 CREEP
Typically, steel fibres do not exhibit a creep behaviour in normal service conditions below
370°C (700°F). Synthetic fibres are visco-elastic and therefore may be susceptible to
long term creep due to high stresses. But for slabs on ground/grade or shotcrete where
the stresses are lower and with continuous support, creep has not been considered a
determining factor for synthetic fibres.
4.5 SYNTHETIC CHEMICAL PROPERTIES 4
4.5.1 TEMPERATURES
Melting Point of commercially available homopolymer polypropylene (PP) generally has

a range from 160 – 165 degrees Celsius. (320 – 329 degrees Fahrenheit). Polypropylene
fibres soften under heat at around +140 to +150°C (+284 to +302 degrees Fahrenheit)
and at temperatures up to +120°C (+248 degrees Fahrenheit) PP-fibres mostly retain all
their normal mechanical properties.
Melt Flow Index is the rate of extrusion of thermoplastics through a specified orifice/
dye size at a prescribed temperature and load. Melt Flow Index has significantly more
influence in the production of extruded plastic fibers than it does in their usage as con-
crete reinforcement. It provides a means of measuring the flow of molten material and
can differentiate grades of polypropylene or other plastic materials. Melt Flow Index
refers to the amount of polymer that is extruded through the specified orifice/dye and is
expressed as a quantity in grams/ 10 mins. Variations in melt flow properties can have a
detrimental effect on the productivity and end quality of fibers.
Decomposition Temperature often described as thermal degradation is the breaking

down of the chemical compound into small components as a result of heating and does
not recombine on cooling. Depending on the product and environment polypropylene
has a decomposition temperature in the range of 250 – 425 degrees celsius (482 - 797
degrees Fahrenheit).
In Cold Temperatures polypropylene fibres keep their flexibility until 5°C (41 degrees
Fahrenheit), and at sustained temperatures below 0°C (32 degrees Fahrenheit) the ex-
posed fibres become brittle.
41
4.5.2 MOISTURE / ABSORPTION
Polypropylene (PP) is a hydrophobic polymer, which reflects the negligible amount of wa-
ter absorbed by PP-fibres. As PP-fibres do not absorb moisture the fibres do not change
their volume or dimensions in different humidity, or when wet. In a 24-hour soak test, the
material absorbs less than 0.01% of its weight in water.
4.5.3 CHEMICAL RESISTANCE
Polypropylene (PP) is resistant to all non-oxidising inorganic-based acids solvents and

chemicals, which also means it is alkali resistant. PP has no long-term resistance to fuels
and some organic solvents but is resistant to many polar liquids such as alcohols, organic
acids, esters, ketones, aqueous solutions of inorganic salts.
4.5.4 UV RESISTANCE
Polypropylene (PP) is not UV resistant and needs to be stored and protected from direct
sunlight. UV rays can degrade PP when exposed sustained direct sunlight. However, with
macro and micro synthetic (PP) fibres the materials are completely embedded in the
concrete where UV light cannot penetrate, meaning that UV degradation is not an issue.
Furthermore, good quality synthetic fibre will generally have an UV stabilizer in their com-
position so that even near-surface fibres do not suffer deterioration.
4.5.5 SURFACTANT COATINGS
A surfactant coating is an agent used in the manufacturing process of synthetic fibers

which essentially reduces the surface tension between the molten polymers and the ex-
trusion equipment, thereby ensuring continuity and quality of the extrusion process.
A surfactant coating can also enhance the dispersion qualities of the fibers when intro-
duced into a concrete or cementitious mix. Careful selection of a surfactant coating is
necessary in the production of synthetic fibers as some types are known to entrain higher
levels of air content in mixed concrete.
42
5 FIBRE TYPES
5.1 MICRO FIBRES

Synthetic micro-fibres have been used in construction for many years and originate from
the carpet manufacturing industry. These fibres were found to have a positive effect
on the fresh concrete properties, as well as increasing durability, and led to a large early
increase in the usage of this type of fibre. Nowadays, synthetic micro-fibres are often a
standard stocked item with ready-mixed concrete suppliers.
Often cost/performance is an overriding factor when selecting micro fibres, therefore the
most common materials are polypropylene (PP).
5
The two main different types of synthetic micro-fibres.
Monofilament fibres [1] Fibrillated fibres
[1]
Sometimes referred to multifilament by the textile industry because of the process of
extruding fibres through a multi-headed dye head
43
5.1.1 TYPES OF SYNTHETIC MICRO-FIBRES
Numerous types of synthetic micro-fibre materials are now available to the construction
market including, acrylic, aramid, carbon, nylon, polyester, polyethylene, and polypropyl-
ene. Additionally, there are many naturally occurring products including coconut, sisal, jute,
and bamboo which are creating interest. The selection of materials can be dependent on
the specific application, benefits required and of course availability of material.
Where there is a need to reduce plastic shrinkage and settlement cracking in concrete the
most widely used material is polypropylene. This is largely because the material is read-
ily available and commercially viable. For crack bridging and load transfer a fibre type with
a higher tensile strength and E-Modulus is required e.g., glass, basalt, or carbon. For fire
protection and reduction of explosive spalling a fibre material with a low melting point is
required e.g., polypropylene or PVA.
5.1.2 IMPACT ON FRESH CONCRETE
Micro-fibres will impact the workability of fresh concrete, depending on the fibre type and
dosage. Introducing fibres increases the surface area that needs to be covered by the ce-
ment paste. If nothing is changed to the original mix design the concrete will generally only
feel more cohesive. Whilst this cohesiveness can reduce the slump of the concrete, it is not
necessarily an indication of reduced workability and is purely a thixotropic effect caused by
the fibres which can be corrected with the use of admixtures.
Table 5.1.2.1 compares the number of fibres per kg in relation to the length and equivalent
diameter of PP-fibres. The fibre deniers used in this table represent the most commonly
available products in the marketplace. Usually, fibres are dosed by weight per cubic meter/
cubic yard of concrete or mortar. Depending on the fibre geometry the same dosage
weight can lead to different concrete properties.
Table 5.1.2.1: Monofilament fibres per kg dosage according to fibre length and denier
Fibre Count / kg
Fibre Length
18 Micron 22 Micron 32 Micron 34 Micron
(mm)
2.1 denier 3.1 denier 6.6 deniers 7.4 denier
6 718,349,627 480,878,676 227,290,312 201,336,747
12 344,867,821 230,821,764 109,099,350 96,641,638
19 226,847,251 151,856,424 71,775,888 63,580,025
44
The fibre with the lowest diameter and length will
provide the highest fibre count per kg dosage. This
can be a key feature/characteristic of the synthetic
micro-fibre when used to prevent early age crack-
ing and can be used in lower dosages as a result.
Whilst this seems to be a reasonable argument
the specifier must also consider the impact of very
fine fibres on the workability of the fresh concrete.
This is because a higher fibre count will invariably
increase the total surface area of the fibres and
for them to function correctly in the mix the fibres
need to be fully coated with cement paste.
It follows that very fine materials will have a greater water-cement paste demand. The
effect on air content should also be checked as fibres with high fibre counts and, there-
fore, surface area may have an impact on entrapped air in the mix which can influence
target strengths of the concrete.
In a flow-table test to EN 12350-5, the addition of 600g 12 mm long x 32µm fibres re-
duced the workability of a reference concrete by 10%. The air content in the same refer-
ence concrete increased by 30%, from 1.75% to 2.3%. While this may not be dramatic it
5
illustrates why it is recommended to pre-check these parameters.
720 2,5
700
Air content %
2
680
Flow table spread mm
660 1.5
640
1
620
0.5 Flow Table Spread [mm]
600 Air Content [%]
580 0
Reference concrete Reference concrete
without fibres + 600g PP
micro-fibres
(12mm / 0.32mm)
Figure 5.1.2.1: Impact on fresh properties of a reference concrete with PP micro-fibre addition
When concrete is vibrated fibres tend to release their grip on the cement paste and the
concrete will flow normally. This cohesive effect is often misunderstood by concrete
operatives and may wrongly lead to additional water being added to the concrete. This
should be avoided as it will reduce mechanical strengths and may cause bleeding. If there
is an unexpected loss in workability, then the adjustments should be made with the mix
design.
45
5.1.3 INFLUENCE ON CRACKING
The tendency for concrete to crack has for years been accepted as natural to its use. The
main reason cracks occur in concrete are because internal stresses exceed the concrete
strength. Stresses from external forces can be offset by providing higher compressive
strengths. However, intrinsic stresses caused by chemical reactions/shrinkage within the
newly placed concrete itself have historically been a problem to control because of their
unpredictability.
Table 5.1.3.1: Shrinkage stages can lead to cracking

INTRINSIC STRESSES THAT CAUSE CONCRETE CRACKING
Type PRIMARY CAUSE (Excluding Restraint) TIME OF APPEARANCE
Plastic settlement Excess bleeding/change in volume 10 min. – 3 hrs.
Plastic shrinkage Rapid early drying 30 min. – 6 hrs
Early thermal contractions Excess heat and temperature gradients 1 day – 2 or 3 weeks
Long-term drying shrinkage Inefficient joints Several weeks or months
5.2 PP MICRO BENEFITS
PP micro-fibres influence the concrete characteristics during the early stages of the
strength development when the concrete is hardening, and they also offer passive fire
resistance.
Strength
SikaFiber PPM Macro
Explosive
spalling
protection
Early age
shrinkage crack
reduction
SikaFiber PPM Micro

Time
- 10 hrs 1 - 2 days 28 days
Figure 5.2.1: Showing benefits of using micro-fibres in relation to time and strength development
46
5.2.1 REDUCING PLASTIC SETTLEMENT CRACKING
Plastic settlement cracking is caused by a change in volume of a concrete section and is

influenced by the degree of bleeding that may occur for a given concrete mix. Bleeding
is the action of water rising to the surface of the concrete shortly after placement and is
caused by heavier particles gravitating downwards and displacing fine particles and water.
Bleed water is seen on the concrete surface only if the rate of evaporation is less than the
rate of bleeding.
Bleeding can be reduced with proper concrete mix design containing a well-balanced ag-
gregate sieve curve and/or the use of the right admixture technology to stabilize the
concrete mix. However, synthetic micro-fibres also have a dramatic effect on reducing
bleeding because they act as an internal suspension system effectively supporting the
coarse aggregates in the mix thus inhibiting bleeding and settlement.
Concrete Surface Concrete Surface
Figure 5.2.1.1: Reducing concrete bleeding using synthetic micro-fibres
Settlement cracks will invariably form over reinforcement, which is fixed in position near
the top of the concrete. These cracks will be detrimental to the long-term durability of
the steel reinforcement and the concrete itself.
Plastic settlement cracks

Steel reinforcement in fixed position
Void created under reinforcement
Figure 5.2.1.2: Plastic settlement under a reinforcing bar
47
5.2.2 REDUCING PLASTIC SHRINKAGE CRACKING
Plastic shrinkage cracks occur within a few hours

after placing concrete, although they may not be
noticed until the following day. They are most
common in floor slabs but can also occur in other
exposed concrete surfaces. Although plastic cracks
may be wide on the surface they will quickly dimin-
ish with depth. However, plastic cracking will gen-
erally pass through the full depth of the slab.
The key reason for the formation of plastic cracking is that for several hours after place-
ment the concrete has little or no tensile strength. Where the concrete surface is exposed
to rapid drying, moisture on the surface will quickly evaporate and this creates the tensile
strain on the surface of the concrete. Cracks occur when these stresses exceed the tensile
strength of the concrete.
When plastic cracks occur in concrete with steel reinforcement, air and moisture can
penetrate through the open crack together with other aggressive agents such as chlorides
and other harmful soluble substances. This will inevitably lead to steel corrosion and a
reduce the durability of the concrete.
Tensile Strain Capacity
Setting Period
Strain
Time
Micro-synthetic Fibre Concrete Plain Concrete

Plastic Shrinkage Strain
Figure 5.2.2.1: Principal of tensile strain in early-age concrete
A major benefit of using synthetic micro-fibres in concrete is the ability to increase the
early age tensile strength of the concrete. This means when there are strains on the con-
crete surface, due to drying or fast evaporation of moisture, they generally will not exceed
the tensile strain capacity of the fibre reinforced concrete. The benefit of using micro-
fibres is to reduce or eliminate the plastic shrinkage cracking.
48
DOSING
PP micro-fibres inhibit early age plastic shrinkage cracking and are generally dosed be-
tween 0.6 – 0.9 kg/m3 (1 to 1.5 pcy). This dosing range is dependent on the fibre denier,
the sand grading, and the ambient conditions. If significant cracks are to be avoided, or
at least reduced, then concrete exposed to high temperatures and drying winds are at
greater risk of early age plastic shrinkage cracking. In these situations, it is advisable to
use a higher dosage amount. Similarly, concrete subject to low temperatures and moder-
ate winds are less at risk and can require the lower dosage amount.
Mix designs with a higher number of small fractions such as mortars and wet screeds,
require a higher fibre dosage of around 0.9 – 1.8 kg/m3 (1.5 to 3 pcy). Care must always be
taken to pre-check the fresh properties when using high dosages of micro fibres.
Table 5.2.2.1: Example of micro-fibre dosing to reduce plastic shrinkage control.

Reference Concrete Concrete for plastic shrinkage reduction
Cement 320 kg/m3 320 kg/m3
w/c-ratio 0.5 0.5
Aggregates 0 – 32 mm 0 – 32 mm
Sika® ViscoCrete® 0.8 % 0.9 – 1.1 %
SikaFiber® PPM – 0.6 – 0.9 kg/m3
5
5.2.3 EXPLOSIVE SPALLING RESISTANCE
The addition of suitable polypropylene (PP) mono-

filament micro-fibres into concrete is now widely
accepted to control explosive spalling in cast/
precast concrete and sprayed concrete. This type
of protection is termed as “passive fire protec-
tion”, which means that it is an integral part of the
concrete structure and does not require external
activation in the event of a fire. Since the first us-
age of PP micro-fibres in the Channel Tunnel Rail
Link Project (2007), the technology has been in-
corporated into many world-wide tunnel projects,
including: Gotthard Base Tunnel, Switzerland; Doha
Metro, Qatar; London Crossrail, UK; Copenhagen
Metro, Denmark; Los Angeles Metro System and
Hong Kong MTR.
Explosive spalling can present a severe risk to the structural integrity of a structure due
to a loss in concrete section and/or the yielding of embedded steel reinforcement when
exposed to high temperatures. In all cases, there is potential for explosive spalling to lead
to complete structural failure.
49
There is a simple theory why PP micro-fibres prevent explosive spalling in the event of
fire this is because well distributed PP micro-fibres melts at a temperature of 160°C
(360 degree F) creating tiny channels within the concrete which permit the escape of
super-heated moisture. This reduces the internal pressures and minimises explosive
spalling damage.
Mechanism leading to explosive spalling in a high-density concrete
Moisture present in When a rapidly rising heat source This creates a significant build-up
concrete occurs the moisture within the of internal stresses.
concrete quickly tries to escape. When the tensile capacity of the
In high density concrete this be- concrete is exceeded spalling of
comes a major obstacle and the the concrete will inevitably occur.
water quickly heats and trans-
forms to super-heated steam.
Mechanisms of Passive Fire Resistance
Moisture in concrete When the rising heat source The new pathways release the
and a well distributed reaches a temperature of 160°C moisture and super-heated
dosing of PP micro- (360 degree F), the PP micro- steam.
fibre fibres melt.
Later research has shown that this is an oversimplification of the true mechanisms con-
tributing to the influence of PP micro-fibres on explosive spalling.
50
Alternative Passive Fire Theory
In 2001, Prof P.J.E. Sullivan, City University London presented an alternative theory based
on the different thermal expansion of synthetic polymer and concrete. The work conclud-
ed that PP micro-fibres when exposed to increased temperature will initially expand and
exert stresses onto the cement matrix which initiates the formation of micro-cracks.
Coefficient of thermal expansion for concrete = 6 to 12 x 10-6/K

