DIRECTORATE OF SCHOOL

EDUCATION
CHENNAI DISTRICT

LEARNING MATERIAL
2022 – 2023

HIGHER SECONDARY – SECOND YEAR

BIO-BOTANY / BOTANY
 PREFACE

We take pleasure in presenting this simplified learning material of

Bio-Botany and Botany for students of Std XII.

Specific lessons have been selected and the answers are framed in a

precise manner to make learning easier. The objective of this learning

material is to enable students to understand the concepts with ease and

to ultimately perform better in the board examination. We express our

heartfelt thanks to the Respected Chief Educational Officer, Chennai

for his initiative and valuable guidance.

“Hard Work never fails”

 PREPARED BY

J. VIJAYA SATYA SELVI C. NATARAJAN

P.G. ASST. BOTANY P.G. ASST. BIOLOGY
ST. ANNE’S GIRLS HSS, P A K PALANISAMY HSS
ROYAPURAM OLD WASHERMENPET,
CHENNAI – 600 013. CHENNAI – 600 021.

P. VARALAKSHMI P.K. KASTHURI

P.G.ASST.BIOLOGY P.G.ASST. BOTANY
KARNATAKA SANGHA HSS JAI GOPAL GARODIA GHSS
T.NAGAR, CHENNAI - 600 017. VIRUGAMBAKKAM, CHENNAI – 600 092.

K. SRI RAJARAJESWARI
P.G.ASST.BOTANY
PRESIDENCY GIRLS MODEL HSS
EGMORE, CHENNAI - 600 008.
 INDEX

S.No. CHAPTER 2 MARKS 3 MARKS 5 MARKS

ASEXUAL AND SEXUAL
1. 16 6 6
REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
2. CLASSICAL GENETICS 15 1 6
CHROMOSOMAL BASIS OF
3. 3 3 5
INHERITANCE
PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES OF
4. 10 1 4
BIOTECHNOLOGY
5. PLANT TISSUE CULTURE 15 11 7
6. PRINCIPLES OF ECOLOGY 4 4 -
7. ECOSYSTEM 12 10 9
8. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 4 4 2
9. PLANT BREEDING 4 1 2
ECONOMICALLY USEFUL PLANTS
10. 1 2 3
AND ENTREPRENEURIAL BOTANY
 LEARNING MATERIAL
BIO – BOTANY & BOTANY

CHAPTER – 1
ASEXUAL AND SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Two Mark Questions

1. Define the term Diplospory.

 A diploid embryo sac is formed from megaspore mother cell without a regular meiotic
division.
 Examples: Eupatorium and Aerva.

2. What is layering?
 It is an artificial method of vegetative propagation.
 The stem of the parent plant is allowed to develop roots while still intact.
 The root develops. The rooted part is cut. It is planted to grow as a new plant.
 Examples: Ixora, Jasminum

3. What is Cantharophily?
Pollination by beetles is called Cantharophily.

4. What is endothelium?
 In Ovules, the inner layer of integument is specialised for nutritive function for
embryo sac. It is called endothelium.
 Example: Asteraceae

5. What is Mellitophily?
Pollination by bees is called Mellitophily.

6. “Endothelium is associated with dehiscence of anther.” Justify the statement.

 It is a layer in the anther wall
 It has single layer of radially elongated cells. It is below epidermis
 The tangential and radial walls has lignified thickenings.
 These cells are hygroscopic. This nature helps in the dehiscence of anther at maturity.

7. What is Myrmecophily?
Pollination by ants is called Myrmecophily.

8. Define apomixis.
 It is defined as the substitution of the usual sexual system by a form of reproduction.
 It does not involve meiosis and syngamy.

9. Name the abiotic agents of pollination.

 Pollination by wind or anemophily.
 Pollination by water or hydrophily
10. What are clones?
The individuals formed by asexual method are morphologically and genetically identical.
They are called clones.

