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ISO 9001
ANALOG CIRCUITS III
BASICS CONCEPTS IN RF
RF BASIC UNITS
 RF UNITS

In RF and microwave circuits, power is

usually used to describe signals, noise
and distortion, being the decibel
above 1 milliwatt (dBm) the typical PmW]
unit to measure absolute signal levels,
P[dBm] = 10 log
1 mW
in RF typically voltages and currents
are assumed to be across a 50 Q
resistance.

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 RF UNITS

Example:

>- Convert 4.85 W to dBm

>- Convert 120 pW to dBm
>- Convert-92 dBm to mW

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 RF UNITS
Example: An amplifier delivers a power of 6 dBm to a load resistance
(RL) of 75 Q. Determine the peak voltage swing across the load (v ). Op

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 RF UNITS
Example: An amplifier delivers a power of 6 dBm to a load resistance
(RL) of 75 Q. Determine the peak voltage swing across the load (v ). Op

Solution:
„ , P'dBm]
P[mW] = 10 10 • (1 mW) = 3.98 mW
The power:

And the voltage:

Vp = y/2PR~L = \/2 • 3.98 mW • 75 Q = 773 mV

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 RF UNITS
1 mW = 0 dBm
2 mW = 3 dBm
4 mW = 6 dBm
8 mW = 9 dBm
10 mW = 10 dBm
20 mW = 13 dBm
50 mW = 17 dBm
100 mW = 20 dBm
200 mW = 23 dBm
500 mW = 27 dBm
1000 mW (1W) = 30 dBm

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 RF UNITS
The power gain is the ratio of the output power to the input power,
usually expressed in logarithmic units (dB):

Pout \
Ap [dB] = 10 log
Pin /

dB and dBm calculations can be expressed as additions and

subtractions, instead of multiplications and divisions.

Ap [dB] = 10 log (Pout) - 10 log (Pin) = Pout [dB m] - Pin [dBm]

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 RF UNITS
Example: An amplifier has a power gain of 1200. What is the power gain
in dB? If the input power is 3 mW, what is the output power in dBm?

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 RF UNITS
Example: An amplifier has a power gain of 1200. What is the power gain
in dB? If the input power is 3 mW, what is the output power in dBm?

AP[dB] = 10 log (1200) = 30.79 dB

Pin[dBm] = 10 log f = 4-77 dBm

Pout[dBm] = Pin[dBm] + Ap[dB] = 4.77 dBm + 30.79 dB = 35.56 dBm

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 RF UNITS
Example: Two power signals of 20 dBm and 30 dBm are connected at the
inputs of a power combiner. What is the output power of the combiner?

30 dBm
Pout
----- >

20 dBm

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 RF UNITS
Voltage gain is also expressed in decibels (dB):

If an amplifier has an input resistance of R = 50 Q, and driving a load

of Rl = 50 Q, then:

Ap [dB] = 20 log

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 RF UNITS
Example: A RF receiver senses a signal of -97 dBm power level. If the
amplifier of the receiver provides A = 15 dB, calculate the peak-to-peak
voltage swing in the load of the amplifier. Assume R = R = 50 Q.

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 RF UNITS
Example: A RF receiver senses a signal of -97 dBm power level. If the
amplifier of the receiver provides A = 15 dB, calculate the peak-to-peak
voltage swing in the load of the amplifier. Assume R = R = 50 Q.
Because of R. =R,:
in L
Ap [dB] = Ay [dB] = 15 dB
The output power:

Pout [dBm] = Pin [dBm] + Ap [dB] = —97 dBm + 15 dB = —82 dBm

Pout [mW] = 1O"82/10 = 6.309 x 10’9 mW
The output voitage:
VouLp [V] = \/2 * 50 Q * 6.309 pW = 25.12 //V
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 RF UNITS

Exercise: Repeat the last example if Rjn = 100 Q and RL = 150 Q.

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LINEARITY AND DISTORTION

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 LINEARITY

In an ideal system (linear, time-invariant, static and memoryless), the

output is linearly related to its input. In the situation of an amplifier,
the output is:

y(t) = a x(t)

a: Small-signal gain.

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 LINEARITY
Linearity can be affected by
signal swing limitations imposed
by the power supply rails.
 LINEARITY
Linearity can be affected by
signal swing limitations imposed
by the power supply rails.