Coefficient of thermal expansion for polypropylene = 86 x 10-6/K
This thermal expansion of polypropylene was estimated to be 7 – 14 times greater than

concrete and Saka et al, 2009 also reported significant stresses are created by a single
polypropylene fibre embedded in a mortar matrix when subjected to a temperature in-
crease of 140°C (284 degree F).
Network of micro- cracking caused by

expansion of fibres
Subsequent channels left by melted

PP micro-fibres
5
Figure 5.2.3.1: Micro-cracking Network
As the temperature continues to increase the fibres melt and further create small
channels which combine to provide a pressure release system to alleviate the po-
tential for explosive spalling.
Micro-cracks
Fibre Channels
Figure 5.2.3.2: Microscopic photo highlighting formation of channels and micro-cracking after fire
Work carried out in 2004 by Dehn & Willie in Leipzig confirmed the presence of
micro-cracking and fibre channels after exposure to high temperature fire tests.
51
5.2.4 REDUCING PERMEABILITY
Synthetic micro-fibres can inhibit the formation

of internal intrinsic micro cracking, which if left
unchecked can increase moisture absorption. The
reduction of these micro cracks with fibres means
that the concrete is less permeable. This can also
help to improve the freeze-thaw resistance of con-
crete in external applications.
5.2.5 ABRASION RESISTANCE
The reduction of bleeding and settlement,

achieved with PP micro-fibres, means that more
coarse aggregates particles are retained at and
near the surface. It is the increased coarse aggre-
gates at the surface which provides longer durabil-
ity to abrasion resistance.
5.2.6 IMPACT / SHATTER RESISTANCE
PP micro-fibres, particularly the fibrillated types

are exceptionally good in distributing localized
stresses as they effectively act as tiny shock
absorbers within the concrete. When concrete
is exposed to impact loads fibres distribute the
stress over a wider area and therefore significantly
reduce impact damage. Fibrillated fibres are also
very good at holding concrete together after the
formation of a cracks.
52
5.3 PP MACRO-FIBRES
PP Macro-fibres have been commercially available for more than 20 years. The main ap-
plications for this type of fibre are shotcrete, slabs on ground and for precast concrete
elements. Unlike synthetic micro-fibres, which have their main benefits/influences within
plastic state concrete, synthetic macro and indeed steel-fibres are used primarily to pro-
vide benefits in the hardened state concrete.
Synthetic macro-fibres can be made of the same materials as micro-fibres but tend to be
coarser and stiffer. The most widely used synthetic macro-fibres are made of polypro-
pylene as this material shows the best properties in terms of durability and resistance
against an alkaline environment, such as concrete.
Synthetic macro-fibres are now available in several different geometries; the main types
of fibres in terms of shape are as follows:
́́ Straight embossed fibres

́́ Undulated fibres
́́ Soft flat fibres
́́ Twisted
5
a b c
Figure 5.3.1: : a) Straight embossed fibres b) Undulated fibres c) Soft flat fibres
The straight embossed fibres are considered to have better advantages in high strength
concrete where the porosity is lower around the fibre and the embossing results in a
higher pull-out resistance. Due to the fibres being straight, there is much less tendency
for balling during mixing with high fibre dosages.
Undulating fibres are sometimes considered to have better advantages in low strength
concrete where the large porosity around the fibre is overcome with the undulation, and
results in a larger pull-out resistance.
The advantage of a soft fibre is the high fibre count, especially at low dosages the perfor-
mance can be better than the other fibre geometries. Soft fibres deform during mixing,
twist around the aggregates and this, together with high fibre numbers, increase the
crack resistance. Soft fibres, generally have low dosages as with high dosages the con-
crete workability decreases.
53
5.3.1 PLASTIC SHRINKAGE CRACKING
Whilst synthetic macro and steel-fibres may reduce the early age plastic shrinkage
cracks, they are not present in sufficient numbers to have the same high level of reduc-
tion as PP micro-fibres.
5.3.2 IMPACT ON FRESH CONCRETE
PP macro-fibres will impact on the workability of concrete like micro-fibres, depending on

the fibre type and dosage. The demand on cement paste generally makes the concrete
more cohesive. This cohesiveness can reduce the slump of the concrete. However, a loss
in slump is not necessarily an indication of reduced workability, it is a thixotropic effect
caused by the fibres.
720 2,5
700
Air content %
2
680
660 1.5
640
1
620
0.5 Flow Table Spread [mm]
600 Air Content [%]
580 0
Reference concrete Reference concrete Reference concrete
without fibres + 5kg (8.4 lb) PP + 7kg (11.8 lb) PP
macro-fibers macro-fibers
Figure 5.3.2: Impact on fresh properties of a reference concrete with PP macro-fibre addition
In a flow-table test to EN 12350-5, the addition of 5 kg / 8.4 lb PP macro-fibres reduced

the workability of a reference concrete by 4%. With the addition of 7 kg / 11.8 lb PP
macro-fibres the workability reduced by 11%, compared to the reference. The air content
practically remained the same with the addition of PP macro-fibres.
5.3.3 INFLUENCE ON STRENGTH
Synthetic macro-fibres, in general dosages, do not normally increase the compressive

strength of concrete. The effect they have is on the cohesiveness of the concrete, which
may improve the density and a slight increase in final strengths.
54
60 70.0
50 60.0
Compressive strength [MPa]

50.0
40
40.0
30
30.0
20
20.0
10
10.0
0 0
0 2/3.3 4/6.7 6/10.1
Fiber Content [kg/m³ / lb]
Compressive strength 1 day [MPa] Flow table spread [cm]
Compressive strength 28 day [MPa]
Figure 5.3.3: SikaFiber® Force-60 - 320kg/m3 CEM i 42,5 - w/z: 0.46 -0/32
5.4 STEEL MACRO FIBRES 5

Steel fibres are well known in the market and have been used for >40 years in the con-
struction industry. Steel fibres are mainly used for slabs on ground or shotcrete applica-
tions but often used in several other applications such as pre-cast elements, structural
elements, foundations, and others.
For some Engineers the move from traditional steel wire mesh to steel fibres may be an
easier step to take than from wire mesh to synthetic fibres, despite the fact both steel
and synthetic fibres work very similarly in concrete and both are covered by European
Standard performance requirements.
EN 14889-1 classifies steel fibres into five groups

Group I: Cold-drawn wire
Group II: Cut sheet
Group III: Melt extract
Group IV: Shaved cold drawn wire
Group V: Milled from blocks
ASTM A820/A820M classifies steel fibres into five general types

Type I: Cold-drawn wire
Type II: Cut sheet
Type III: Melt extract
Type IV: Mill cut
Type V: Modified cold-drawn wire
55
MAIN TYPES
Group I or type I fibres are the most widely type used steel fibre in concrete. These fibres
are often suppled as straight or deformed and in a loose or glued format. Cold Drawn wire
fibres may also be coated for corrosion protection, but this often leads to increased costs.
a b
Figure 5.4: a) group I cold drawn wire b) group V modified cold drawn
5.4.1 IMPACT ON FRESH PROPERTIES OF A REFERENCE CONCRETE
As with synthetic micro and macro-fibres the influence on workability and air content for
steel-fibre concrete should be carefully assessed prior to supply.
600 2.5
500 2.0
400
1.5
300
1.0
200
100 0.5
0 0
Reference Reference Reference Reference Reference
concrete without concrete with concrete with concrete with concrete with
fibres 20 kg/m³ 30 kg/m³ 40 kg/m³ 50 kg/m³
Flow Table Spread mm Air Content %
Figure 5.4.1.1: Impact on Fresh Properies of a Reference Concrete using SikaFiber® Steel Fibers in Different Dosages
5.4.2 IMPACT ON STRENGTH OF A REFERENCE CONCRETE

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Reference Reference Reference Reference Reference
concrete without concrete with concrete with concrete with concrete with
fibres 20 kg/m³ 30 kg/m³ 40 kg/m³ 50 kg/m³
Compressive strength 1 day [MPa] Compressive strength 28days [MPa]
Figure 5.4.1.2: Impact on Strength of a Reference Concrete using SikaFiber® Steel Fibers in Different Dosages
56
5.5 MACRO BENEFITS
Macro-fibres mainly influence the concrete characteristics in the hardened concrete such
as increasing the mechanical strength, ductility and reducing the construction time
Strength
Increased structural
ductility/energy
absorbtion
SikaFiber Steel
Early age shrinkage crack

SikaFiber PPM Macro
reduction & increassed
structural ductility/energy
absorbtion
Time
- 10 hrs 1 - 2 days 28 days

Figure 5.5.1: Macro-fibres influences
5.5.1 INCREASING MECHANICAL STRENGTH

5
The addition of macro-fibres to concrete can
significantly improve the ductility and flexural
capacity (toughness) of concrete. A three or four-
point beams are tested in flexure to obtain the
post crack response, known as the residual flexural
strength. This data is used for characterising the
performance of FRC.
The concrete’s toughness is improved with the ad-

dition of fibres. For optimum efficiency, the bond
strength between the fibre and the concrete ma-
trix needs to be as close as possible to the tensile strength of the fibre. It is better fibres
pull-out of the matrix rather than fibres breaking. When fibres break the anchorage is too
strong.
Crack Diffuse
Localisation Microcracking
P P
57
5.5.2 INCREASING CONCRETE DUCTILITY
Ductility is the ability of a material to absorb

energy and sustain loads beyond the yield point,
which defines the elastic behaviour. This is also
the point in concrete where cracks start to appear.
Plain concrete is brittle and will exhibit a complete
loss of strength past the elastic limit.
Synthetic macro and steel-fibres can significantly

increase the impact and shatter resistance of
concrete because of their ability to distribute and
absorb localized stresses.
5.5.3 REPLACING TRADITIONAL REINFORCEMENT
A major benefit of macro fibres is they can replace

certain steel reinforcement. The steel mesh has a
design purpose and FRC can also be proven, with
calculations, to do the same job.
5.5.4 REDUCING CONSTRUCTION TIME
Handling heavy steel reinforcement, lifting, plac-

ing, and fixing in the correct position is often back-
breaking and hazardous work.
Where fibres can replace the steel reinforcement,

much time will be saved in the in the construction
process. Fibres are simply added to the concrete at
the batching plant and delivered ready-mix to the
construction site. When FRC is used as an alterna-
tive to steel reinforcement there may be no access
issues for the concrete trucks, which facilitates a
much quicker turn around on site and the need for
pumping equipment is often avoided.
58
5.6 FIBRE APPLICATION GUIDE
Different fibre types can be used for different types of applications. The following table
shows where PP micro- and macro-fibres, steel fibres and glass fibres are typically used.
monofilament
Macro- fibre
Macro- fibre
Micro-fibre
Micro-fibre
Glass fibre
Steel fibre
Steel fibre
Application /
fibrillated
<48 mm
>48 mm
>50 mm
<35 mm
Fibre Type
Blend
Shotcrete x x x [1]
Slabs on ground x x x x
Roads x x x x x
Early age shrinkage x x x
Fire protection x
Precast x x x x x
Screeds x x
Mortars x x x
Topping slabs x x
5
[1]
rebound control
Fibre reinforcement is often incorporated into many other different types of products
and applications essentially to limit cracking and to enhance durability qualities of the
parent material. These include,
́́ Mortars & Renders

́́ Sand/Cement Floor Screeds
́́ Cementitious Pump Screeds
́́ Refractory Products
́́ Garden Products (Pots & Ornaments)
́́ Architectural Concrete
́́ Pattern imprinted concrete
́́ Exposed aggregate concrete
́́ 3D Concrete Printing
́́ Ultra-thin white topping
59
5.7 MINIMUM FIBRE DOSAGE
While the fibre dosing shall be stated on the manufacturer’s Product Data Sheet (PDS),
there is a minimum amount to provide ductility or provide crack control and is referred to
in EN 14487-1.
A minimum fibre dosing was suggested by McKee as a spacing theory.
The three-dimensional representation shows a single fibre in a unit volume. The theory
suggests in one-unit volume of concrete there are several cubes with a dimension of s
which is equal to the number of fibres in total volume. If the size of the cube containing
one fibre is reduced, then fibre overlap will occur.
S S S 2
S
S
S 2
Figure 5.7.1: Minimum fibre dosage based on an overlap concept
The average distance between fibres, s, can be estimated where lf is the length of the
fibre, df is the diameter of the fibre and ρf is the percentage of fibre by volume.
3 π · df2 · lf where df = equivalent diameter in mm

s = lf = length in mm
4 ρf
ρf = percentage of fibre by volume
The formula can be transposed to determine the dosage based on the geometry of the
fibre, aspect ratio, and the volume fraction of the fibre concrete.
1 4
Dosage (min) =
lf 3 / π df2 lf ρf
γ 3
[1] The properties of expansive cement mortar reinforced with random wire fibres, PhD Thesis, University of Illinois,
Urbana, 1969. Documented in ACI committee 544 report State of the art report on fibre reinforced concrete 1982.
60
Example with SikaFiber® Force-50:
Fibre length = 50 mm
Equivalent fibre diameter = 0.72
Aspect ratio = 0.69
Material density = 910 kg/m3
Υ Minimum dosage
1 s < 0.58 lf 1 kg/m3 / 2 pcy
1.35 s < 0.45 lf 2 kg/m3 / 3 pcy
1.45 s < 0.40 lf 3 kg/m3 / 5 pcy
1.70 s < 0.29 lf 4 kg/m3 / 7 pcy
In sprayed concrete EN 14487-1 suggests the average distance between fibres, s, should
be lower than 0.45lf and for applications it may be suggested s should be taken as lower
than 0.4.
61
6 FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE
6.1 STARTING
Fibre reinforced concrete design is often a niche
technology and may not be included in any learning
curriculums. Currently, there are no harmonised
global standards for FRC, meaning that design
methods come from available pre-normative pub-
lications such as fib Model Code 2010, section 5.6
and the RILEM TC 162-TDF: Test and design meth-
ods for steel fibre reinforced concrete.
For design, the material is considered in the Ultimate Limit State (ULS) and Serviceability
Limit State (SLS). Numerous studies and published reports have undertaken to correlate
the tensile and flexural response in the post-crack region. This is not the subject of this
handbook and further information can be found in the following documents.
There are several approaches to FRC design, but not limited to the following examples.
́́ American Concrete Institute 544.4R Guide to Design with Fibre-Reinforced Concrete
́́ The Concrete Society Technical Report 63 – Guidance for the Design of Steel-Fibre
Reinforced Concrete
́́ The Concrete Society Technical Report 65 – Guidance for the Design of Steel-Fibre
Reinforced Concrete
Specifically, for tunnel segments

́́ The International Tunnelling and Underground Space Association ITAtech Report
N°7/April 2016
For slabs on ground/grade

́́ American Concrete Institute ACI 360R – Guide to Design of Slabs-on-Ground
́́ The Concrete Society Technical Report 34 – Concrete Industrial Ground Floors
Chapter 3 of this handbook contains some more references and there may also be some
national Standards in your country.
62
6.2 PHILOSOPHY
Structural Engineers typically design reinforced concrete in a way that all tensile forces
are carried by continuous steel bar or mesh reinforcement. It is always assumed that steel
reinforcement is firmly fixed in position and unable to move, the steel reinforcement may
start to yield although, it is not designed to slip out of the concrete. Structural concrete
design provides a detailed specification of concrete geometry, material properties, size,
and location of steel reinforcement. These are usually expressed as a bar bending schedule
and detailed drawings.
In comparison, FRC in normal concrete, utilises the slip-out principle as part of the design
philosophy and the emphasis is on how the tensile capacity is calculated. This means FRC
elements are based on post-cracking residual strength. Generally, fibres used at standard
dosage do not directly influence the tensile or bending strength of the concrete in the same
way as steel reinforcement. This is until the concrete cracks and the fibres restrain the size
of the crack opening. Once a crack has occurred fibres take over and support the applied
forces. Fibres are said to improve the behaviour in the SLS by reducing plastic shrinkage
cracking and improve the behaviour in ULS where they can partially or totally replace tra-
ditional steel reinforcement. An advantage of FRC is that the distance between fibres is
very small, and that the fibres fill corners and edges. Steel bars are spaced apart and have a
cover distance to the concrete surface.
Crack bridging principle

6
Fiber Failure
Fiber Pullout
Fiber Bridging
Anchorage
Fiber/matrix
debonding
Fiber rupture
Matrix cracking
Figure 6.2.1: Principle of fibres bridging cracks in concrete changing it from a brittle to a ductile material
The stages of FRC failure or residual stress starts with the crack forming in the cement
matrix. As the crack opens there is a debonding between the fibre and the cement matrix.
If the fibre can bridge the crack there is no failure, but as the load or stress increases the
crack size increases and there is frictional sliding along the fibre, or deformation of the
anchorage. Eventually, with higher stresses the fibre pulls out of the cement matrix or
there is a fibre rupture under tension.
63
The most important property of FRC when con-
sidering a structural element is this post-cracking
and the residual tensile or flexural strength. Fibres
start to work as soon as the first micro-crack
forms in the concrete. As the crack mouth opens
the fibres begin to resist the tensile forces by
bridging and transmitting the stresses across the
crack. In doing so the fibres provide resistance to
the crack widening and extending through the con-
crete. It means the concrete will not fail and there
is some residual strength in the concrete after the
first crack appears.
Most important in the design approach is the performance of the composite material,
which is measured as the residual tensile strength. The parameters are determined from
beam testing to find the residual flexural strength at defined beam deflections. These
results are inserted into equations to determine the load bearing capacity of the element
being considered.
6.2.1 STRAIN-SOFTENING AND STRAIN-HARDENING
When a material is reinforced it generally implies that there will be a strength improve-
ment. As concrete is already strong in compression the implied improvement is in the
weaker characteristics such as an increase in tensile strength, an increase in tensile strain,
an increase of the elastic modulus or a combination of these influences. The design of
structural fibres compared to traditional steel mesh/bar reinforcement is different and
assumes that the fibre slips out of the concrete under sustained loading.
In standard concrete, fibre dosages of 4 - 8 kg/m3 / 6.7 - 13.5 lb PP macro or 20 – 40 kg/m3