11. Define Pollinium.

 In some plants, all the microspores in a microsporangium remain held together called
pollinium.
 Example: Calotropis.

12. Draw diagram and label the parts of dicot seed.

13. Differentiate Autogamy from Allogamy.

 Autogamy – Transfer of pollen on the stigma of the same flower.
 Allogamy – Transfer of pollen of one flower to the stigma of another flower.

14. What are epiphyllous buds?

In Bryophyllum, the leaf is succulent and notched on its margin. Adventitious buds
develop at these notches and are called epiphyllous buds.

15. What is scutellum?

 The seeds of paddy is one seeded and is called caryopsis.
 The Embryo is small and consists of one shield- cotyledon known as scutellum
present towards lateral side of embryonal axis.

16. What is cap block?

 The hemispherical, transparent tip of pollen tube is called cap block. It is seen by
microscope.
 When it disappears the growth of pollen tube stops.

Three Mark Questions

17. What is Polyembryony? How it can be commercially exploited?

 Occurrence of more than one embryo in a seed.
 Practical applications:
 Seedling from nucellar tissue of Citrus are better clones of Orchards.
 Embryos from polyembryony are virus free

18. List out the functions of tapetum.

 Tapetum is the innermost layer of anther wall.
 Supplies nutrition to developing microspores.
  Contributes sporopollenin through ubisch bodies. They play role in pollen wall
formation.
 Pollen kitt material is contributed by tapetal cells.

19. Write short note on pollen kitt.

 Tapetum Contributes for the pollen kitt.
 It is coloured yellow or orange made up of carotenoids or flavonoids
 It is an oily layer forming thick viscous coating.
 It attracts insects and protects from UV radiation.

20. How does the pollen tube enter into the ovule?
 There are three types of pollen tube enter:
 Porogamy: When the pollen tube enters through the micropyle.
 Chalazogamy: When the pollen tube enters through the chalaza.
 Mesogamy: When the pollen tube enters through the integument.

21. Enumerate the characteristic features of entomophilous flowers.

 Generally large or aggregated in dense inflorescence.
 Flowers are brightly coloured to attract insect.
 These flowers are scented and produce nectar.
 Foul odour also attracts flies and beetles.

22. Distinguish between tenuinucellate and crassinucellate ovules

Tenuinucellate Crassinucellate
 Sporogenuous cell is hypodermal  Sporogenuous cell is Sub-hypodermal
 Ovule has small nucellus  Ovule has large nucellus

Five Mark Questions

23. How does the male gametophyte develop?

 Haploid microspore is the first cell of gametophyte.
 Development takes place at microsporangium
 Microspore nucleus divides into vegetative and generative nucleus.
 Large vegetative cell and small generative cell is formed.
 At this 2 celled stage pollens are liberated from anther.
 In some plants generative cell form 2 male gametes.
24. Explain pollination in Maize.
 Maize is monoecious and unisexual.
 Male inflorescence is at the terminal.
 Female inflorescence is at lateral lower level.
 Heavy pollens cannot be carried by breeze.
 Male inflorescence is shaken by wind. The released pollens fall vertically below.

25. What do you know about the lever mechanism of pollination? Explain.
 Salvia is adapted for bee pollination.
 Bilabiate corolla has two stamens.
 Each anther has upper fertile lobe and lower sterile lobe separated by long connective
the anthers swing freely.
 The bee strikes against the sterile end of connective, so fertile part of the stamen
descend it strikes at the back of the bee.