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 LINEARITY

In a real device, the transfer function is more complicated due to the

non linearities of the active devices of the circuits.

a—>F-c

A—>|—C
-1^

id = Is ("<•'’ - l) I'd (^.9-s — I to)2

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 LINEARITY
How is it possible to use a nonlinear
device to implement a linear process of
amplification?
Vcc

z
Rl

k
vi Vpc+vgc

ic = Is eVr = Is e Vt

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 LINEARITY
How is it possible to use a The Taylor series for the
nonlinear device to implement a exponential function:
linear process of amplification?
Vcc

Rl
Ifx « 1:
«1+z
k
\ DC+ Vac
e V'p

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 LINEARITY

For a small input AC voltage (v ), collector current behaves

approximately linear, so as the output voltage:

VDC+Vac Vpc vac

— Is e vr — I s e vt e vt

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 LINEARITY

In the nonlinear situation, the input-output characteristic can be

approximated with a series expansion of power terms:

y(t) = a0 + &ix(t) + + a3x'\t) H-----------

The a terms are dependent of the circuit. In many practical circuits,
the three first terms are sufficient to characterize the circuit with a fair
degree of accuracy:

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 EFFECTS OF NONLINEARITY

These effects cannot be predicted by small-signal models, and will

be described using the series expansion approximation:

>■ Harmonic Distortion

>■ Gain Compression
> Cross Modulation
>■ Intermodulation

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 HARMONIC DISTORTION

If a sinusoid is applied to the input of a nonlinear system, the output

exhibits frequency components that are integer multiples of the input
frequency (harmonics).

*(t) y(t)
If x(t) — Vm cos (cuoi):

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 HARMONIC DISTORTION
Cosine properties:

cos (0 + /?) = cos G cos 3 — sin G sin 3

cos (G — 3) = cos G cos 3 + sin G sin 3

Adding the two expressions:

cos (G — /?) + cos (G + 3) = 2 cos G cos 3

If G = 3-.

1 + cos(2G)
2

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 HARMONIC DISTORTION

To obtain the third power:

1 + cos (20)
2

cos 0 cos 0 • cos (20) COS 0

2 H 2 2~
The result:

cos3 0 = - cos 0 — cos (30)

1 4

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 HARMONIC DISTORTION
The output:

1 + cos (2cj()t) "3 1

y(t) = diVA/cos^oi) + a2V^ + - cos (cvoi) + - cos (3c<j()i)
2

Reducing the expression:

cos (2cxj()Z) cos (3wot)

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 HARMONIC DISTORTION

Additional frequency components that are harmonics of w at output:

x(t) y(t)

A
*
i ►w 0

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 HARMONIC DISTORTION

y(0 (- 2?lV) cos(2^01) + cos (3cuq t)

First term: DC quantity (2nd order nonlinearity)

Second term: Fundamental component affected by 3rd order
nonlinearity
Third term: Second Harmonic component (2nd order nonlinearity)
proportional to V 2
Fourth term: Third Harmonic component (3rd order nonlinearity)
proportional to V 3
 HARMONIC DISTORTION

Example: An ideal mixer multiplies its two inputs:

*i (—<X)—► y (
Xi(t) = Vmi COS (tv’if) ; z2(f) = Va/2 cos (u>2f)

X2(t)
a) If the mixer is ideal, determine the output frequency components

y(t) = k • Xi(t) ■ x2(t) = k • VMl

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 HARMONIC DISTORTION

Example: Using the cosine properties, it is possible to demonstrate:

,.x kVMlVM2 r z . x ,1 . kVM1VM2 r z W1

Z/(0 =--------- --------'cos + H-------------------- 2------------^C°S ~~

Sum and difference of the individual frequencies. If / = 850 MHz and

f = 900 MHz, the output components:

xz'i + W2I = 27T (1750 MHz) Cdl — U?2

A
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 HARMONIC DISTORTION

Example: b) If the input port x suffers from third-order

nonlinearity, determine the output frequency components.

The third-order nonlinearity of x (t) can be expressed as:

a:2(i) = Vaz/2 cos (cv2f) + n,{^U3 cos (3w2i)

The output of the mixer:
Q?3^A//33 /o
y(t) = k ■ VM1 cos • VM2 cos (cu2t) + —-— COS (ocu2r)

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 HARMONIC DISTORTION

Example: Reducing the expression, the output voltage:

Two undesired frequency components (spurious). If/ = 850 MHz and

f = 900 MHz, the output components:
|cui + 3cu2| = 2tt (3550 MHz) ; |u?i — 3cu2| = 27r (1850 MHz)

The last one can be difficult to filter (close to/ +f ).