/ 33.6 - 67.2 lb steel, will not increase the tensile strength or bending strength of the con-
crete. Additionally, fibres at these dosages do not influence the peak load of the compos-
ite material but will effectively bridge cracks once they have occurred. This is described
as the post crack concrete performance resulting in increased toughness and increased
energy dissipation/ absorption properties.
Whilst FRC has the potential to produce a strain hardening effect with much higher dos-
ages of high tensile steel fibres, in most cases performance of fibres leads to a strain-
softening behaviour. This simply means a reduction in stress beyond the peak value with
an increase in the deformation.
With a strain hardening behaviour, the tensile strength increase is due to the reinforce-
ment. With increasing strain, a higher stress can be applied before the peak load is
reached. When the peak load is reached, usually a distributed cracking will be observed
again leading to crack localisation with a strain-softening behaviour.
64
An example of strain-hardening can be in ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC or
UHPFRC) using steel fibres or Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC) using synthetic
fibres.
Strain-Hardening
Elastic-Plastic
Stess (б)
Strain-Softening
Brittle
Strain (Ɛ)
Deformation increase
Figure 6.2.1.1: Illustration of strain-softening versus strain hardening
The mechanism of fibre behaviour can be illustrated on a three-point bending test (fig.
6.2.1.2). A load is applied on a concrete beam in the centre and the stress is increased (1)
until it reaches a point at which the load-deflection curve departs from the initial linear
response. This is known as the limit of proportionality (LOP). Up until this point the stress
is acting on an un-cracked mid-span section. If the beam is un-reinforced and the applied
load continues the beam will break (4).
Load [kN] 6
1
3
4
Deformation [mm]
1 2 3 4
Figure 6.2.1.2: Performance of a fibre reinforced concrete beam in a 3-point bending test compared with unreinforced concrete
When the concrete is reinforced with macro-fibres, the fibres will bridge the crack and ex-
hibit a strain-softening behaviour. The post cracking strength is lower than the strength
after first crack (2) and as the fibres bridge the crack, they also are supporting the applied
load (3). This is when the fibre material, geometry, shape, anchorage, dispersion, and ma-
trix material now play a vital role.
65
A fibre with a too high tensile strength, too high elastic modulus or with poor anchorage
will not transfer the force from the concrete to the fibre and ultimately will pull out. This
will result in poor structural behaviour of the fibre reinforced concrete.
To utilize the high strength and high elastic modu-

lus, steel fibres are usually produced with hooked
ends. The hooks prevent the fibres from slipping
out too early and help to transfer as much of the
forces as possible from the concrete to the fibre
before the fibres slip out. It is desirable to have an
anchorage failure before the tensile strength of
Figure 6.2.1.3: Stress distribution of a steel fibre the fibre is reached otherwise the result is a fibre
bridging a crack in a cementitious matrix rupture and a sudden failure of the concrete.
The anchorage of synthetic macro-fibres works

differently. Macro-fibres are usually manufactured
with an undulation or with an embossed surface
which results in a constant resistance during the
pull-out of the fibre from the concrete.
The different anchorage behaviour can be observed
with single fibre pull-out test. This is a single fibre
Figure 6.2.1.4: Stress distribution of a synthetic embedded into a cementitious matrix and then
macro-fibre bridging a crack in a cementitious matrix pulled-out in the direction of the fibre.
66
6.3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
6.3.1 STRUCTURAL AND NON-STRUCTURAL
Synthetic micro-fibres offer key benefits in the plastic state concrete and are used a
relatively low dosage. As such, these fibres have little or no effect on the compressive,
tensile, or flexural strength of hardened concrete and are generally described as non-
structural fibres. Synthetic macro and steel fibres are designed to show best performance
in the hardened concrete state. This means the performance of fibre reinforced concrete
is usually tested after 28 days. EN 14889 describes structural fibres as those added to
concrete to contribute to the load bearing capacity of a concrete element.
6.3.2 STRUCTURAL ACCORDING TO EUROPEAN STANDARDS
Fibres classified as structural according to EN CLAUSE 5.8 EFFECT

ON STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
14889 must be proven to achieve certain perfor-
mance criteria in beam tests. A three-point beam The effect on strength is determined
test is used to determine the residual flexural in accordance with EN 14845-2 using
strength of the beam. The performance require- a reference concrete conforming to
ments are defined in clause 5.8 of EN 14889-1 and EN 14845-1. The unit volume of fibres
EN 14889-2. in kg/m3 is declared by the manufac-
turer to achieve an average residual
The reference concrete is defined in another flexural strength of at least 1.5 MPa 6
Standard EN 14845-1 and is broadly intended to at 0.5 mm CMOD (equivalent to 0.47
compare fibre performances in a similar way. The mm central deflection) and an aver-
reference concrete is usually different to the proj- age residual flexural strength of at
ect concrete and in such cases the beam test can least 1 MPa at 3.5 mm CMOD (equiv-
alent to 3.02 mm central deflection).
be repeated to reflect the project requirements,
and to optimise the design.
6.3.3 STRUCTURAL ACCORDING TO AMERICAN STANDARDS
ACI 360R recommends the minimum Re3 residual strength should be greater than 30% for
designing a slab-on-grade using the yield line method. This is on the basis the analysis ac-
counts for redistribution of moments and formations of plastic hinges in the slab.
67
6.4 DESIGN CONCEPTS
6.4.1 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
The design of reinforced concrete for flexure using stress block theory shows when the
concrete cracks the compression force is carried by the concrete and the tensile force is
carried by the reinforcing bar. The tensile capacity of plain concrete is not considered. The
design moment capacity of the reinforced section shall be greater than the factored mo-
ment of the section.
f‘c 0.85f‘c
b
a=β.c C=0.85f‘c.a.b
c
h d d-a/2
T=As.fy T=As.fy
a) b) c)
Figure 6.4.1.1: Schematics of stress block for a cracked reinforced concrete flexural member without fibres:
a) reinforced concrete beam section; b) actual distribution of normal stresses; c) simplified distribution of normal stresses.
f‘c f‘c
b
0.1h
h 0.9h
Fut-FRC Fut-FRC
a) b) c)
Figure 6.4.1.2: Schematics of stress block for a cracked FRC flexural member:
a) FRC beam section; b) actual distribution of normal stresses; c) simplified distribution of normal stresses.
ASTM C1609/C1609M
The moment capacity of a FRC section is determined using the same stress block method
determined by the RILEM TC 162-TDF (2003) and Vandewalle (2003). The bending mo-
ment for FRC section is determined from formulations contained in the ASTM C1609/
C1609M. For ultimate limit state, the ultimate tensile strength of cracked concrete is
taken as 0.37 multiplied by the residual strength f 150
D or fe,3 . These parameters are deter-
mined from ASTM C1609/C1609M beam tests. f 150 D or fe,3 , corresponds to the FRC flexural
residual strength at a deflection of L/150. L being the span of the beam. Depending on
design and serviceability requirements, the FRC can be designed using a smaller deflec-
tion in the beam test using f 600
D for smaller crack widths and SLS.
68
The equivalent flexural strength fe,3 is the total energy absorption, or flexural toughness,
and is used instead of f 150
D for designing continuously supported sections.
To satisfy the design, the design moment capacity of the FRC shall be greater than the
factored moment capacity of the section.
TUNNEL SEGMENTS
Precast segments can be designed using the finite element method from recommenda-
tions contained in fib Model Code 2010. Another design guidance available is the ITAtech
Guideline for Precast Fibre Reinforced Concrete Segments – Volume 1: Design Aspects
(ISBN: 978-2-9701013-2-1). The aim of the ITAtech document is to assist tunnel Engineers,
contractors, and owners to understanding more the benefits and limitations of using FRC
for precast concrete segments.
Tunnel segments are typically designed to support compression loads. This is because
tunnel segments, in service, are essentially in compression unless ground conditions dic-
tate there are tensile or bending moment forces. Where there is only compression, steel
reinforced is generally included to control shrinkage cracking and to strengthen the seg-
ment demoulding, transportation, and placement.
Advantages for the precast manufacturer in the production of the tunnel segments
without steel mesh reinforcement.
6
́́ No detailed drawings or bending schedules were required
́́ No fabrication of the steel reinforcement
́́ No need for bulky storage
́́ Less risk of handling injuries
́́ Time saving fixing reinforcement
́́ Faster production of segments
́́ Less vibration required
́́ A good surface finish with fibres
69
To use FRC for the purpose of structural bearing in tunnel segments the FRC must satisfy
several criterial based on the limit of proportionality and residual strengths. These values
are taken from the beam tests according to EN 14651.
f R1k/f Lk > 0.4 and f R3k/f R1k > 0.5
Although it is not possible to completely replace the steel reinforcement with just fibres,
full scale 1:1 testing can be used to verify a structural design. Research tests show a
reduced steel reinforcement in combination with fibres leads to an increase in ductility
when compared to a reinforcement only option.
In addition, there are several advantages to use PP macro-fibres as partial replacement

with a reduced amount of reinforcement.
–– Increase of structural performance combining PP macro-fibres and traditional steel

reinforcement
–– Faster mould filling and easier compaction especially in the center of the segment
–– Better protection of edges during transport of the segments
–– No significant effect on surface treatment
SLABS ON GROUND
Traditionally ground-supported floor slabs have been designed by elastic methods, using
equations developed by Westergaard in the 1920s and this is still widely adopted. These
design methods tend to be conservative and produce slab designs that are relatively
thick, meaning that assessment of deflections and other in-service requirements may not
be considered necessary.
As plastic methods of analysis have developed, slabs have become thinner and other fac-
tors such as deflections, load transfer across joints and crack control must be considered
as well as the load capacity of the slab.
Technical Report 34 and ACI360R give concise guidance relative to the design procedures
of slabs on ground, however in general the design of such slabs primarily depends on the
following.
́́ Ground conditions (k-value)

́́ Slab properties (geometry, joints, material properties)
́́ Loads (static, dynamic, uniformly distributed, point loads)
A concrete slab bearing on a stiff ground needs to transfer much fewer static moments
than a slab based on a weak ground. A usual precondition for a slab is a well compacted
ground resulting in an increased stiffness. This will result in fewer cracks caused by ap-
plied loads but does not take into consideration shrinkage, temperature, or joint positions.
70
6.5 SikaFiber® SOFTWARE
SLAB ON GROUND TOOL
Sika® provides a proprietary software tool for designing ground supported slabs rein-
forced with synthetic or steel fibres. The software has been developed in accordance with
two publications.
99 The Concrete Society Technical Report 34 Concrete Industrial Ground Floors –

A guide to design and construction
99 The American Concrete Institute ACI 360R Guide to Design of Slabs-on-Ground
After adding the project information, ground conditions and loadings, the software tool
will help the designer determine the optimum fibre dosage for the required slab thickness
and concrete grade.
TOOL FEATURES
–– Simple step by step procedure
–– Global SikaFiber® selection
–– Multiple languages
–– Metric or imperial units (ACI 360R)
–– Helpful graphics
–– Useful information prompts
–– Print-out in a short or detailed format
6
71
TOOL OPTIONS
There are several options to allow the user to tailor make specific designs.
- Standard or user defined partial safety factors

- Adjustable soil parameter (k-factor)
- Load check at proximity to a joint or free edge
- Changeable load transfer values at edge and corner joints
- Optional joint spacing check
- User defined concrete class
- Option to add light reinforcement
- Option to print a summary or long print-out
LOADINGS
Select options from multiple point loads, material handling equipment (MHE), uniformly
distributed or line loads with the additional option to define a load in proximity to a joint.
72
CHECKING SUMMARY
The check summary screen provides a quick and easy overview of the results,
clearly indicating where the slab exceeds the design capacity (red) or where the
design fulfils the design criteria (green).
The User can optimise the slab design by adjusting the design parameters such as
slab thickness, concrete quality, load transfer or fibre type or dosage.
RESULTS
With a valid design, the results are available for viewing or printing and the figures
for each load case can be viewed in more detail.
73
PRINT OUT
The software tool has the option to print a summarised or detailed version of the design.
It will display the
́́ Project information
́́ Input loadings
́́ Calculations for the worst load case
́́ SikaFiber® type and dosage
SIKAFIBER® Product Proposal

FOR FIBER REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS ON GROUND
PROJECT INFORMATION
Project reference ABC / 246810
Project name New Mul�-Purpose Warehouse
Customer Your Customer Ltd
Date 20/02/2020
Calcula�on �tle Warehouse A - Zone 1
Calcula�on by DTl
Approved by
Remarks General loading + forkli� + racking 1,2 and 3 + UDL
Country Switzerland
PRODUCT INFORMATION
εft,max: Maximum tensile strain in fibre reinforced concrete εft,max : 25.00 ‰
Product SikaFiber® Force-50 εfc,max: Maximum compressive strain concrete εfc,max : 3.50 ‰
Dosage 3.0 kg/m³ σr1: Mean axial tensile strength derived from beam test EN 14651 at CMOD 0.5 σr1 : 0.60 MPa
DESIGN SUMMARY fr1: Residual flexural strength at CMOD 0.5 fr1 : 1.32 MPa
Concrete Society Technical Report 34 - Concrete Industrial
σr4:Ground Floors,
Mean axial 4th strength derived from beam test EN 14651 at CMOD 3.5
tensile σr4 : 0.42 MPa
Design method
Edi�on
EN 1992-1-1. Eurocode 2: Design of structures - Part 1-1: General rules and rules for
Regula�ons fr4: Residual flexural strength at CMOD 3.5 fr4 : 1.13 MPa
buildings
Concrete class C40/50 fck: Characteristic cylinder compressive strength of concrete fck : 40.00 MPa
γc: Partial safety factor for concrete γc : 1.50
Slab thickness h = 300 mm
Joint spacing x = 5000 mm; y = 5000 mm The stresses in the steel reinforcement are derived from the stress-strain curves in the
section 3.2 of EN 1992-1-1:
Modulus of subgrade reac�on k = 0.020 N/mm³
Mp: Ultimate positive resistance moment per unit width of slab Mp : 50.83 kN·m/m
LOADING SUMMARY Balance for section failure

CHECKING TYPE LOAD CASE VALUE
Bending Mezzanine 1 0.9721
εmax σmax
Bending (MHE) MHE 1 0.9160 ε = 3.5 ‰
ε = 1.8 ‰
Punching Mezzanine 1 0.6868
x
ε = 0.0 ‰
Uniformly distributed loads Uniform load 1 0.7331

Linearly distributed loads Linear load 1 0.1167
3.- ALSO AVAILABLE FROM SIKA

Optimising the fresh and/or hardened
properties of concrete using plasticizers, water
Sika Viscoflow®, Viscocrete®, SikaControl®,
Concrete Admixtures reducers, accelerators, retarders,
ε = -25.0 ‰ FerroGard®, SikaRapid®
εmin σmin air-entrainment, shrinkage reducers,
antifreeze, corrosion inhibitors
For use with unfavourable aggregates and
εmax: Maximum strain εmax : 2.22 ‰ Pumping protecting equipment from excessive wear. SikaPump® Sika® Stabilizer
εmin: Minimum strain εmin :
-24.88 ‰ Maintains internal cohesion.
σmax: Maximum stress σmax :22.67 MPa Curing Liquid agents or sheets protecting the slab
Antisol®, Sika® Ultracure
from premature drying.
σmin: Minimum stress σmin : -1.13 MPa
Extend longevity of formwork by preventing
x: Distance from extreme compression fiber to neutral axis x : 25 mm Mould Release Sika® Separol®
concrete from sticking to the mould.
Mn: Negative resistance moment per unit width of slab Mn : 45.61 kN·m/m
Preventing dirt from filling the joint,
The negative moment of the slab is taken to be that of the plain unreinforced concrete. Joints accommodating movement and protecting the Sikaflex®
edges allowing smooth joint crossing.
Improve slab life span by impregnating the
h: Slab thickness h : 300 mm Surface hardeners Sika® CureHard, Sikafloor®
surface or by forming a monolithic layer.
fctd,fl: Design concrete flexural tensile strength fctd,fl : 3.04 MPa
Increase resistance against mechanical and
Surface coatings Sikafloor®, SikaScreed®
chemical attack.
fctm: Mean axial tensile strength fctm : 3.51 MPa
γc: Partial safety factor for material γc : 1.50
74
7 CONCRETE APPLICATION
7.1 SLABS ON GROUND / GRADE