26. What is Endosperm? Explain its types?

 The primary endosperm nucleus divides immediately after fertilization but before the
zygote starts to divide, to form the endosperm.
 They are nuclear endosperm, Cellular endosperm and Helobial endosperm.
Nuclear endosperm:
 In the nuclear type, the primary endosperm nucleus divides into two without any wall
formation. They consists of only free nuclei.
 Example Coccinia
Cellular endosperm:
 In this type, the primary endosperm nucleus divides into 2 nuclei which immediately
followed by wall formation. Eg. Adoxa
 Helobial endosperm:
 The primary endosperm nucleus moves towards the base of the embryo sac where it
divides into two nuclei.
 The nucleus of the micropylar chamber undergoes several free nuclear divisions
whereas, that of the chalazal chamber may or may not divide.
 Example: Hydrilla

27. What is Parthenocarpy? Write note on its significance.

 Fruit like structures may develop from the ovary without the act of fertilization is
called parthenocarpy.
Significance:
 The seedless fruits have great significance in horticulture.
 Seedless fruits have great commercial importance.
 Seedless fruits are useful for the preparation of jams, jellies, sauces, fruit drinks etc.
 High proportion of edible part is available in parthenocarpic fruits due to the absence
of seeds.

28. With a suitable diagram explain the structure of an ovule.

 The ovule is protected by coverings called integuments.
 The stalk of the ovule is funicle
 The ovule bears a central mass of tissue called nucellus.
 The integument form a pore called micropyle and opposite to it is chalaza.
 A large oval structure towards the micropylar end is embryo sac.
 The embryo sac has 8 nuclei.
 CHAPTER 2
CLASSICAL GENETICS

Two Mark Questions

1. What are multiple alleles?
Alleles are alternative form of gene and they are responsible for differences in phenotypic
expression of a given trait.

2. Define Genetics.
It is the branch of biological science which deals with the mechanism of transmission of
characters from parent to offsprings.

3. What is back cross?

 Back cross is a cross of F1 offspring with either one of the parental genotypes.
 The recessive back cross helps to identify the heterozygosity of the hybrid.

4. What is continuous variation with example?

A variation in a characteristic in which individual show a range of traits with small difference
between them. Eg. Human height and skin colour.

5. Write a short notes on discontinuous variation with suitable example.

Discontinuous is a variation in characteristic in which individual show two or few traits with a
large difference between them. Eg. Height or length of a plant.

6. What is hybridization?
The process of mating two individuals that differ with the goal of achieving a certain
characteristics in their offspring.

7. What is hypostatic?
The epistatic gene whose expression is interfered by non-allelic gene and prevents from
exhibiting its character is known as hypostatic.

8. What is Dihybrid cross?

 It is a genetic cross which involves individuals differing in two characters.
 It is the inheritance of two separate genes each with two alleles.

9. What are the reasons for Mendel’s success?

 He applied Mathematics and statistical methods to biology and laws of probability to
his breeding experiments.
 His experiments were carefully planned and he used large samples.

10. What is Heredity?

Heredity is the transmission of characters from parents to offsprings.
11. Define variation.
The organisms belonging to the same natural population or species that shows a difference in
the characteristic is called variation.

12. Define law of Dominance.

In a dissimilar pair of factors one member of the pair is dominant and the other is recessive.
This law gives an explanation to the Monohybrid.

13. What is Pleiotropy?

Here, the single gene affects multiple traits and alter the phenotype of the organism.

14. Define law of segregation.

 During the formation of gametes the factors or alleles of a pair separate and segregate
from each other such that each gametes receives only one of the factor.
 Gametes are never hybrid.

15. What is epistasis?

Epistasis is a term which describe how genes interact to affect a phenotype where by an allele
at one locus prevents an allele at another locus from manifesting its effect.

Three Mark Questions

16. Write a note on Incomplete dominance.
It refer to genetic situation in which one allele does not completely dominate another allele
and therefore results in a new phenotype. Example: Flower colour in Mirabilis jalapa.