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 GAIN COMPRESSION
Small signal gain of circuits is usually obtained assuming that harmonics
are negligible (in our case, small signal voltage gain can be a ). But,
from previous results, the fundamental magnitude is:

The gain experienced by the fundamental component varies appreciably

as V becomes larger. Experimentally, it has been demonstrated that a .
a < 0, leading a compressive behavior of the output.

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 GAIN COMPRESSION
To quantize this phenomenon, the 1-dB
compression point is used, defined as
the input signal level that causes the
gain to drop by 1 dB.

Ideal behavior: OiVa/ cos (cvot)

Real behavior: oi Vm +
GAIN COMPRESSION
 GAIN COMPRESSION

Finally, the 1-dB compression point:

This point represent a 10% reduction

in the gain. Widely used to
characterize RF systems. Also can be
expressed in power terms (PinldB)-
 CROSS MODULATION

1
Occurs when a weak desired signal (cu ) and a strong modulated
interferer (cu ) pass through a nonlinear system. In this situation,
there exist a transfer of modulation from the interferer to the
desired signal (the variations of the interferer amplitude affect the
amplitude of the desired signal). A
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 CROSS MODULATION

The desired signal:

%i(t) = VAfi cos

If the interferer is an amplitude modulated signal:

£2(t) = Vm2 [1 + m COS (cJTOf)] cos (tu2i)

where m is the modulation index and a) is the modulating frequency.

The total input corresponds to the sum of x (t) and x (t).

x(t) = Vmi cos (wii) + Vm-2 [1 + m cos (u>mt)] cos (cj2t)

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 CROSS MODULATION

The amplitude of the output at oo can be written as (demonstrate):

The desired signal at the output suffers from amplitude modulation at

U)mand 2u) .m

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 INTERMODULATION

Another scenario of interest occurs if two interferers at a) and a)

accompany a desired signal at U) . As a result, the output exhibits
components that are not harmonics of these frequencies. Assuming:

x{t) = Vmi COS + Va/2 COS (cu2f)

Thus, the expansion in power series leads to:

3
+ Q3 [Va/1 cos (cui^) + VM2 cos (w2t)]
W7)
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 INTERMODULATION

Expanding the expression and excluding the DC and harmonics:

y(t) = a2 [2VM1 cos VM2 cos (u>2£)]
+ a3 [3V^j cos2 (cv’ji) VM2 cos (w2<) + 3VMi cos 2 cos 2 (w t)] 4-------
2

Using the cosine properties:

y(t) = a2VM1 VM2 [cos (ajx + u>2) t 4- cos (a>x - u>2)
+ 3Q3Vui^/2 |-cos (2^! _|_ f _|_ cos (2^ — cv2) i]

+ _J__LLJ22. [cos _|_ 2u?2) t + cos (u?i — 2cj2) £] + •••

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 INTERMODULATION

New components at the output:

• col±uo2 Two 2nd order IM Product

• 2U)1 ± , 2(jJ2 ± Four 3rd order IM Product

If o^and cu2are close to each other, then 20^- cu2and 2co2- oo1 appear
in the vicinity of cu and co .
 INTERMODULATION

Spectrum corrupted by undesired frequency components. Some of

them are easily removed by filtering.

_i-------- - ----- tx---- 1-----XT------ --------------- -----►

(a)2 2u)2-(^i Wi+m2 2(^+1^ 20)2+1^
 INTERMODULATION

Example: A Bluetooth user receive signal from a desired channel

f = 2.41 GHz. At the same time, two different Bluetooth users
transmit at f2 = 2.42 GHz and f2 = 2.43 GHz. Could the desired
channel be corrupted by the IM of the interferers?

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 INTERMODULATION

Example: A Bluetooth user receive signal from a desired channel

f = 2.41 GHz. At the same time, two different Bluetooth users
transmit at f2 = 2.42 GHz and f2 = 2.43 GHz. Could the desired
channel be corrupted by the IM of the interferers?

2f2 - = 2.44 GHz

*(t) y(t)
2/i - /2 = 2.41 GHz

The desired channel could be corrupted

(depending on the IM amplitude).
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