Slabs on ground, slabs on grade, ground bear-
ing slabs and ground supported slabs all have one
thing in common, and that is the ground directly
under the slab is the foundation. It is a similar
principle to a traditional wall foundation where the
loads are transferred through the concrete into a
suitably stable ground. Slabs on ground are not to
be confused with suspended slabs, post-tensioned,
floating or raft foundations where the design con-
cepts are different. Whilst there may be ground
under these types of slabs, the ground may be sus-
ceptible to settlement or movement or may not sufficiently strong enough to support the
loadings. There are different understandings of floating slabs and screeds, so, ultimately
the definition of a slab on ground depends on the structural design concept and how the
7
loads are being transferred to a suitable bearing stratum.
USES
́́ Domestic, commercial, or Industrial floors
́́ Agricultural slabs
́́ Pavements and hard standings
́́ Roads
́́ Screeds and overlays
BENEFITS
Fibre reinforced concrete is an ideal alternative to traditional steel reinforcement in
ground supported slabs where the purpose of the reinforcement is to control plastic
shrinkage cracking. No matter where the first crack appears the fibres are always in the
correct location. There are several key reasons why the use of fibre reinforced concrete
has increased over the last decades.
́́ To simplify the construction process
́́ To shorten construction times
́́ To improve health and safety
́́ To make significant cost savings
́́ 3-Dimensional reinforcing
75
FIBRE SELECTION
The choice of fibres may also depend on availability of the product.
Fibre Type Micro - Micro – Macro PP Macro steel
monofilament fibrillated
Slab Type Non & structural Non & structural Non & structural Structural
Considerations Temperatures Temperatures Loadings Loadings
Humidity Humidity Ambient conditions Ambient conditions
Wind Wind
Application Residential Residential Commercial Heavy Industrial
Guide Light commercial Commercial Industrial
Product SikaFiber®-618 PPM SikaFiber®-6 PPF SikaFiber® Force-50 Refer to local Sika
SikaFiber®-1218 PPM SikaFiber®-12 PPF Organisation
SikaFiber®-6 PPM
SikaFiber®-12 PPM
Guidance 0.6 – 1.0 kg/m3 0.9 – 1.2 kg/m3 3 – 6 kg/m3 20 – 40 kg/m3
Dosage [1] 1.0 – 1.5 lb/yd3 1.5 – 2.0 lb/yd3 5 – 10 lb/yd3 34 – 67 lb/yd3
[1]
refer to relevant Product Data Sheet for guidance
APPLICATION
The cost of a cubic of FRC concrete is going to be higher than a non-fibre concrete, so
there is the additional cost of the concrete from producer to consider, which will depend
on several factors.
́́ The fibre type and quantity
́́ Dosing method
́́ Mix design
́́ Handling charges
Main steps Structural Design Ordering Transportation Unloading
Steel Calculations and con- Order placed with steel Bulky heavy steel may Storage reinforce-
Reinforcement crete specification. manufacturer. require more than one ment on site. Lifting
Drawings and bending Lead times. truck delivery to job equipment required.
schedule site.
Fibre FRC calculation Order concrete with

reinforced batching plant
concrete
Typical savings on a project

́́ Design & detailing fees
́́ Transportation costs
́́ Labour costs
50% TIME SAVING 20% COST SAVING ́́ Pumping equipment
76
It may be necessary for the concrete producer to
adjust the sieve curve or add some additional plas-
ticizer to compensate the workability. The concrete
producer may also add a handling charge if the fi-
bres are added in the plant, or if the fibres are add-
ed on site there may be a surplus if the trucks stay
longer on site. The major savings changing from a
traditional reinforcement design to FRC is mainly
on job site, where the additional cost of concrete is
offset by eliminating the need for handling, laying,
and fixing the steel bars and mesh, as well as reducing the amount of labour. The main
savings of using FRC will be on the construction site, where there is no heavy steel mats.
EXAMPLE
Replacing «light» mesh reinforcement weighing 3 kg/m2 measuring 2.4 x 4.8 m.
ÆÆ Slab thickness is 150 mm
ÆÆ Slab size 1000 m2
ÆÆ Weight per mat ~35 kg
ÆÆ 3.10 kg/m2 reinforcement required allowing for lap lengths
ÆÆ 3,100 kg total bulky steel reinforcement required
ÆÆ 4 kg/m3 PP fibre dosage
ÆÆ 600 kg total fibres required
Preparation Placing Concrete Finishing

7
Skilled labour required Lift mesh into place. Concrete trucks cannot Scrap excess material
to measure, cut, and Ensure correct con- drive on prepared rein- or return unused rein-
bend steel reinforce- crete cover. Lap and forcement and pump- forcement to works.
ment. Chairs and an- tie steel. ing equipment may
cillary fixings. be required. Working
around placed steel.
Manoeuvre concrete
truck to the point of
placement.
Other advantages
́́ Fibres fill edges, corners, and difficult shapes
́́ Better concrete cohesion and less bleeding
́́ Better strain distribution in the slab
́́ Storage area for steel reinforcement not required on the construction site
́́ 3-Dimensional reinforcing
77
SLAB JOINTS
When it comes to the spacing of movement joints every country may have their own
rules, guidance, requirements, and most importantly experience. In principle the aim of
joints is to accommodate shrinkage, expansion movement and to minimise the risk of
unwanted visual cracking. A joint must also be capable of transferring load from one slab
to another. The type of joint and spacing depends on several factors, including but not
restricted to.
́́ Concrete mix design
́́ Amount of drying shrinkage in the concrete/volume change
́́ Temperature changes/thermal movement
́́ The slab size and layout
́́ Planned loads/use & degree of trafficking
́́ Design method
́́ Slab thickness
́́ Slab restraints (e.g., slab thickenings, re-entrant corners, etc)
́́ Subgrade moisture
́́ Construction process
́́ Curing
The width of a joint is influenced by the concrete

shrinkage, joint spacing and thermal movement.
Extended joint spacing may result in higher move-
ment at each joint, and therefore a risk of mid-
panel cracking and wider joints. There are different
types of joints which can be used to minimise the
potential for cracking. The design, selection and
positioning of joints are the responsibility of the
Engineer or designer. They are not within the scope
of this manual and various guidance documents
exist where the reader can find more information.
ÆÆ Technical Report 34, Concrete Industrial Ground Floors, A Guide to Design and
Construction - Chapter 11
ÆÆ American Concrete Institute ACI 360R Guide to design of slabs-on-Ground
Chapter 6
ÆÆ American Concrete Institute ACI 223R Standard Practice for the Use of
Shrinkage-Compensating Concrete
A high drying shrinkage is one of the main reasons for cracking. The use of Sika shrinkage
reducing admixtures SikaControl® SRA, together with fibres are used to obtain a low-
shrinkage concrete.
78
7.2 TUNNEL LININGS
Over last 30 years a series of severe tunnel fires
have highlighted the weaknesses of high strength
concrete when exposed to high temperatures. Sub-
sequent investigations into such fires and research
have revealed that during exposure to high tem-
peratures, high strength concrete was extremely
susceptible to explosive spalling damage caused by
the build-up of internal vapour pressures.
Concrete spalling is generally described as pieces,

fragments or layers breaking off concrete when
exposed to the high and rapidly increasing temper-
atures, experienced during fires. Concrete spalling
can be categorized into three main types.
1. SURFACE SPALLING
Surface spalling affects aggregates on the con-
crete’s surface whereby small pieces of concrete
up to 20 mm in size are gradually and non-violently
dislodged from the surface during the early part
of the fire. This is usually caused by the fracture
of pieces of aggregate due to physical or chemi-
cal changes at high temperatures. In the case of
7
surface spalling, the degradation of the concrete
is relatively slow and involves the dehydration of
the cement matrix followed by the loss of bond
between aggregate and matrix.
2. CORNER BREAK-OFF
In the latter stages of heat exposure when concrete has cracked, the weakened corners
and edges of concrete start to break off.
3. EXPLOSIVE SPALLING
This is unquestionably the most dangerous form of spalling and occurs during the first 20
– 30 minutes of a fire when the temperature in the concrete is in the range of 150 - 250°C.
Theories as to how and why explosive spalling occurs are predominantly based upon
moisture movement. As the temperature of the concrete increases, the moisture in the
concrete changes to steam vapour. If it is unable to escape from the concrete mass, this
vapour creates a dramatic increase in pressure within the concrete. As this process con-
tinues, the vapour pressure increases to the point where it exceeds the tensile capacity
of the concrete, causing large pieces of concrete to be violently and explosively dislodged
from the element. As the subsequent remaining concrete is presented to the fire, pro-
gressive explosive spalling deep into the concrete structure can occur.
79
FACTORS INFLUENCING SPALLING
Many factors influence the degree of explosive
spalling in concrete. Today’s construction often
requires far higher concrete strengths to those
used 40 years ago. Whilst, high-strength concrete
provides a higher compressive strength, a higher
modulus of elasticity, a higher tensile strength and
greater durability, than normal-strength concrete,
it also increases the density of the concrete. This
increased density is one of the key reasons explo-
sive spalling has become more prominent in the
last 30 years. Where more permeable concrete is
used, and a fire occurs, moisture can quickly escape
from the heat source due to its higher porosity and
the build-up of vapour pressures are minimised.
In high strength/dense concrete the escape of moisture is blocked due to the changes in
pore structure, moisture is effectively trapped and begins to generate super-heated va-
pour and increased internal stresses that contribute to explosive spalling. This is the main
reason why PP micro-fibres are specified for many high strength concrete applications
and pre-cast structures today.
Other contributory factors to the spalling potential of concrete include:

́́ Rate of heating
́́ Presence of continuous reinforcement
́́ Loadings
́́ Expansion properties of the aggregates
All the above should be carefully considered when specifying a concrete mix design. In
many major tunnelling projects, the choice of aggregate is often limited to readily avail-
able materials in a specific location meaning that it is not possible to specify an aggregate
with low thermal expansion properties.
FIBRE SELECTION
The use of PP micro-fibres for passive fire protection is either specified based on experi-
ences from similar projects, available Standards or 1:1 scale testing. The correct dosage
of PP micro-fibres for passive fire protection must take into consideration the concrete
specification and a fire risk assessment.
Large scale fire tests are often considered the only way to determine the correct fibre
dosage for a specific concrete mix design. European Standard EN 1992 Eurocode 2 Section
6.1 refers to the use of 2 kg/m3 of monofilament polypropylene PP micro-fibres to control
explosive spalling in high strength concrete. Many Engineers may follow this recommen-
dation to negate the need for expensive fire testing in the knowledge this has proven
performance in many completed projects.
80
This does not stop the use of specifying lower dosages, but careful consideration of the
requirements and full-scale testing are required. Where such testing has been carried out
dosage rates of between 1.0 and 1.5 kg/m3 have proved satisfactory for some specific
tunnel projects.
Initial small scale fire testing will provide some indicative performance data, useful in
making the initial selection of materials. It must be decided if such a scenario will fully
replicate the situation in a real fire and provide the quality or range of data that will be
provided by the full-scale test.
All components of the concrete mix design need to be carefully selected. The overall ef-
fect of fibre type and dosage on concrete workability, air-content and strength should
also be carefully evaluated prior to carrying out the fire testing.
Concrete testing should be caried out a minimum 90 days after preparing the specimens,
so that most of the water has been used in the hydration process.
Table 7.2.1: Example concrete mix design with passive fire resistance
Reference Concrete Concrete for passive fire protection
Cement 320 kg/m 3
320 kg/m3
w/c-ratio 0.5 0.5
Aggregates 0-32 mm 0-32 mm (limestone, no quartz)
Sika® ViscoCrete® 0.8 % 1.1 %
SikaControl® AER (optional) 0.2 %
SikaFiber®-12 PPM 2.0 kg/m3
81
APPLICATION
Full scale fire tests are used to verify the structural performance of concrete elements
under fire and load conditions. In addition to heat, the concrete is structurally loaded to
replicate in-place service conditions.
For major projects full-scale fire tests are typically required in a project specification.
Vertical force
Horizontal Horizontal
force force
Furnace thermocouples
(2 x 4)
Insulation material
4.0 m
Figure 7.2.3: Typical test setup for testing tunnel segment in fire loaded conditions
The results of a fire test are interpreted on,
́́ An optical check if there is explosive spalling on the concrete surface

́́ Measurement of the depth of the surface spalling
́́ Time until first spalling occurs
́́ Temperature development at different levels inside the specimen
(including temperature at embedded steel rebar)
Table 7.2.2: Summary of the fire test results on a tunnel segment using SikaFiber®-12 PPM
Specimen Maximum spalling in Average spalling depth Average spalling depth
20 x 20 cm grid in 20 x 20 cm grid over all specimen
Reference without fibres 20 mm 15 mm 18 mm
Reference concrete with 0 mm 0 mm 0 mm
2.0 kg/m3 SikaFiber®-12 PPM
82
In tests, plain concrete exhibited significant loss in section due to explosive spalling
due to rapid heat penetration through the concrete. The use of 1.5 kg/m3 dosage of PP
micro-fibres reduced the spalling depth and heat penetration. Whereas with 2 kg/m3 of
SikaFiber®-12 PPM there was no spalling of the concrete and the maximum temperature
recorded at 50 mm depth from the surface was 170°C after 60 minutes.
Temperature in Concrete at 50 mm from surface
1400
1200
1000
Teperature [°C]
800
600
400 Fire Curve
1.5 kg/m3
200
2.0 kg/m3
0 Plain concrete
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time [min]
Figure 7.2.4 Temperature measurements from the same concrete at 50 mm depth when exposed to a RABT-ZV (Train) fire curve
Results of spalling depths and heat penetration can vary dramatically depending on con-
crete quality and fire load curve. Therefore, it is essential that all major projects clearly
specify a suitable fire curve according to risk assessments and clear performance param-
7
eters such as permissible maximum spalling depths and temperature development.
83
7.3 ROCK SUPPORT
Sprayed concrete, or shotcrete,
refers to a method of projecting
concrete onto a surface at high
velocity. Sprayed concrete can be
used in a wide variety of applica-
tions including swimming pools,
slope stabilisation, silos and ir-
rigation channels.
In tunnelling and mining it is

mainly used as rock and slope sta-
bilisation. The key advantages of
sprayed concrete are the concrete
hardens in a short time, and no
need for formwork.
84
Traditional steel wire fabric (SWF) is typi-
cally used for reinforcing rock or slopes, but
this needs to be painstakingly cut and fixed
into position before the concrete can be
sprayed. Additional attention is required by
the nozzleman to ensure the SWF is com-
pletely encased by the sprayed concrete.
If this is not achieved the shotcrete will
not perform as required and the long-term
durability may be reduced.
It is well known from simple struc-

tural mechanics concrete is weakest
in tension and needs reinforcement
to support any increase in tensile load
capacity. A ground slope or excavated
surface is not perfectly smooth or
contoured. SWF is fixed to a substrate
as best as possible, sometimes fixed
7
directly on or away from the surface.
This means if tensile forces from
ground movement in the concrete is
in the front face of the concrete, and
mesh is located at the back, then the
concrete and SWF are not going to
perform compositely. The sprayed
concrete is going to crack and break
away, sometimes causing a dangerous
hazard for overhead applications.
Fibre reinforcement has been used in sprayed concrete for more than fifty years and since
that time technology and performance has improved hugely, especially in the field of PP
macro-fibres, which are now considered a practical, safe, and economic alternative to
SWF. Fibre reinforced sprayed concrete provides good performance benefits and allows
construction operations to advance far more quickly than installing traditional SWF. Fi-
bres have the benefit of being evenly distributed throughout the entire concrete cross-
section, meaning when uneven stresses are applied to the concrete, there will always be
fibres in the zone of weakness.
85
BENEFITS
The use of fibres in shotcrete is widely accepted
as Engineers, Contractors and Owners recognise
the advantages of fibres to replace or partly
replace the SWF. There are numerous benefits
of using fibres instead of SWF for ground
support, tunnelling and mining applications.
The benefits of using fibres
́́ Safer working conditions
́́ Faster application process
́́ Fibres are distributed homogenously in the
concrete
́́ Fibres are added into the concrete in the
batching plant
́́ Reduction in rebound
́́ Reduction in waste
́́ Reduction of voids
The cost savings associated with changing from SWF to fibres.