Five Mark Questions

17. Describe dominant epistasis with an example.
 Epistasis can be defined as a gene interaction whereby one gene interferes with the
phenotype expression of another non-allelic gene.
  The gene are locus which suppresses or masks the action of a gene at another locus is
called epistatic gene.
 The gene or locus were expressions is suppressed by an epistatic gene is called gene
hypostatic. E.g. fruit colour in Cucurbita

18. Explain dihybrid cross.

 It is a genetic cross that occurs between two individuals, focusing on the inheritance
of two independent traits at one time. It is also known as two trait cross.
 Two parents considered for this cross have two independent traits.
 Thus a dihybrid cross involves two pairs of genes.
 Example: Seed shape and colour of Garden pea.
19. What is meant by cytoplasmic inheritance?
 DNA is the universal genetic material
 Genes located in nuclear chromosomes follow Mendelian inheritance
 The cytoplasmic organelles chloroplast and mitochondrion act as inheritance vectors,
so called cytoplasmic inheritance.
 It is based on self-replicating, extra chromosomal unit called plasmogene.
 The cytoplasmic organelles are mitochondria and chloroplast.

20. Differentiate continuous and discontinuous variation.

Continuous variation Discontinuous variation
It is also called quantitative inheritance It is also called qualitative inheritance
Controlled by many genes Controlled by one or two major genes.
Exhibit complete gradation No intermediate form
Affected by environmental factors Unaffected by environmental condition.
Example: Human height Example: Plant height in garden pea.
21. What is Atavism?
Atavism is a modification of biological structure whereby ancestral trait reappears after
having been lost through reemergence of sexual reproduction in the flowering plant.
Example: Hieracium pilosella

22. Explain the Chloroplast inheritance.

 There are two types of variegated leaves namely, dark green and pale green plants
 When the pollen of dark green leaved plants (male) is transferred to the stigma of pale
green leaved plant (female) and the same is repeated vice versa.
 The F1 generation of both the crosses were not same.
 This inheritance is not through nuclear gene.
 It is due to the chloroplast gene found in the ovum of the female plant which
contributes the cytoplasm.
 CHAPTER – 3
CHROMOSOMAL BASIS OF INHERITANCE

Two Mark Questions

1. What is called crossing over?
Crossing over is a biological process that produces new combination of genes by interchanging
the corresponding segments between non-sister chromatids of homologous pair of
chromosomes.

2. What is genetic mapping?

The diagrammatic representation of position of genes and related distances between the
adjacent genes is called genetic mapping.

3. What is point mutation?

It refers to alterations of single base pairs of DNA.

Three Mark Questions

4. Distinguish between complete and incomplete linkage

Complete linkage Incomplete linkage
The linked genes are located very close to each The linked genes are sufficiently apart.
other on the same chromosome.
They can separate and crossing over is
They do not exhibit crossing over. possible

5. What are the uses of genetic mapping?

 Useful in predicting dihybrid and trihybrid crosses.
 Allows to understand the genetic complexity of an organism.
 Used to determine gene order and calculate the distance between the genes.

6. What are mutagens? What are its types?

 The factors which cause genetic mutation are called mutagens.
 They are of two types.
 Physical mutagens
 Chemical mutagens.
 Five Mark Questions

7. What is crossing over? Explain.

 Crossing over is a biological process that produces new combination of genes by

interchanging the corresponding segments between non-sister chromatids of
homologous chromosomes.
 It includes
 Synapsis
 Tetrad formation
 Crossover
 Terminalisation
Synapsis
 Homologous chromosomes are aligned side by side, resulting in pairing called
bivalents.
Tetrad formation
 Each homologous chromosomes of a bivalent begin to form two identical sister
chromatids, which remain held together by a centromere.
 Each bivalent has four chromatids and this is called tetrad stage.
Crossover
 The non-sister chromatids of homologous pair make a contact at one or more points.
 These points are called chiasmata.
 At chiasma, X shaped structures are formed.
 Breaking and rejoining of two chromatids occur.
 Results in reciprocal exchange of equal and corresponding segments between them.
 Terminalisation
 After crossing over, chiasma move towards the terminal end of chromatids.
 This is called terminalisation.
 Homologous chromosomes separate from each other.