́́ Transportation – No need to order and transport SWF to the job site
́́ Storage – No need for areas around the job site to be reserved for storing the SWF
́́ Labour – Depending on local factors such as project location, steel, and labour costs etc.
approximately 25% labour savings from not having the challenges of fixing SWF to a
substrate.
́́ Time – Not having to fix sheets of SWF to the substrate
́́ Rebound - The amount of rebound caused by sprayed concrete vibrating the SWF is
approximately 20% higher than applying FRC. This means typically 20% more concrete
is required for SWF and the other 20% needs to be removed as waste.
́́ Materials – The sprayed FRC concrete requires no minimum SWF cover thus allowing
the sprayed concrete to follow the contours of the substrate.
FIBRE SELECTION
Steel fibres have been used in tunnelling and mining for many years and efficiency has
been improved with the use of fibre dosing systems. However, there are disadvantages
for using steel fibres.
́́ Abrasion –steel fibres increase wear costs on mixing and spraying machinery
́́ Sharp edges – protruding steel fibres can damage waterproofing layers
́́ Sharp edges – manual handling steel fibres cause skin injuries
́́ Corrosive – exposed steel corrodes in presence of air and water
́́ Performance - magnetic fibres can lead to problems in mining
86
PP macro-fibres are an ideal alternative because
they are lighter, dosed in lower quantities and can
achieve similar performance criteria to steel fibres.
In normal dosages, PP macro-fibres can sustain
loads at greater deformations. This provides an
important safety factor in tunnelling and mining
when cracks start to open in the concrete. There
are some good reasons to consider PP macro-
fibres, as an alternative.
́́ Handling – less weight to transport to mixing

plant
́́ Handling – easy to handle, light pucks wrapped
in a soluble film
́́ Handling – pucks work on dosing equipment
́́ Abrasion – less wear on machinery
́́ Non-corrosive – will not corrode
́́ Performance - protruding fibres are not a hazard to waterproofing layers
́́ Performance – higher sustained loadings at wider deformations
The quantity of fibres is based on a test which determines the amount of energy absor-
bed by a concrete plate and is measured in Joules. The number of joules required by a test
must first be determined from geotechnical calculations.
There are two main test methods for determining the energy absorption.
7
́́ EN 14488-5 Testing sprayed concrete. Determination of energy absorption capacity
of fibre reinforced slab specimens
́́ ASTM C1550 Flexural Toughness of Fibre-Reinforced Concrete
Energy Absorption EN 14488-5
1600
1400
Energy Absorbtion [J]
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Fiber Dosage [kg/mm³]
Figure 7.3.1: Example dosages of SikaFiber® Force-60 with a sprayed concrete mix design to achieve classes of energy
absorption according to EN 14488-5T-ZV (Train) fire curve
87
Table 7.3.1: Indicative fibre dosage of synthetic and steel fibres to achieve EFNARC energy
absorption classes
Joules Fibre Dosage (kg/m3)
Energy Absorption Class
(25 mm Deflection) PP Macro-fibres Steel fibres
E 500 500 3 to 4 20 to 25
E 700 700 5 to 6 25 to 35
E 1000 1000 >7 > 35
When specifying energy absorption, it is important to understand the degree of crack

opening required for the application and relate this to the results. For example, if there
is a final lining it may be important to minimize the crack opening width. Therefore, the
type and dosage of fibres needs to carry higher loads at small deformations. In mining
or tunnelling, or for rock support, it may be more important to have an improved duc-
tile behaviour of the sprayed concrete, therefore the type and dosage of fibres needs to
carry higher loads at wider crack openings. Due to the different anchorage characteristics,
numbers of fibres and higher elastic modulus, steel fibres show higher performance at
small crack openings and PP macro-fibres show much better load capacity at larger crack
openings.
load / deflection curve

70000
60000
50000
5 kg PP macro-fiber
40000
Load [N]
40 kg steel macro-fiber
30000
20000
10000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Deflection [mm]
Figure 7.3.2: Typical load deflection behaviour of PP and steel macro-fibres in a EN14487-5 energy absorption test
88
Table 7.3.2: Examples mix design for sprayed concrete.
Reference concrete Concrete for sprayed concrete
Cement 400 - 500 kg/m 3
400 - 500 kg/m3
w/c-ratio 0.45 - 0.5 0.45 - 0.5
Aggregates 0 - 8 mm 0 - 8 mm
Sika® ViscoCrete® 0.8 - 1.2 % 1.0 - 1.5%
Sika® Sigunit® 5 - 8% (Alkali free) 5 - 8% (Alkali free)
SikaFiber® Force-60 4 - 8 kg/m3
NCRETE For more information consult the

SIKA SPRAYED CONCRETE HANDBOOK
Sika Sprayed Concrete Handbook
ng
CONCRETE
SIKA SPRAYED CONCRETE
HANDBOOK
© Sika Services AG / Sika Sprayed Concrete Handbook / 12.2020
89
7.4 PRECAST CONCRETE MANUFACTURING
Precast concrete is an efficient way of building
structures because the elements can be prefabri-
cated in a quality process and delivered to the con-
struction site in time to be installed. Fibres are ideal
for improving the manufacturing process because
they provide resistance to cracking, replace or par-
tially replace steel reinforcement and increase dura-
bility. This can lead to significant cost savings from
steel fixing and help reduce the number of rejected
elements, damaged during formwork removal and
transportation.
USES
́́ Wall Panels ́́ Concrete Pipes and ancillary products
́́ Paving slabs ́́ Box Culverts
́́ External Cladding ́́ Septic Tanks
́́ Walls ́́ Piles
́́ Railway sleepers ́́ Tunnel Segments
́́ Jersey blocks
BENEFITS
There are multiple benefits of using FRC in precast concrete industry
FABRICATION SERVICE LIFE

́́ Increase early green strengths allowing ́́ Increasing abrasion and impact
early removal of formwork resistance
́́ Reduce vibrating and application times ́́ Reducing permeability
́́ Reduction of shrinkage cracks ́́ Increasing durability
́́ Replacing steel reinforcement in light
precast elements TRANSPORTATION
́́ Partially replacing steel reinforcement ́́ Protecting edges and corners during
for structural elements transport, handling, and storage
́́ Streamline productivity
90
FIBRE SELECTION
Replacing secondary or light mesh with FRC has many advantages. From a cost saving
perspective fibre reinforced concrete removes the need for cutting, bending, placing, and
fixing steel reinforcement. This has the overall advantage of increasing productivity.
PP micro-fibres are an easy and economic option for adding value for the precast manu-
facturer.
Steel fibres can be used to increase mechanical strength and ductility. However, exposed
fibres on the surface open to air and water will start to corrode. This can lead to unsightly
staining on the surface.
PP macro-fibres can be used to increase mechanical strength and ductility and have the
additional benefit of not corroding.
APPLICATION
Replacing traditional steel reinforcement very
much depends on purpose that the reinforcement
was originally specified. Whilst fibre reinforcement
can influence the moment capacity of concrete it
does not have the same effect as structural steel
reinforcement. For this reason, where precast
elements are subject to high bending moments it
is unlikely that steel reinforcement can be totally
replaced with FRC. Although, there is potential to
use the moment capacity achieved with FRC to reduce the cross-sectional area of steel,
7
by using fibres the concrete will benefit from several FRC advantages, such as impact
resistance and extended durability.
Secondary reinforcement, such as steel welded wire fabric (SWF), is used to minimise
crack widths due to thermal expansion, contraction, and shrinkage. Secondary reinforce-
ment is essentially used to hold the concrete together once cracks have occurred and is
not considered to contribute to the structural performance of the concrete element. In
such cases, it is entirely feasible to replace this reinforcement with a fibre only solution.
Care must still be taken where precast elements have re-entrant corners, openings or lift-
ing sockets as these are locations where cracks are more likely to occur and may still need
a steel reinforcement solution.
The preparation of steel reinforcement in pre-

cast elements can very time consuming and often
causes significant costs as the geometry of many
units can be quite complex. Additionally, steel rein-
forcement can cause problems with placement and
compaction of concrete into the moulds. These
complications can lead to poor quality concrete
including unwanted surface defects and corrosion
where there is insufficient cover to the steel.
91
7.5 PUMPED CONCRETE
Pumped concrete is generally used where it is not
possible for truck mixers to discharge concrete to a
point of application, or where large pours of concrete
are required in a restricted time frame. Fibre-rein-
forced concrete can generally be pumped but requires
a suitable FRC mix to prevent segregation or clogging
in the equipment or pipes. The type of equipment
may limit the number of fibres which can be dosed.
USES
́́ Sprayed concrete tunnels and mining
́́ Sprayed concrete soil stabilisation
́́ Pumping concrete to a point of application
BENEFITS
́́ Faster application process
́́ Improve efficiency
FIBRE SELECTION
The passing of the fibre concrete through the grill above the pump’s hopper, together
with the pipe diameter, limits the maximum length of the fibres and maximum dosage.
As a rule of thumb, the length of the fibres should be more than half the hose diameter,
since longer fibres will orientate along the course of the hose, whereas smaller ones are
able to rotate which can result in balling of the fibres and pipe blockages. It is possible to
dose high amounts of PP macro-fibres with a suitable mix design.
MIX DESIGN
Refer to chapter 6.2 of the Sika® Concrete Handbook
SIKA CONCRETE HANDBOOK
CONCRETE
SIKA CONCRETE
HANDBOOK
© SIKA SERVICES AG / SIKA CONCRETE HANDBOOK / 01.2021
92
7.6 ULTRA HIGH PERFORMANCE FRC
Ultra-High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete
(UHPFRC) is produced from cement, additions
(powders), hard fine particles, water, admixtures,
and high amount of relatively short steel fibres.
The densely packed structure of UHPFRC results
in a waterproof concrete with extremely high
compressive strengths, typically over 150 MPa. In
tension, UHPFRC shows significant hardening and
softening behaviour, and the tensile strength is
about 7 to 15 MPa.
Fibre selection is a key factor for the optimum design of UHPC, and it has a strong influ-
ence on the strength, ductility, and costs. Ductility is particularly important because a
minimum amount of ductility is usually required.
BENEFITS
́́ Increase ductility
́́ Control cracking
́́ Increase durability
FIBRE SELCTION
There are different types of materials, although high tensile stainless steel is the most
common.
7
The minimum fibre length is usually 3-times the maximum grain size, although kept as
short as possible bearing in mind the required performance requirements in the concrete.
A suitable aspect ratio shall be specified to avoid balling during mixing. Fibres may be
easy to bend during mixing with a high aspect ratio and low yield stress. This may be a
reason why fibres with a high yield strength are required, typically >2 GPa.
Table 7.6.1: Typical mix design for UHPFRC in comparison with normal fibre
reinforced concrete
UHPFRC Normal FRC
Cement content 1000 kg/m 3
350 kg/m3
Max aggregate size < 1 mm 32 mm
Water/cement ratio < 0.2 < 0.5
SikaFiber® >100 kg/m3 5 kg/m3 PP macro-fibres or
(l=12 mm steel fibres) 25 kg/m3 steel fibres (l= 50 mm)
93
8 TESTING
8.1 BEAM TESTING

There are different types of beam tests and the choice of which beam test will depend on
the application, the specification requirements, or the design method. Beam tests are not
always the same and vary for different reasons.
́́ 3-point or 4-point bending

́́ Beam size
́́ With/without a notch
́́ Equipment specification/settings
́́ Method of measurement
́́ Reference concrete
8.1.1 EUROPEAN BEAM TESTING
The relevant European Standards for beam testing FRC

Reference TITLE RELEVANCE
EN 14889-1 Fibres for concrete – Part 1- Steel Fibres Performance requirements
EN 14889-2 Fibres for concrete – Part 2- Polymer Fibres Performance requirements
EN 14845-1 Test methods for fibres in concrete – Part 1: Composition and characteristics
Reference concretes [1] of reference concrete
EN 14845-2 Test methods for fibres in concrete - Part 2: Method for determining residual
Effect on concrete flexural strength
EN 14651 Test method for metallic fibred concrete – Test preparation and procedure
Measuring the flexural tensile strength
(limit of proportionality) LOP, residual
EN 14488-3 Testing sprayed concrete – Part 3: Method for determining flexural
Flexural strengths (first peak, ultimate and strength
residual) of fibre reinforced beam specimens
94
REFERENCE CONCRETE
EN 14845-1
Test methods for fibres in concrete – Part 1: Reference Concretes
Content
This Standard defines the composition and characteristics of four reproducible reference
concretes which can be used to evaluate the fibre performance in concrete. One of the
reference concretes is mandatory to test, while the remaining three reference concretes
are optional. The reference concrete(s) are selected according to the type of product or
system and their characteristics are defined by a minimum flexural tensile strength value,
maximum grain size and maximum cement content.
Aggregates
Natural, uncrushed, silica based with <2% by mass water absorption. The aggregate grad-
ing shall conform to EN 1766: Annex A with the exception for 16 mm and 20 mm aggre-
gates >0.25 mm shall be 5 % to 10 % (not 3 % to 8 % as indicated in EN 1766).
Mixing water
According to EN 1008 classifies different types of water coming from different sources.
Generally, the water used for testing is potable drinking water which does not need fur-
ther testing. Other types of water may be used but must be checked.
Cement
Portland type CEM I class 42.5 R according to EN 197-1
Admixtures
A plasticizer or superplasticizer, in accordance with EN 934-2, can be used to control work-
ability. The standard describes two options for determining the concrete consistence. 8
–– Vebe class V3 EN 12350-3
–– Compaction class C2 EN 12350-4
Fibres
The manufacturer shall use fibres in accordance with EN 14889 part 1 or part 2 and can
define the mixing sequence to ensure even distribution in the concrete.
Preparation
Specimen preparation is described in the standard with also reference to EN 14845.
Concrete sampling shall be according to EN 12350-1.
95
Requirements
Table 1 from EN 14845-1 Four reference concrete mix requirements
Flexural tensile Water/cement ratio Maximum cement
strength (MPa) content (kg/m3)
Maximum aggregate size
8 mm or 10 mm 16 mm or 20 mm
4.3 ± 0.3 (25/30) c
0.55 b
0.55a 350
5.8 ± 0.4 (40/50) c
0.45 b
0.45b
400
a Mandatory mix
b Optional mixes
c Equivalent compressive class according to EN 1992-1
Table 1 from EN 14845-1 describes the four mandatory mixes to determine the effect on
consistence of a concrete. One mix is mandatory although the fibre manufacturer has the
option to make further tests using one of the other three reference concretes.
Report
A record of the reference concrete(s) information should contain.
́́ Mix composition
́́ Mixing procedure
́́ Fibre type according EN 14889 and dosage
́́ Date and time of production
́́ Consistence: Vebe time or degree of compactability
́́ Curing and storage
́́ Results -limit of proportionality strength (average and individual values)
́́ Reference to the Standard
́́ Any deviation to the Standard
BEAM TESTS
EN 14845-2
Test methods for fibres in concrete – Part 2: Effect on concrete
Content
This Standard gives a method for determining the effect of steel or polymer fibres on one
or more reference concretes with the objective to achieve a minimum specified value of
residual flexural strengths, which are related to a defined amount of deformation.
Description
Twelve notched beams measuring 550 x 150 x 150 mm cast from the mandatory reference
concrete with fibres, and any additional optional reference concrete, are tested at 28 days
on a three-point beam test spanning 500 mm according to EN 14651.
96
Results
The name and dosage of fibres shall be declared by the manufacturer that achieves a re-
sidual strength of ≥1.5 MPa at 0.5 mm CMOD and ≥1.0 MPa at 3.5 mm CMOD.
Report
A record of the reference concrete(s) specimens should contain.
́́ Mix composition according to EN 14845-1
́́ Details of test specimens
́́ Preparation procedure, date and time of production
́́ Curing history and moisture conditions at test
́́ Testing procedure, date of testing
́́ Results, limit of proportionality and residual flexural strengths
(average and individual values)
EN 14651
Test method for metallic fibre concrete – Measuring the flexural tensile strength (limit of
proportionality (LOP), residual)
Content
The Standard details the test method for measuring the flexural tensile strength of the
FRC on a defined test specimen, to determine the limit of proportionality (LOP) and set of
residual flexural tensile strength values. Originally intended for metallic fibres ≤60 mm,
the method can be used for a combination of metallics and other fibres, as well as being
referred to in EN 14889-2 for polymer fibres.
8
Description
The tensile behaviour of the FRC is evaluated by a three-point loading test on a beam
from EN 14845-2, which is notched on the underside by means of wet saw cutting. The
load is applied in the centre of the beam and the residual flexural tensile strength values
measured from one of two methods. Tests are rejected if a crack propagates outside of
the notch.
i) A displacement curve determined from measurements recorded in the notch when

the crack mouth opening displacement are equal to 0.5 mm, 1.5 mm, 2.5 mm and
3.5 mm
ii) The load-deflection curve is determined from deflection measurements taken at
the mid-span equivalent to the CMOD (Crack Mouth Opening Distance); 0.08 mm
(0.5 mm CMOD), 1.32 mm (1.5 mm CMOD), 2.17 mm (2.5 mm CMOD), 3.02 mm
(3.5 mm CMOD) and 3.44 mm (4 mm CMOD)
For reproducibility, the Standard describes the method for preparing, filling, and curing
the specimens in compliance with EN 12350-1 and EN 12350-2.
97
Illustrations from EN 14651
F
)
(=d
d1
1 Arrangement of the loading test specimen
d2 (=d)
2 2 1 Supporting roller
2 Loading roller
1/2 1/2
l=3d
L ≥ 3.5 d
Filling must be consistent since it will in-

2 1 2 fluence the fibre orientation and therefore
the results.
The Standard describes how the mould

1 and 2 order of filling should be filled and FRC compacted.
1
After preparation the beams are rotated
3 2 90° and a saw cut is made through the
width of the specimen.
The Standard gives specific instructions

hsp
when the beam is to be sawn and curing
conditions in compliance with EN 12390-2.
1 Top surface during casting
2 Notch
3 Cross-section of test specimen
A
F Measuring the CMOD is made by mount-
F
ing a displacement transducer at mid-span
of the beam. The machine starts at a
150 hsp constant rate so that the CMOD increases
B at 0.05 mm/min until the CMOD reaches
A 0.1 mm when the CMOD increases to a con-
25 250 250 25 75 75
550 150 stant rate of 0.2 mm/min. For the first 2
section A-A minutes the values of load and correspond-
x 5
B
ing CMOD are recorded at a rate ≥5 Hz
which may be reduced to a rate ≥ 1 Hz. The
3 test is stopped when the CMOD ≥ 4 mm.
y 5
2
1 Detail (notch)
2 Transducer (clip gauge)
3 Knife edge
98
A
Deflection is measured by mount-
F
F ing a displacement transducer on a
1 2 rigid frame at mid-height over the
supports. One end of the frame is
150 hsp
mounted to the beam with a slid-
3
ing fixture and the other end with
A
25 250 250 25 75 75 a rotating fixture. The deflection
550 150 method is like the CMOD except the
section A-A CMOD parameters are transformed
1 Sliding fixture
2 Rotating fixture
into deflection.
3 Rigid frame
Results CMOD (mm) δ (mm)