8. Write the importance of crossing over.

 Exchange of segments leads new gene combinations which plays an important role in
evolution.
 It shows genes are arranged linearly on the chromosomes.
 Genetic maps are made based on the frequency of crossing over.
 It helps to understand the nature and mechanism of gene action.
 If useful new combination is formed it can be used in plant breeding.

9. Mention the name of man-made cereal. How it is formed?

The man-made cereal is Triticale.
10. Draw the flow chart showing different types of ploidy.

11. Draw the diagram of different types of aneuploidy

 CHAPTER - 4
PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

Two Mark Questions

1. What is called SCP?
Single celled proteins are dried cells of microorganism that are used as protein supplement in
human foods or animal feeds.

2. Name the bacteria used for the production of single cell protein.
 Methylophyllus methylotrophus
 Cellulomonas
 Alcaligenes

3. Name the fungi used for the production of single cell protein
 Agaricus campestris
 Saccharomyces cerevisiae
 Candida utilis

4. Name the Algae used for the production of single cell protein.
 Spirulina
 Chlorella
 Chlamydomonas

5. What is PCR?
Polymerase Chain Reaction is a common laboratory technique used to make copies of a
particular region of DNA.

6. What is recombinant DNA technology?

Recombination carried out artificially using modern technology is called recombinant DNA
technology

7. What are the enzymes used in DNA recombinant technology

 Restriction endonuclease
 DNA ligase

8. What is Vector?
Vector is a small DNA molecule capable of self replication and used as a carrier and transporter
of DNA fragment.

9. Define – Biopharming.
Bio pharming is the production and use of transgenic plants to produce pharmaceutical
substances for use of human beings.
10. Define – Bioremediation
Bio remediation is defined as the use of microorganisms or plants to manage environmental
pollution.

Three Mark Questions

11. What do you know about pBR 322?

 pBR 322 plasmid is a reconstructed plasmid.

 In pBR,
 P – plasmid
 B&R- Boliver & Rodriguez, the name of the scientists who developed the plasmid.
 322- Number of plasmids developed from their laboratory.

Five Mark Questions

12. Write the applications of Single Cell Protein.

 It is used as protein supplement.
 It is used in cosmetic products for healthy hair and skin.
 It is used as an excellent source of protein for cattle, birds, fishes etc.
 It is used in food industry as aroma carriers, in soups, baked products etc.
 It is used in paper processing, leather processing industries as foam stabilizers.

13. Write the advantages and disadvantages of Bt cotton

Advantages
 Yield of cotton is increased due to effective control of bollworms.
 Reduction in insecticide use.
 Reduction in cost of cultivation
 Disadvantages
 Cost is high
 Effectiveness lasts only upto 120 days.
 Affecting pollinating insects and yield.
 Ineffective against jassids, aphids and whitefly.
14. Compare the various types of blotting techniques.

15. What are the steps involved in recombinant DNA Technology?

 Isolation of a DNA Fragment containing a gene of interest that needs to be cloned.

This is called an insert.
 This insert is inserted into a carrier molecule called vector.
 As a result rDNA or recombinant DNA is formed.
 This transformed host cells carrying the rDNA is allowed to multiply.
 A large amount of rDNA or a large amount of protein expressed by the insert is
produced.
 Wherever vectors are not involved, the desired gene is multiplied by PCR technique.
 CHAPTER - 5
PLANT TISSUE CULTURE

Two Mark Questions

1. Define Totipotency:
Totipotency is defined as the genetic potential of a plant cell to give rise to a complete
individual plant in a nutrient medium.

2. What is meant by explant?

The tissue taken from a selected plant is transferred to a culture medium often to establish a
new plant.

3. List out the basic concepts of plant tissue culture

a) Totipotency b) Differentiation c) Redifferentiation d) Dedifferentiation

4. Name of the different types of medium used in plant tissue culture.

a) MS. Medium b) B5 medium c) White medium d) Nitsch medium

5. What is agar?
A complex mucilaginous polysaccharide obtained from marine algae (sea weeds) used as
solidifying agent in media preparation.

6. What is Sterilization?
Sterilization is the technique employed to get rid of microbes, such as bacteria and fungi in the
culture medium, vessels, and explants.

7. What is callus?
Callus is a mass of unorganized growth of plant cells or tissues in invitro culture medium.

8. What are called embryoids?

The callus cell undergoes differentiation and produces somatic embryos known as Embryoids.

9. What is meant by Hardening?

Hardening is the gradual exposure of invitro developed plantlets for acclimatization, so as to
enable them to grow under normal condition.

10. Define embryogenesis:-

Embryogenesis is the process through which the callus cells undergo differentiation to produce
somatic embryos called embryoids.
11. What is cybrid?
The fusion product of protoplast without nucleus of different cells is called a cybrid.

12. What are the types of plant tissue culture based on the explants?
a) Organ culture b) Meristem culture c) Protoplast culture d) Cell culture

13. What are called cryoprotectants?

Protective agents like dimethyl sulphoxide, glycerol or sucrose are added before
cryopreservation process. These protective agents are called cryoprotectants. They protect the
cells or tissues from the stress of freezing temperature.

14. What are called secondary metabolites?

Secondary metabolites are chemical compounds that are not required for normal growth and
development of plants. ex: alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids and phenolic.

15. What is meant by PEG?

PEG is Poly Ethylene Glycol.
It is the fusogenic agent that facilitates the fusion of 2 different protoplasts coming together
in somatic hybridization to produce cybrid.

Three Mark Questions

16. Distinguish between Redifferentiation and Dedifferentiation.

Redifferentiation Dedifferentiation
The ability of callus tissue to develop into Reversion of mature tissue into meristematic
shoot & root state leading to the formation of callus.

17. How will you produce virus-free plants?

Chemical methods can be used to control fungal and bacterial pathogens,but not viruses
generally.
Shoot meristem tip culture is the method to produce virus free plants,because shoot meristem
tip is always free from viruses.

18. What is Intellectual Property Right (IPR)?

IPR is a category of rights that includes intangible creation of human intellect and primarily
consists of copyrights, patent and trademarks.

19. Write down the basic techniques involved in plant tissue culture.
1.Sterilization 2. Media preparation 3. Culture condition 4. Induction of callus.
5.Embryogenesis 6.Hardening

20. What are the steps involved in the production of secondary metabolites?
1.Biotransformation. 2.Elicitation 3. Immobilisation
21. Write a note on Biosafety.
Biosafety is the prevention of large scale of loss of biological integrity focussing both on
Ecology and human health.

22. What are the different inert materials used for coating the somatic embryoids for the production
of artificial seeds?
1.Agarose 2.Sodium Alginate.

23. What are the applications of somatic embryogenesis?

 Somatic embryogenesis provides potential plantlets which after hardening period can
establish into plants.
 Somatic embryoids can be used for the production of synthetic seeds.
 It is possible in any plant. Eg. Allium sativum, Oryza sativa

24. Write the differences between somaclonal variations and gametoclonal variations.
Somaclonal variations Gametoclonal variations
Found in plants regenerated invitro Found in plants regenerated invitro gametic origin.
(i.e leaves, stem, root, tuber or (i.e gametes and gametophytes).
propagule).

25. What is organogenesis?

The morphological changes occur in the callus leading to the formation of shoot and roots is
called organogenesis.

26. Write about micropropagation of banana.

Micropropagation of plants at industrial level maintains high standards of homogeneity in
plants like pineapple, banana, strawberry and potato.