The results are expressed as load-deflection 0.05 0.08
diagrams and the Standard gives formulations 0,1 0,13
to determine the equivalent deflection from the 0,2 0,21
CMOD measurement, which are summarised in 0,5 0,47
table 1 in EN 14651. 1,5 1,32
2,5 2,17
3,5 3,02
4,0 3,44
The limit of proportionality and residual flexural tensile strengths are derived from ex-
pressions in Annex A of the Standard, and can be summarised.
Limit of Proportionality (LOP)
f 4 FL l where 8
f ct L =
2bh2sp f
f
ct L is the LOP, in Newton per square millimetre;
FL is the load corresponding to the LOP, in Newton;
l is the span length, in millimetres;
b is the width of the specimen, in millimetres;
hsp is the distance between the tip of the notch and the
top of the specimen, in millimetres
Residual flexural tensile strength (f R,j)
3 Fj l where fRj is the residual flexural tensile strength corresponding with CMOD
fRj =
2bh2sp = CMODj or δ = δj (j = 1,2,3,4), in Newton per square millimetre
Fj is the load corresponding with CMOD = CMODj or δ = δj
(j = 1,2,3,4), in Newton (see Figure 7)
l is the span length, in millimetres;
b is the width of the specimen, in millimetres;
hsp is the distance between the tip of the notch and the top of the
specimen, in millimetres
99
The load value FL is determined by the load value at 0.05 mm CMOD.
Strain softening Strain hardening

FL FL
Load F
Load F
CMOD (mm) CMOD (mm)
0 0,05 0 0,05
Typical of a normal steel fibre concrete
FL FL
Load F
Load F
CMOD (mm) CMOD (mm)

0 0,05 0 0,05
Typical of a PP macro-fibre concrete
FL
F1
F2
F3
F4
Load F
CMOD (mm)
0 CMOD1 = 0,5 CMOD2 = 1,5 CMOD3 = 2,5
The load-CMOD is expressed as load corresponding with CMOD at:

–– 0.5 (FR1)
–– 1.5 (FR2)
–– 2.5 (FR3)
–– 3.5 (FR4)
100
Report
The test report may be summarised.
́́ Place, date, name of testing institute and person and operator responsible for testing
́́ Mix composition according to EN 14845-1
́́ Details of test specimens - dimensions, condition
́́ Specimen preparation date and time of production
́́ Testing procedure, date of testing (rate of increase of CMOD or deflection and any
deviation)
́́ Results –
ÆÆ Load-CMOD curve or Load-deflection curve
ÆÆ Limit of proportionality
ÆÆ Residual flexural tensile strengths corresponding to CMODj (average and
individual values)
́́ Optionally, observations of uniformity of fibre distribution
́́ Declaration from person responsible for the test, that the testing was in accordance
with EN 14651, except for declared deviations
101
EN 14488-3
Testing sprayed concrete – Part 3: Flexural strengths (first peak, ultimate and residual) of
fibre reinforced beam specimens
Content
This Standard classifies the residual strength of fibre reinforced sprayed concrete (FRSC)
for a strength level at a certain deformation. The deformation classes are defined in
EN 14487-1 according to the deformation range D1 (low), D2 (normal) and D3 (high), and
strength level.
For example, a class D2S2 means the residual strength ≥ 2 MPa and deflection is between
0.5 and 2 mm.
Table 2 from EN 14487 defines the residual strength classes

Deformation range Strength level (minimum strength, MPa)
Deflection mm S1 S2 S3 S4
D1 0.5 to 1
D2 0.5 to 2 1 2 3 4
D3 0.5 to 4
There are two described methods A and B which can apply to metallic, synthetic, other
fibres or a combination of different fibres. The test is usually carried out on a sprayed
concrete sample, unless specified otherwise.
i) Method A – four point bending test on a sawn cut beam (without notch)
ii) Method B – three point bending test on a square panel with notch
Method A Description
The specimens are loaded using a test machine (EN 12390-4) through two upper and two
lower rollers to produce a bending moment which is used to determine the first peak,
ultimate/maximum and residual flexural strengths from the load/deflection curve. The
span between the two lower rollers is 450 mm.
Specimens measuring 75 mm deep x 125 mm wide x 500 mm (minimum) long according

to EN 12390-1 are sawn from a test panel that has been applied with sprayed concrete
in accordance with EN 14488-1. Beams are tested with the uncut mould face in tension,
unless specified otherwise. The top face may be put in tension, although it must not be
sawn to avoid cutting the fibre anchorages. Testing is performed after 28 days and the
Standard details the requirements for storage while curing.
102
F/2 F/2
5 Bending deflection is measured using an
1 12
w= electronic transducer mounted at mid-
span on a yoke located in the neutral axis
d = 75
on mid-height of the beam. Two transduc-
2 3 ers located on each side are preferable
to only one. The procedure for preparing,
positioning, and loading the specimens are
2d 2d 2d
given in the Standard. The test is finished
l=6d
when the mid-span deformation exceeds
L=8d
4 mm, or the specimen fractures.
where
1 loading roller (capable of rotation and of being incliend) F is the load (Pfp or Pult), defined above in N
2 supporting roller l is the span
3 supporting roller (capable of rotation and of being incliend) w is the average beam with
d is the beam height
L is the beam length
1 4 2 3
Arrangement of the yoke for measuring

bending-deflection
5 6
where
1 cramp 4 yoke
2 reference bar (clamped or glued) 5 transducer
3 loading roller 6 locating screw
8
Method A Results
The distance from the crack centre on the tensile face to the nearest support shall be
recorded. The first peak flexural strength is calculated from the load-deflection curve,
depending on the curve type (refer to Standard).
103
Y
Pa1 A Examples of load/deflection curves
Pa1 B
Pa1 C
to determine the first peak load.
where
X central deflection in mm
Y load in kN
Pa1A is the first peak load (Pfp) for curve A
Pa1B is the first peak load (Pfp) for curve B
0,1 Pa1C is the first peak load (Pfp) for curve C
The ultimate flexural strength is then

flexural strength in MPa = P × l/(w × d2) determined from the maximum recorded
load using a formulation.
where
P is the load (Pfp or Pult)defined above in N
l is the span (450 mm)
w is the average beam width at the fracture plane (nominally 125 mm)
d is the average beam width at the fracture plane (nominally 75 mm)
The residual flexural strengths are calculated from the minimum loads from the flexural
stress/ load-deflection curve between 0.5 mm, 1 mm, 2 mm and 4 mm.
fr1 is calculated from minimum load Pr1 recorded between midspan deflections
at 0.5 mm and 1.0 mm
The residual flexural strength is calculated as an equivalent elastic tensile strength using
the previous formulation.
104
Method A Report
́́ Identification of mix composition
́́ Specimen application date and time, identification, and place of production
́́ Condition of specimens at receipt for storage
́́ Details of test specimens, number of, dimension and preparation
́́ Age of specimen when tested
́́ Test machine and setup
́́ Results –
ÆÆ Load (or stress)-deflection curve
ÆÆ First peak, maximum, and residual loads
ÆÆ First peak, maximum and residual flexural strengths
ÆÆ Distance centre of crack to nearest support
ÆÆ Visual appearance of concrete
́́ Observations of uniformity of fibre distribution (must be requested)
with EN 14488-3, except for declared deviations
Method B Description
A panel specimen is loaded using a test machine (EN 12390-4) through one upper and
two lower rollers to produce a bending moment which is used to determine the first peak,
ultimate/maximum and residual flexural strengths from the load/deflection curve. The
distance between the two lower rollers (panel span) is 500 mm. 8
Specimens measuring 100 mm deep x 600 mm wide x 600 mm long according to EN

12390-1 are produced spraying concrete into a panel in accordance with EN 14488-1. A
notch, measuring 10 mm deep x 5 mm wide is wet sawn through the width of the panel
at mid-span on the face in contact with the bottom of the mould during spraying. The
panels are cured in accordance with EN 12390-2 3 days after sawing until <3 hours before
testing, unless specified otherwise. Testing is performed after 28 days.
The test is carried according the relevant parts of EN 12390-4 for bending tests and oper-
ating in a controlled manner.
105
1
where
1 loading roller
2 supporting roller
2
l/2 l/2
Deflection can be measured using the CMOD (Crack Mouth Opening Distance) method or
deflection method.
A A—A
F
F
100
B hsp
250 250 300 300

600 600
A x 6
B
1
y 6
where
1 knife edge 2
2 transducer (clip gauge)
B detail (notch)
Measuring the CMOD is made by mounting a displacement transducer at mid-span of the

beam. The machine starts at a constant rate so that the CMOD increases at 0.05 mm/min
until the CMOD reaches 0.2 mm when the CMOD increases to a constant rate of 0.2 mm/min.
For the first 2 minutes the values of load and corresponding CMOD are recorded at a rate
≥5 Hz which may be reduced to a rate ≥ 1 Hz. The test is stopped when the CMOD ≥ 5 mm. If
cracks start outside of the notch the specimen shall be rejected.
106
A A—A
F F
100
hsp
250 300 300
550 600
A
20
1
1
B
where
3 1 1 mm thick aluminium plate

2 transducer (linear variable
2 differential transformer)
3 spring shaft
B detail (notch)
Deflection is measured by mounting a displacement transducer on a rigid frame at mid-

height over the supports. One end of the frame is mounted to the beam with a sliding
fixture and the other end with a rotating fixture. The deflection method is like the CMOD
except the CMOD parameters are transformed into deflection.
Method B Results
The results are expressed as load- LOP/Residual CMOD Deflection 8
deflection diagrams and the Standard flexural strength (mm) (mm)
gives a formulation to determine the FL 0.05 0.08
equivalent deflection from the CMOD fRs,1 0,5 0,631
measurement in relation to the LOP and
fRs,2 1,5 1,894
residual flexural strength (summarised
in table 1 of EN 14488-3. fRs,3 2,5 3,156
fRs,4 3,5 4,420
107
The LOP is given by the expression where the load value FL is determined from drawing a
line at distance 0.005 mm and parallel to the load axis of the load-CMOD diagram, taking
FL as the highest load value.
f 3 FLs l where
f cts,L = f
2bh2sp f cts,L is the LOP, in N/mm;
FLs is the load corresponding to the LOP, in N;
l is the span length, in mm;
b is the width of the specimen, in mm;
hsp is the distance between the tip of the notch and the
top of the specimen, in mm
Residual flexural tensile strength (f R,j) is given by
3 Fs,j l where fRs,j is the residual flexural tensile strength corresponding with CMOD
fRs,j =
2bh2sp = CMODj or δ = δj (j = 1,2,3,4), in N/mm2;
Fs,j is the load corresponding with CMOD = CMODj or δ = δj
(j = 1,2,3,4), in N (see Figure 7);
l is the span length, in mm;
b is the width of the specimen, in mm;
hsp is the distance between the tip of the notch and the top of the
specimen, in mm
FL
F1
F2
F3
F4
Load F
CMOD (mm)
0 CMOD1 = 0,5 CMOD2 = 1,5 CMOD3 = 2,5
108
45
F1
40
35
30
Y 25
Frs1
Frs2
Frs3
Frs4
10
0
0 1 3 4 5
0,63 1,892 3,16 4,42
X
The load-CMOD is expressed as load corresponding with CMOD at 0.5 (FR1), 1.5 (FR2),
2.5 (FR3) and 3.5 (FR4)
Method B Report
́́ Specimen application date and time, identification, and place of production 8
́́ Details of test specimens, number of, plate and notch dimensioning, and preparation
́́ Results –
ÆÆ Load-CMOD curve or load-deflection curve
ÆÆ Limit of proportionality
ÆÆ Residual flexural tensile strengths corresponding to CMODj (average and
individual values)
ÆÆ Visual appearance of concrete
́́ Observations of uniformity of fibre distribution (must be requested)
109
8.1.2 ASTM BEAM TESTING
The relevant North American Standards for beam testing

ASTM A820/820M Steel Fibres for Fibre-Reinforced Concrete Minimum requirements
ASTM D7508/7508M Standard Specification for Polyolefin Chopped Specification requirements
Strands for Use in Concrete
ASTM C78/C78M Test Method for Flexural Strength of Concrete Test preparation and
(using simple beam with third-point loading) procedure
ASTM C1399/1399M Standard Test Method for Obtaining Method for determining
Average Residual-Strength of Fiber- residual flexural strength
Reinforced Concrete
ASTM C1609/1609M Standard Test Method for Flexural Test preparation and
Performance of Fibre-Reinforced Concrete procedure
(Using Beam with Third-Point Loading)
ASTM C1399/C1399M
Standard Test Method for Obtaining Average Residual-Strength of Fiber-Reinforced
Concrete
Content
A test method to determine the residual strength of a FRC test beam.
Description
A minimum 5 test beams cast in moulds, or cut from larger specimens, measuring 100 x
100 x 350 mm (4 by 4 x 14 in.) or as defined, are tested in flexure using a four-point bend-
ing equipment according to ASTM C78. A steel plate is placed on the underside of the
beam and load applied until the beam cracks. Load is applied until the deflection reaches
a maximum 0.20 mm, when the beam shall have cracked. At this point the test is paused
while the steel plate is removed. The beam is then re-loaded to a maximum deflection of
1.25 mm (0.05 in) obtain the load-deflection curve.
Steel Roller Load Cell Steel Ball
Approx 25 mm [1 in.] Approx 25 mm [1 in.]
100 x 100 x 350 mm

Deflection Gage & Support Yoke [4 x 4 x 14 in.]
on Each Side of Beam Test Beam
(other designs permitted) 12 x 100 x 350 mm
[0.5 x 4 x 14 in.]
Stainless Steel Plate
Steel Ball Steel Roller
100 mm 100 mm 100 mm

[4.0 in.] [4.0 in.] [4.0 in.]
Note: All Dimensions ± 2%
Span Length
8.1.2.1: Schematic drawing of the
300 mm [12 in.] test setup
110
Results
The average residual strength for each beam using the loads determined from reloading
the beams and curve deflections for 0.50, 0.75, 1.00, and 1.25 mm [0.020, 0.030, 0.040,
and 0.050 in.] are calculated from the formulation given in the Standard.
Step 1 Step 2
Initial loading to crack with Reloading:
steel plate under beam (steel plate removed)
Load
Load
P2 P 3
P1 P4
Deflection Deflection
8.1.2.2: Schematic drawings of the loading procedure
Report
The test report shall contain a minimum amount of information as listed in the Standard,
which can be summarised.
́́ Concrete mix proportions
́́ Name and dosage of fibres
́́ Beam 8
ÆÆ Reference numbers
ÆÆ Preparation
ÆÆ Beam span
ÆÆ Dimensions
ÆÆ Age at testing
ÆÆ Curing history
ÆÆ Test conditions
ÆÆ Visual aspect
́́ First peak load, strength, and deflection
́́ Residual loads and strengths at f 600 150
D and f D
́́ Toughness at T 150D min Joule or in.lb
D
́́ Equivalent flexural strength fe ,600
́́ The rate of increase of net deflections
́́ Load-deflection graph
D
́́ Equivalent flexural strength ratio R T ,600
́́ If required, the residual loads corresponding to the residual strengths
́́ Example of parameter calculations (when peak load is greater than first peak load)
111
ASTM C1609/C1609M
Standard Test Method for Flexural Performance of Fibre-Reinforced Concrete (Using
Beam with Third-Point Loading)
Content
A closed-loop test is conducted on a simply supported beam subject to third point loading
to obtain a load-deflection curve. The load-deflection curve is used to assess the flexural
strength of a fibre-reinforced concrete under loading.
Description
Beams cast in moulds, or cut from larger specimens, measuring 100 x 100 x 350 mm
(4 by 4 by 14 in.); 150 x 150 x 500 mm (6 by 6 by 20 in.) or as defined, are tested in flexure
using equipment according to ASTM C1812/C1812 M and E4 practices for force verification
of testing machines. The span for the two beam sizes are adjusted according to the speci-
men size. For 100 x 100 x 350 mm beams the span is 300mm span, and for 150 x 150 x
500 mm beams the span is 450mm. The beam is un-notched and placed on two supports
with loads applied on top in the third points of the beam. The displacement of the beam
is measured with extensometers and the testing machine is controlled according to the
measured displacement of the beam. Load and deflection are recorded to an end deflec-
tion a minimum 1/150 of the span.
50 100 100 100 50

p
LOAD CELL
100
LVDT
Support
TEST MACHINE FIXED SUPPORT
8.1.2.3: Schematic drawing of the test setup
Results
́́ The first peak load is determined where the slope of the load deflection curve is zero, or
the maximum load value.
́́ The first peak strength is determined from equation (1)
f = PL bd2 where f = strength MPa (psi) b = beam width

P = the load N (lbf) d = beam depth
L = the span
112
D and P D
́́ Determine the residual loads at P 600 150
́́ Determine the residual strengths f 600D and f D using equation (1)
150
́́ The toughness T150D for the beam depth is calculated from the total area under the load-
defelction curve up to a net deflection 1/150

D is determined from:
́́ The equivalent flexural strength fe ,150
D 150 .T 150
D
f =
e,150 b.d 2
D is determined from the following equation