Five Mark Questions

27. Explain the basic concepts involved in plant tissue culture.

Basic concepts of PTC (Plant Tissue culture):
 Totipotency: Plant cells have the inherent genetic potential to develop into a complete
individual plant if provided a nutrient medium.
Differentiation
 The process of biochemical and structural changes by which cells become specialized
in form and function.
Redifferentiation
 Callus have the ability to develop into whole plant in nutrient medium.
 It is the further differentiation of already differentiated cell into another type of cell.
Dedifferentiation
 Reversion of mature tissue into meristematic state leading to the formation of callus is
called dedifferentiation.
28. Explain Advantages of Artificial seeds.
 Millions of artificial seeds can be produced at any time at low cost.
 They provide an easy method to produce genetically engineered plants with desirable
traits.
 It is easy to test the genotype of plants.
 They can be potentially stored for long time under cryopreservation method.
 Artificial seeds produce identical plants.

29. Explain about patent.

 Granted by the Government to the discoverer/inventor for trading new articles.
 A personal property which can be licenced or sold by the person or organisation.
 It gives the inventor the rights to exclude others from making, using or selling his
invention.

30. Explain Cryopreservation.

 Cryopreservation
 Biological materials like protoplasts, tissue organelles, organs are subjected to
preservation by cooling to very low temperature of -196oC using liquid nitrogen.
 Enzymatic or chemical activity of the biological material will be totally stopped in
dormant status.
 These materials can be activated by subjecting them to room temperature.
 Cryoprotectants such as Dimethyl Sulphoxide, Glycerol or Sucrose are added before
cryopreservation.

31. Explain the steps involved in protoplasmic fusion.

ISOLATION OF PROTOPLASTS
 Leaf tissue is immersed in 0.5%Macerozyme, 2%Onozuka cellulase enzymes
dissolved in 13% sorbitol or mannitol at pH 5.4.
 Incubated overnight at 25 oc.
 Protoplasts are transferred to 20% sucrose solution to retain their viability.
FUSION OF PROTOPLASTS
 The isolated protoplasts are incubated in 25 to 30% concentration of PEG (Poly
Ethylene Glycol)
CULTURE OF PROTOPLASTS.
 Ms liquid medium is used.
 Cultures are incubated in continuous light 1000-2000 lux at 25oc.
SELECTION OF SOMATIC HYBRID
 The fusion product of protoplasts without nucleus of different cells is called cybrid.
 This is followed by nuclear fusion.
 This process is called somatic hybridization.
32. What are the applications of plants tissue culture:-
 Improved hybrid productions through somatic hybridizations.
 Synthetic seed helps in conservation of plants diversity.
 Production of disease resistant plants through meristem and shoot tip culture.
 Micropropagation techniques to obtain large number of plantlets of both crop and tree
species.)
 Secondary metabolies of cell culture utilized in pharmaceutical cosmetic and food
industries.

33. Write about the secondary metabolites and its plant resources.

Additional Questions

34. What is the role of gene bank?

 Gene bank or DNA bank involve in germplasm conservation.
 It has the elite breeding lines of plant resources for the maintenance of biological
diversity and food security.
35. What is GEAC-Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee?
GEAC is an apex body under Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climatic change for
regulating, manufacturing, use, import, export and storage of hazarduous microbes or
genetically modified organisms and cells in the country.
 CHAPTER - 6
PRINCIPLES OF ECOLOGY

Two Mark Questions

1. Define. – Ecology.
The study of living organisms, both plants and animals, in their natural habitats or homes.

2. What is Seed ball?

Seed ball is an ancient Japanese technique of encasing seeds in a mixture of and soil humus
and cow dung and scattering them on to suitable ground.

3. What is Phytoremediation?
Removal of poisonous substances like Cadmium from contaminated soil by plants is known as
Phytoremediation.
Eg. Rice, Eichhornia.

4. What is Vivipary?
When seeds or embryos begin to develop before they develop before they detach from the
parent plant is called Vivipary

Three Mark Questions

5. What is ecological hierarchy? Name the levels of

Ecological hierarchy.
The interaction of organisms with their environment results in the establishment of grouping
of organisms is called ecological hierarchy.
Biosphere

Biome

Landscape

Ecosystem

Community

Population

Individual organism
6. Distinguish between Habitat and Niche.
S. No. Habitat Niche
1. A specific physical space occupied by A functional space occupied by an
an organism organism in the same ecosystem.
2. Same habitat may be shared by many A single niche is occupied by a single
organisms. species.
3. Habitat specificity is exhibited by Organisms may change their niche with
organism. time and season.