́́ The equivalent flexural strength ratio R T ,150
and expressed as a percentage.
D
fe,150
D
RT,150 = . 100%
f1
L= Span Length
PP = P1 = Peak Load = First Peak Load
δp = δ1 = Net deflection at Peak and First-Peak Loads
fP = f1 = Peak Strength an First-Peak Strength
D
P 600 Redidual Load at net deflection of L/600
D
PP = P1 f 600 = Residual Strength at net deflection of L/600
D
P 150 = Residual Load at net deflection of L/150
D
f 150 = Residual Strength at net deflection of L/150
D = Area under the load vs. deflection curve 0 to L/150
T 150
D
P600
Load
D
P150
8
0
δP = δ1 L/600 L/150
Net Deflection
Report
The test report shall contain a minimum amount of information and if it is not
known it shall be clearly stated “unknown”.
́́ Concrete mix proportions
́́ Name and dosage of fibres
́́ Beam
ÆÆ Reference number ÆÆ Curing history
ÆÆ Preparation ÆÆ Test conditions
ÆÆ Dimensions ÆÆ Visual aspect
ÆÆ Age at testing
́́ Record load at 0.50 to 1.25 mm deflection at increments of 0.25 mm
́́ Individual residual flexural strength values for each beam
́́ Mean average residual flexural strength from set of beams
́́ Load-deflection graph
113
8.2 ENERGY ABSORPTION
There are different types of energy absorption tests, depending on the specification re-
quirements, or the design method. Energy absorption tests are not always the same and
vary for different reasons.
́́ Panel size and shape

́́ Panel support in the machine
́́ Load application
́́ Equipment specification / settings
́́ Method of measurement
́́ Sprayed concrete
The two main tests are commonly referred to as the square or round panel test. Results
from square and round panel test methods are difficult compare directly as their geom-
etry and testing conditions are quite different. However, studies show there is a correla-
tion between the results and suggests a factor of 2.5 between the ASTM C1550 energy
absorption at 40 mm deflection and the EN 14488-5 energy absorption at 25 mm deflec-
tion. It is uncertain if this basic correlation can be relied upon for all mix designs.
Table 8.2.1: Comparison of the round and square panel test method
Characteristic Square Panel Test Round Panel Test
EN 14885 ASTM C1550
Geometry Square (600 x 600 x 100 mm deep) Round (800 mm diameter x 75 mm)
Support Conditions Continuous edge support Supported at 3-points
Stress Type Flexure & Punching Shear Flexure
Behaviour Type Material & Structure Material
Cracking Pattern Variable Determinate
Deflection Up to 25 mm Up to 40 mm
Disadvantage Test method susceptible to having Not the best simulation of the
perfect support conditions actual real-life situation
Advantage Better simulation of the real-life Robust and repeatable
performance
114
Energy Absorbtion 25 mm, EFNARC Panel (EN 14488-5 [J]
2000
1750
1500
1250
1000
750
500
250
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Energy Absorbtion 40 mm, Round Panel (ASTM C1550) [J]
Figure 8.2.1: Approximate correlation of square round panel test methods for energy absorption
8.2.1 SQUARE PANEL TEST
8.2.1.1: Relevant documents for determing energy absorption

EN 14889-1 Fibres for concrete – Part 1- Steel Fibres Performance requirements
EN 14889-2 Fibres for concrete – Part 2- Polymer Fibres Performance requirements
EN 14488-1 Sprayed concrete – Part 1: Definitions, Performance requirements
specifications, and conformity
EN 14488-5 Testing sprayed concrete – Part 5: Test preparation and procedure 8
Determination of energy absorption capacity
of fibre reinforced slab specimens
EN 14488-5
Testing sprayed concrete – Part 5: Determination of energy absorption capacity of fibre
reinforced slab specimens
Content
This Standard specifies a method of determining energy absorption by applying a load on
the top-centre of a specimen and measuring the load/deflection. From the load/deflec-
tion curve a second curve can be calculated giving energy absorption as a function of the
deflection.
115
Deform [mm] Energy / Deform [mm]
800
35
700
30
600
25
Force 160kN
Energy [J]
500
20 400
15 300
10 200
5 100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
Deform [mm]
Deform [mm] Energy / Deform [mm]

1000
50
900
45
800
40
700
35
Force 160kN
600
Energy [J]
30
25 500
20 400
15 300
10 200
5 100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Deform [mm]
Figures 8.2.1.1: Examples of load/deflection diagrams to determine energy absorption
Description
FRC is sprayed into a panel form using the concrete
mix design, for the project. The panel is removed
100 mm
from site and delivered to a test institute where
500 mm it will be prepared for testing and cured according
to EN 12390-2. The test is normally carried out at
28 days. The specimen for the test is cut down to
measure 600 mm x 600 mm x 100 mm thick and
is placed on a rigid square support frame in a ma-
600 mm
chine according to EN 12390-4. A point load is ap-
plied on the top surface of the panel by a 100 x 100
square loading block. Electronic transducers are
used to measure the specimen deflection as the
load is being applied. The test is finished when the
deflection exceeds 30 mm. The energy absorption
capacity of the concrete in joules is determined
from the area under the load-deflection curve be-
tween 0 - 25 mm.
116
Results
The energy absorption diagram related to the displacement is calculated from the load-
deflection curve.
Definitions of energy absorption classes are given in EN 14488-1: Table 3.
Energy absorbtion class Energy absorbtion in J for deflection up to 25 mm

E500 500
E700 700
E1000 1000
Report
́́ Specimen application date and time, identification, and place of production
́́ Details of test specimens, number of, dimension and preparation
́́ Results –
ÆÆ Load-deflection curve
ÆÆ Maximum load (kN)
ÆÆ Calculated energy-deflection diagram
ÆÆ Energy absorption capacity
ÆÆ Sketch or photograph of the specimen showing number and location of cracks
́́ Any deviation to the Standard 8
Figure 8.2.1.2: Underside view of tested square panels
117
8.2.2 ROUND PANEL TEST
ASTM C1550-20
Standard Test Method for Flexural Toughness of Fiber Reinforced Concrete
(Using Centrally Loaded Round Panel)
Content
This Standard specifies a method of determining flexural toughness, expressed as energy
absorption, by applying a load on the top-centre of a specimen and measuring the central
deflection with the onset of load. From the load/deflection curve a second curve can be
calculated giving energy absorption as a function of the deflection.
Description
FRC is sprayed into a panel form using the concrete
mix design, for the project. The panel is removed
75 mm from site and delivered to a test institute where
it will be prepared for testing and cured in accor-
dance with the Standard. The specimen for the
test measures 800 mm diameter x 75 mm thick
and is placed moulded face onto three symmetri-
cally arranged pivots. A point load, in the form of
800 mm
a steel hemispherical ball, is applied in the centre
of the panel. The rate of deflection is controlled
and applied at a constant rate. The test is finished
when the deflection exceeds 45 mm. The energy
absorption capacity of the concrete in joules is de-
termined from the area under the load-deflection
curve between 0 - 40 mm.
Results
The adjusted load-deflection curve
is used to identify the load capacity
at first peak and corrected using
the given formulation. In the stan-
dard the energy absorption is de-
termined from the area under the
load-net deflection curve between
the corrected origin and 40 mm net
deflection. In addition, toughness
can be defined at central deflec-
tions of 5, 10 and 20 mm.
Figure 8.2.2.1: Standard Test Method for Flexural Toughness of FRC
118
Deform 2 [mm] Energy / Deform 2 [mm]
24
220
22
20 200
18 180
16 160
Power [kN]
140
Energy [J]
14
12 120
10 100
8 80
6 60
4 40
2 20
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42
Deform 2 [mm]
Figure 8.2.2.2: Top and underside views of tested square panels
Report
́́ Specimen application (cast or sprayed)
́́ Identification reference
́́ Type of fiber and dosage rate
́́ Average thickness and standard deviation
́́ Average diameter
́́ Curing history
́́ Age of specimen at test
́́ Record any defects in specimen
Results
́́ Description and number of radial cracks
́́ Uncorrected and corrected peak load
́́ Uncorrected and corrected values of energy absorptions
́́ Graph of the load-net deflection 8
Figure 8.2.2.3: Specimen set up result reporting according to ASTM C-1550 round panel test
119
8.3 FIBRE STRENGTH
The tensile and E-modulus test procedures men-
tioned in the global standards differ greatly from
each other and sometimes do not specify the pre-
cise test conditions.
EN 14889-2:2006 does not define performance

requirements for tensile strength or E-modulus,
although the manufacturer’s values must be de-
clared. There are two methods for determining the
tensile strength of a synthetic fibre, depending on
if the fibre is classified as a micro or macro fibre.
Macro-synthetic fibres are currently tested according to EN 10002:1 with the additional
requirements that the test speed may not be higher than 10 mm/min and testing must
be done on strands of at least 20 mm in length. This means, that no specific strain rate
is given, however, EN 10002-1:2001 gives a maximum strain rate of 0.008 s-1, which is ap-
proximately 50%/min.
EN 10002-1:2001 was withdrawn in 2009, however is still referred to in EN 14889:1 and 2

until these Standards are updated. EN 10002-1:2001 will be replaced by ISO 6892-1:2009
Metallic materials – Tensile testing – Part 1: Method of test at room temperature.
Testing is normally carried out on a minimum 30 strands. From the spread of results the
manufacturer can decide which value to declare, although Standards will define the maxi-
mum allowable difference between the declared and upper and lower values. The manu-
facturer will also define from where in the production process the strands are removed
for testing. For example, tensile tests are typically carried out on the embossed fibre (the
finished product) whereas for undulated or crimped fibres the test is better carried out
before the undulation or crimping process. The reason for this is because the initial elon-
gation to straighten an undulated or crimped fibre will strongly affect the results.
Micro-synthetic fibres are tested according to EN ISO 2062:2009, with a gauge length
of either 250 or 500 mm and a test speed of 250 and 500 mm/min respectively which
translates into a strain rate of 100%/min. EN ISO 2062:2009 further states, that all
preconditioning and testing must be done in standard atmosphere at 20°C and 65% rela-
tive humidity. Although this test method only applies to micro-synthetic fibres, it is not
uncommon to also test macro-synthetic fibres using this method.
120
ASTM D7508/D7508M-10 (2015) only specifies the determination of the tensile strength
and gives a minimum required value of 50,000 PSI (~344.4 MPa).
Tensile strength is tested according to ASTM D2256

in ambient conditions of +21°C and 65% relative
humidity. The strain rate in D2256 specifies the
breaking force shall be reached within 20 seconds.
As most polypropylene based macro-synthetic
fibres usually have an elongation at break between
5 and 15%, this translates into strain rates between
15 and 45%/min. However, according to D2256 it is
also possible to test with a strain rate of 120%/min.
D2256 also gives two methods for calculating the
E-modulus. One is called initial modulus, the other
chord modulus. However, these two methods leave
plenty of room for interpretation and can therefore
provide many different values for the same fibre.
The E-modulus is defined as secant modulus determined by making a line through the
points at 10% and 30% of maximum force, on the stress-strain curve. Albeit precise, the
method is not ideal. The point on the stress strain curve corresponding to 30% of maxi-
mum force always exhibits a deformation of greater 0.3%, which means, that this point
already lies outside the region where the material exhibits linear-viscoelastic behaviour
so that the deformation is irreversible. The point corresponding to 30% of maximum
force even lies beyond the yield point, at which the stress-strain curve levels off and
plastic deformation begins. This means, fibres with lower values of maximum force,
the two points at 10% and 30% of maximum force, move closer together leading to a
steeper slope of the line for the secant modulus and thus seemingly higher values for the 8
E modulus for a weaker fibre.
121
Table 8.3.1: Overview over the main standards governing tensile testing procedures for
macro-synthetic fibres for use in concrete.
EN 14889-2 ASTM D7508/D7508M
Tensile strength macro fibres micro fibres ASTM D2256
EN 10002-1 EN ISO 2062
Strain rate < 50%/min 100%/min ca. 15-45%/min
or 120%/min
Gauge length ≥ 20 mm 250 mm or 500 mm 250 mm (10 inch)
Test speed ≤ 10 mm/min 250 mm/min 20s to break
or 500 mm/min or 300 mm/min
E-modulus EN 10002-1 not required
slope of the line going through the points however, ASTM D2256 gives
at 10% and 30% of maximum force on the different options for its
stress-strain curve calculation:
́́ initial modulus
́́ chord modulus
STRAIN RATE
The strain rate in the tensile testing plays a major influence on the declared values.
Values for tensile strengths are strongly dependent on testing parameters, namely the
strain rate and for synthetic fibres the testing temperature. The strain rate is the speed
of the moving cross head in relation to the test specimen’s original length between the
clamps. Strain rate and the temperature at which the tensile test is performed strongly
influence the ‘shape’ of the stress-strain curve of macro-synthetic fibres. In general, the
higher the strain rate and thus the test speed, the higher the resulting values for tensile
strength. Lowering the testing temperature has the same effect as increasing the strain
rate.
E-Modulus is not required according to D7508
530 10
9 Tensile test
Tensile strength [MPa]
480 according to
E-modulus [GPa]
Tensile test
EN ISO 2062:2009
according to
EN ISO 2062:2009 8 (micro-synthetic
(micro-synthetic fibers in
fibers in Tensile test EN 14889-2:2006)
430
Tensile test EN 14889-2:2006) according to
7 EN 14889-2:2006
according to
EN 14889-2:2006
380 6
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 50 100 150 200 250
Strain
Strainrate [%/min.]
rate [%/min.] Strain rate [%/min.]
Figure 8.3.1: Tensile strength of a macro-synthetic fibre in rela- Figure 8.3.2: E-modulus of a macro-synthetic fibre in relation
tion to the strain rate in the tensile test. to the strain rate in the tensile test.
122
RECOMMENDATION FOR MACRO FIBRE TENSILE TEST
A minimum 30 strands measuring ~400 mm long will be required.
Embossed The embossed strands shall be tested i.e., finished product

Crimped/undulated The uncrimped strands shall be tested
For EN 14889-2:2006 all tensile and e-modulus values must be tested using a Universal
Testing Machine with a flat-faced clamping system incorporating a tactile or optical ex-
tensometer.
Strain rate [1] 33%/min (derived from test speed/gauge length *100%)
Test speed [2] 10 mm/min
Gauge length 30 mm ±2 mm
Distance of tactile extensometer 10 mm ±1 mm
[1]
Determined from the test speed and gauge length
[2]
Given in the Standard
The equivalent area and cross section area are determined using the irregular cross sec-
tion method.
Tensile strength is determined from the maximum breaking force [N] / cross sectional
area [mm2]
The E-Modulus is determined from the stress strain curve between the determine values
at 10% of fmax and 30% of fmax from the maximum breaking force and using the equation:
8
(30%Fmax – 10% Fmax)/cross sectional area
(elongation at 30% Fmax – elongation at 10% Fmax)
123
9 PACKAGING AND DOSING
9.1 PACKAGING
The effectiveness of fibre reinforced concrete
(FRC) in providing resistance to cracking and
enhancement of material properties is entirely
dependent on the uniform three-dimensional dis-
tribution of fibres throughout the concrete.
FRC cannot be described as a 3-dimensional sys-

tem of reinforcement if fibres are present in one
part of the concrete and not another. Therefore,
to achieve complete and uniform distribution it is
essential the chosen fibre is compatible with the
selected concrete or cementitious mix and that the
recommended mixing procedure is followed.
Depending on the manufacturer, fibres are available in different packaging types and siz-
es. Typically, the packaging types are degradable bags for easy dosing, cardboard boxes,
or the larger bags/sacks.
PP MICRO-FIBRES
PP micro-fibres are supplied as loose fibres and gener-
ally packaged in 0.6 kg or 0.9 kg degradable paper
bags. These bags are designed to be added directly
into the concrete mix without opening the bag itself.
It is normal to add these bags once all other materials,
including water have been added to the mixer. Bags
will degrade in the mix due to the mechanical action
of the aggregates. Care should always be taken to
add the individual bags slowly and uniformly into the
concrete and not simply all at once. Once added, the concrete should be mixed until all the
fibres have homogenously distributed in the concrete. Mixing times can be influenced by
the age and efficiency of the mixing equipment, and whether it is a forced action static
or tumble mixer. Mixing times vary depending on the volume of the concrete mixed, w/c-
ratio and type of mixer. Always consult the Product Data Sheet.
124
There are automated systems on the market for introducing small, bagged materials into
the concrete. However, where PP micro-fibres are used in large quantities, for example in
tunnel applications, they are often supplied in big bags to facilitate the use of automated
dosing machinery.
PP MACRO-FIBRES
PP macro-fibres are generally supplied in
degradable paper bags, cardboard boxes
and depending on the manufacturer in big
bags. The degradable bags are designed
to be added unopened into the concrete,
whereas boxed fibres must be opened and
introduced slowly into the concrete. Some
types of PP macro-fibres are supplied
as loose materials, such as the soft tape
types. PP micro-fibres are also generally
supplied as “pucks” which are essentially
large amounts of single fibres wrapped in a
soluble film.
These pucks help with the uniform dispersion of fibres in the concrete and allow other-
wise bulky material to be efficiently packed for transportation. PP macro-fibres should be
added slowly and uniformly into the concrete. When the bags have quickly degraded the
“pucks” will evenly distribute into the concrete. The film around the pucks will then dis-
solve allowing the fibres to homogenously distribute in the concrete.
PP macro-fibres can be supplied in big bags and will generally be used in combination with
an automated dosing equipment.
9
STEEL MACRO-FIBRES
Steel fibres are available as a loose or glued col-
lated clip and generally supplied in cardboard boxes
or large bags/sacks for major projects. Cardboard
box sizes vary depending on the manufacturer
and typically may be supplied as 10 kg, 20 kg, or
25 kg sizes. Steel fibres may also be supplied in
degradable bags depending on the weight, glued
or loose and size of fibres. Degradable bags can be
strengthened to support the additional weight,
but this will influence the degrading time in the
mixer. Regularly checks should be made to make
sure the bags have completely degraded.
125
Steel fibres with high aspect ratios are typically glued together to form clips of fibres as
this will improve the fibre distribution in the concrete.
Steel fibres are added to the freshly mixed concrete and never as the first component.
Mixing time will depend on the size and efficiency of the mixing equipment. The mixing
time is generally recommended as 5 minutes as a minimum, or an extra 1-minute mixing
for every cubic meter in the mixer. Steel fibres can generally be supplied in a ~1 tonne big
bag for use with automated dosing equipment.
9.2 DOSING
9.2.1 MANUAL DOSING
Dosing is linked to the quantity of concrete

to be used. Where relatively small quanti-
ties of fibres are required then these will
normally be dosed manually. Where large
quantities of concrete are to be used then
the preference may be to use automated
dosing equipment.
9.2.2 AUTOMATED DOSING EQUIPMENT
For large projects, the best method of dos-

ing fibres is to use an automated dosing
equipment. These systems are generally
suitable for all fibre types and are se-
lected according to the fibre type, feed-
ing capacity, tray content and accuracy
requirements. Typically, the equipment
has a cylindrical tray with a spirally shaped
feeder coil on the inside which is mounted
onto a rigid framework with vibrating mo-
tors attached. When activated, manually or
automatically fibres work their way upwards on the spiral and discharge into the mixer or
onto secondary delivery belts. Automated dosing equipment can be used as a stand-alone
system or linked directly to the concrete batching computer system which accurately
measures and records fibre dosage for each batch
126
CONVEYOR BELT
Mobile conveyor belts are a very simply
way of transporting PP or steel micro
or macro-fibres directly to the concrete
mixer. Fibres are manually placed at the
bottom of the moving conveyor belt. The
fibre quantities going into the mixer are
controlled manually and it is recommended
to make a record of the dosing for each
concrete batch. Ribbed belts are recom-
mended when using pp macro-fibres sup-
plied in pucks.
BLOWING EQUIPMENT
Blowing systems can be used for various types of fibres. They are more commonly used
by specialist contractors for undulating steel fibres. This is because the wave-like shape
of the fibre can cause balling issues when introduced as a loose material from the box
tape packaging or from a conveyor belt.
BUCKET ELEVATORS
Bucket elevators are for the vertical
conveyance of fibres. They have a series
9
of small buckets attached to a moving
belt which move all types of fibres from
a ground to an elevated position. Bucket
elevators can be integrated into more intri-
cate delivery methods such as automated
fibre dosing system, the conveyor belts
and other weighing systems.
127
10 CONCRETE FINISHING
10.1 GOOD CONCRETE PRACTICE

Where FRC is to be exposed, the quality of surface finish is often a measurement of suc-
cess. For example, precast elements and for exposed insitu cast concrete such as floor
slabs. To achieve a good surface finish is necessary to pay careful attention to the con-
crete mix design, placing timing, and the finishing technique. The constituents of the mix
design places and important role of the finishing charcteristics.
́́ Fines content
́́ Aggregate content
́́ Water/binder-ratio
́́ Use of admixtures
́́ Finishing aids
It is also making sure there is sufficent paste to coat the fibres. Long stiff fibres can
protrude out of exposed concrete, whereas soft fibres will bend down on the surface. Ex-
posed steel fibres can start to corrode and leave unsightly stains on the concrete. There-
fore, the right fibre selection is also about the concrete application and desired surface
appearance. Whilst, fibres are distributed homogenously in the concrete it is inevitable
that some may be visable on the surface.
FRC can be placed using conventional methods such as concrete chutes, and buckets. FRC
can also be extruded or projected onto a surface using specialist pumping and spraying
techniques. The desired workability will influence the surface aspect depending on if there
was high or low workability at the time of placement, and the degree of compaction. Over
vibrating FRC can align fibres in a similar direction and will affect the concrete perfor-
mance. FRC can look drier than a normal concrete, but it has the same workability when
vibrated into place. This is due to the fact the fibres need to be coated with cement paste
and means the concrete may become more cohesive.
128
Apparent slump or slump-flow loss is a characteristic of FRC and in most instances the
addition of water is unnecessary. Many factors affect the workability of concrete; there-
fore, it is important to analyse the FRC mix design prior to placing the concrete. As with
all concrete, do not expect the best results with a mix with high w/c-ratio.
When finishing the concrete, timing is important as are having the right tools. Brooms,
hand trowels or power trowels are a few examples. Do not commence finishing opera-
tions too early. Let all bleed water evaporate from the surface before finishing. It is very
important not to overwork the surface, especially FRC where there may be fibres on the
surface.
BLEEDING
Bleeding is the movement of water within the concrete to the surface due to gravitational
displacement of the cement and aggregate prior to the initial set. Plain concrete can form
puddles of bleed water on the surface in areas where large capillaries have formed. Incon-
sistency of concrete quality and supply rates can cause further issues with variable bleed
and concrete finishing.
10
Finishing operations performed while bleed water is present on the surface can cause
serious crazing, dusting, or scaling problems. Sprinkling water on the surface to facilitate
finishing can also cause these problems.
FRC will exhibit less bleed water than the equivalent plain concrete due to the internal
support mechanism fibres provide to the aggregates. Where bleed does occur, it will gen-
erally be more uniform meaning that the risk of “puddling” is significantly less than that
of plain concrete.
129
10.2 FINISHING METHODS
Fibres are compatible with most finish-
ing and surface treatments including
pattern stamping, exposed aggregate,
brooming and hand or power trowelling.
Steel fibres are not recommended for
pattern stamping or exposed aggregate
finishes. Dragging burlap over the sur-
face is not recommended because they
can get caught on a fibre and lift it from
the surface.
STRIKE-OFF OR BULLFLOATING
Manual, vibratory or laser screeds can be
used during the strike off operation. Laser
guided screeds and vibratory screeds ensure
surface vibration, which brings paste to the
surface and limits the possibility of exposed
fibres. Magnesium floats are recommended
to establish a smooth, level surface and can
close any tears or open areas that occur dur-
ing the strike off operation. As with finishing
any concrete, overworking the surface should
be avoided as this will simply bring excessive
fines and fibres to the surface
MACHINE TROWELLING
Timing is everything and there may be a ten-
dency for inexperienced operators to start FRC
finishing too early.
This because the fibre reinforced concrete will

look stiffer and exhibit less surface water than
plain concrete. It is important to understand
that fibres do not influence the concrete hydra-
tion process. Therefore, concrete which appears
ready for finishing is probably not, because the
concrete is not setting any faster.
Fibres will add cohesion and support to the concrete meaning there is less bleed water.
This should be taken into consideration when operators use on site tests to ascertain
readiness for finishing operations.
130
Premature trowelling will exhibit more sur-
face fibres since the cement paste has not
sufficient time to adhere to the fibre. This
results in fibres being moved around the
surface. It will also draw more fibres to the
surface making quality finishing more diffi-
cult. If fibres do appear to be drawn to the
surface, stop, wait ten to fifteen minutes,
and try again. Correct timing will produce
a smooth, even finish with minimal fibre
exposure.
Good practice is to start floating the surface with a pan-trowel or with the power blades
laid flat. This floating operation will consolidate the surface, remove surface imperfec-
tions, and prepare the surface for further finishing operations. Continue with the pan or
flat blades for as long as possible then slowly increase the angle of the blades until the
desired concrete finish is obtained.
RAKE & BROOM FINISHING

Brooming and raking is best accomplished
by pulling the broom or rake in one direc-
tion. There may be some fibres at the sur-
face, but this is normal and the PP fibres
can be cut or burnt off later, however if left
they will wear away in time. Steel fibres
can be removed by clipping the fibre from
the surface with offset pliers or wire cut-
ters. These steps are rarely necessary with
experience FRC operators.
10
PRECAST ELEMENTS
There are few problems associated with
FRC in precast elements when the con-
crete is cast in formwork. However, care
should be taken to produce a good quality
concrete and not to over vibrate. Exposed
surfaces will need to be hand trowelled at a
suitable time. Protruding fibres can be cut
or in the case of PP, the fibres can be burnt
if necessary.
131
11 INDEX
A Construction time 58
Abrasion 52 Corrosion 22
ACI 360R 62, 67, 70-74 Cracking 22, 46, 47, 63
ACI 544.4R, 62 Crack Mouth Opening
Acid attack 22 Displacement (CMOD) 36, 97-100
American Concrete Creep 41
Assosiation (ACI) 25, 62 Critical length 13-14
Application (guide) 59
Aspect ratio 12,14, 35 D
Associations 23 DafStB 25
ASTM A820/A820M 24, 34 Declaration of Performance (DoP) 31
ASTM C1399/C1399M 110 Decomposition temperature 41
ASTM C1550 87, 118 119 Dosing 15, 49, 60, 64, 126
ASTM C1609/C1609M 68, 112 -113 Ductility 9, 57
ASTM D2256 121 Durability 22, 42, 52, 58, 91
ASTM A7508/A7508M 24, 32, 37, 38, 121
Automated dosing 126 E
EFNARC 88
B Elongation 35, 41
Balling 36 Embossed 12,13, 35, 53, 66
Bending test 65, 94 E-Modulus 35, 40, 66, 120-121
Bleeding 47, 129 EN 10002-1 120-121
Broom, finishing 131 EN 14889 24, 27, 37, 38, 67, 94, 120
Bullfloating 130 EN 14845-1 67, 94-96
EN 14845-2 67, 94, 96-97
C EN 14487-1 26
CE Certification 27 EN 14651 70, 94, 97-101
Cement matrix 16 EN 14488-3 94, 102-109
Chemical bond 13 EN 14488-5 87, 115-117
CNR 25 Energy Absorption 36, 87-88, 114
Cohesiveness 44 European Standards 26, 28, 67
Concrete 16, 22, 28, 67 Explosive spalling 49, 79-80
132
F M
Fib Model Code 26, 62, 69 Macro fibres 53
Fibre Application (guide) 59
Anchorage 13, 66 Benefits 55-58
Application (guide) 59 Concrete properties 54
Benefits 46-52, 57-58, 65, Cracking resistance 54
75-76, 86, 90, 92, 93 Dosing 49, 60, 64
Characteristics 10 Mechanical strength 57
Classification 37 Types 53
Count 36, 44 Melt Flow Index 41
Dispersion 14 Melt point 22, 41
Geometry 12, 37, 38 Micro fibres 43
Materials 11 Application (guide) 59
Design concept 63, 68 Benefits 46-52
Shape 12 Concrete properties 44, 45
Structural 67 Cracking resistance 46
Temperature 41 Dosing 49, 80
Terminology 35 Fire 49-51, 82-83
Fibre reinforced Types 44
concrete (FRC) 9, 62, 91 Mixing 15
Fibrillated 12, 35, 43 Modulus of Rupture 36
Finishing, slabs 128-131 Monofilament 35, 43
Fire protection (passive) 49, 80
Flat fibres 12,13 P
Flexural strength 28, 36, 64, 67, Packaging 15, 124
94, 96, 102, 110, 112 Peak Flexural Strength 36
Flow table test 45 Permeability 52
Plastic settlement cracking 47
H Plastic shrinkage cracking 48, 54, 63, 75
Hooked 13, 66 Polypropylene
Macro 53
I Micro 43
ITAtech 26, 62, 69 Properties 11,12
Impact resistance 52 Pucks 125
Precast 90-91, 131
J Pumped concrete 92
JSCE 25 11
Joints (slab) 78 R
Reference concrete 67
L Residual Flexural
Life cycle assessment 18-21 Strength (RFS) 36, 63, 65
Limit of Proportionality 36, 65 RILEM 26, 62
Linear density 35 Rock support 84-89
Rupture 13
133
S
SIA 25
SikaFiber® Software 71-74
Slab on ground 19-21, 70-74, 75-78
Sprayed concrete 84
Steel fibres
Glued 14, 125
Properties 11,13
Surfactants 42
Types 55-56
Steel reinforcement 58, 62, 85, 90-91
Strain
Hardening/softening 64
Tensile testing 122
Surface spalling 79
Sustainability 18-21
T
Technical Reports 26, 62
Tenacity 35
Tensile strength 48, 66
Tensile testing 28, 39, 120-121
Testing 94-123
TR34 62, 70-74
TR63 62
TR65 62
Trowelling, surface 130
Tunnel 49
Tunnel linings 69, 79
Twisted 12
U
UHPC 65, 93
Undulated 12, 13, 53, 66
Ultraviolet light 42
V
Vebe testing 28-29
W
Workability 44, 45
134
11
135
FOR MORE REINFORCED CONCRETE
INFORMATION
WE ARE SIKA
Sika is a specialty chemicals company with a leading position in the
development and production of systems and products for bonding,
sealing, damping, reinforcing and protecting in the building sector
and the motor vehicle industry. Sika’s product lines feature concrete
admixtures, mortars, sealants and adhesives, structural strengthening
systems, flooring as well as roofing and waterproofing systems.
© Sika Services AG / SikaFiber Reinforced Concrete Handbook / 10.2022
Our most current General Sales Conditions shall apply.

Please consult the most current local Product Data Sheet prior to any use.
SIKA SERVICES AG Contact

Tüffenwies 16 Phone +41 58 436 40 40
CH-8048 Zürich www.sika.com
Switzerland

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CONCRETE

Also in this series of Sika Handbooks:

FOR MORE SPRAYED CONCRETE

SIKA SPRAYED CONCRETE HANDBOOK

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Sika Concrete Handbook Sika Sprayed Concrete Handbook

6 FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE 62

9 PACKAGING AND DOSING 124

10 CONCRETE FINISHING 128

1.1 WHAT IS FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE 1

1.2 FIBRE CHARACTERISTICS

Polypropylene may sometimes also be referred to polyolefin. Polyolefins are a general

Table 1.2.1.2: Main properties of the fibre matrix material

Polypropylene (PP) Micro mono-filamented Polypropylene (PP) fibrillated

Embossed PP Macro Undulated PP Macro

Type 1: Type 2: Type 3: Type 5:

Type 4: Mill Cut (twisted)

a) a rough embossed surface

where: ftf = Tensile strength of fibre (MPa)

Figure 1.2.4.1 Calculating for the critical length

l > 2lcrit l > 2lcrit l > 2lcrit

In all situations it is important the manufacturer’s recommendations for addition and

Figure 1.2.6: Fibre in relationship to the matrix material

́́ Improving energy and resource efficiency

1. Concrete containing 4 kg/m³ of SikaFiber® Force-50

Table 2.2.1: Concrete mix designs for the LCA analysis

Additives SikaFiber® Force-50 4 kg/m³ None

Cumulative Energy Demand [MJ]

Figure 2.2.2: Cumulative energy demand with and withoutt SikaFiber®

2.3 EXCESS MATERIAL

Steel is known to be susceptible to corrosion. If steel fibre reinforced concrete is placed

2.5.1 EFCA Sika is a member of EFCA, the European Federation of Concrete

2.5.4 FRCA The Fiber Reinforced Concrete Association is focused on further-

DOCUMENT PUBLISHER TITLE USE

American Concrete Institute

ACI 506.1R American Concrete Institute Guide to Shotcrete Products, application,

Concrete Society Technical Reports

3.2.1 EN 14889: PARTS 1 AND 2

Table 3.2.1.1: Main contents of EN 14889: Parts 1 and 2

In addition, the required test method is specified in EN 14845-1

Table ZA.2 from EN 14889:1 and 2

DESCRIPTION RELEVANT STANDARDS FIBRE TYPE

No. 53568252 Release of dangerous substances

6a HARMONISED STANDARD: EN 14889-2:2006

RELATED DECLARATION OF PERFORMANCE

DoP No. 53568252 SikaFiber PPM 12 EN 14889-2:2006 85267750

Tensile strength 450 N/mm2

*) Fiber specification: length 50 mm, diameter 0,715 mm, shape deformed

Example of the CE marking for SikaFiber® Force-50 and SikaFiber® PPM-12

LEGAL NOTE LEGAL NOTE

Declara�on of Performance Template for transla�on. Only for

Table 3.2.2.1: Main contents of ASTM D7508/D7508M

Table 3.2.2.2 Table 1 from ASTM D7508/7508M

Table 3.2.3.1: Main contents of ASTM A820/A820M

In ASTM A820/A820M, there are references also to documents produced by the

European Standard EN 14889-Part 2 characterises fibres according to their diameter. The

Class Ia: Micro-fibres: < 0,30 mm in diameter; Monofilament

4.3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Procedure for determining an equivalent diameter