7. What are the branches of ecology?

Autecology
It is the ecology of individual species and is also called species Ecology.
Synecology
It is the ecology of population or community with one or more species.

8. What is thermal stratification? Mention their types.

The change in the temperature profile with increasing depth in a waterbody is called thermal
stratification.
There are three levels.
Epilimnion - The upper layer of warm water.
Metalimnion - The middle layer with gradual decrease in temperature.
Hypolimnion - The bottom layer of colder water.
 CHAPTER – 7
ECOSYSTEM

Two Mark Questions

1. Define standing quality (or) standing state.
Total inorganic substances present in any ecosystem at a given time is called standing quality
(or) standing state.

2. What is standing crop?

The amount of living materials present in a population at any given time is called standing
crop.

3. What is Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR)?

 The amount of light available for photosynthesis of plants is called Photosynthetically
Active Radiation.
 Wavelength range is 400-700 nm
 Essential for photosynthesis and plant growth.

4. Define food chain.

 The movement of energy from producers up to top carnivores is called food chain.
 i.e., energy flows from producers  primary consumers  secondary consumers 
tertiary consumers. It shows linear network links.

5. Explain the term ecological pyramids.

 Graphic representation of the trophic structure and function at successive trophic levels
of an ecosystem is called ecological pyramids (or) Eltonian pyramids.
 concept was introduced by Charles Elton.

6. What is Biogeochemical cycle?

Circulation of nutrients within the ecosystem or biosphere is known as biogeochemical cycle.
Or cycling of materials.

7. Differentiate Gaseous cycle and Sedimentary cycle.

Gaseous cycle Sedimentary cycle
It includes atmospheric gases It includes sediments of earth
Oxygen, Carbon, Nitrogen cycles Phosphorus, Sulphur, Calcium cycles

8. What is plant succession?

The successive replacement of one type of plant community by other of the same area/place
is known as plant succession.
9. What are pioneers?
The first invaded plants in a barren area are called pioneers.

10. Explain seral communities.

A series of transitional developments of plant communities one after another in a given area
are called seral communities.

11. How climax community is formed?

At the end a final stage and a final plant community gets established which are called as climax
and climax community.

12. Define food web.

 The inter-locking pattern of a number of food chain form a web like arrangement.
 It is the basic unit of an ecosystem, to maintain its stability in nature.

Three Mark Questions

13. Write a note on concept of trophic level in an ecosystem.

 A trophic level refers to the position of an organism in the food chain.
 The number of trophic levels is equal to the number of steps in the food chain.
 The green plants occupying the first trophic level (T 1) are called producers.
 The producers is utilized by the plant eaters which occupy the second trophic level (T 2)
are called primary consumers.
 They in turn are eaten by secondary consumers which occupy the third trophic level
(T3)
 The Carnivores in T3 are eaten by other carnivores in the fourth trophic level (T 4) called
as tertiary consumers.

14. Explain first law of thermodynamics with an example.

 It states that energy can be transmitted from one system to another in various forms.
 Energy cannot be destroyed or created. But it can be transformed from one form to
another.
Example:
 In photosynthesis, the product of starch is formed by the combination of reactants.
Light
6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll
Light energy  Chemical energy
15. Write about second Law of thermodynamics.
 It state that energy transformation results in the reduction of the free energy of the
system.
 As energy is transferred from one organism to another in the form of food, a portion of
it is stored as energy is dissipated as heat through respiration.
 Example Ten percent law.

16. Write a note on Grazing food chain.

 Main source of energy for the grazing food chain is the SUN.
 It begins with the first link  Producers (plants)  second link  primary consumers
(mouse)  third link  secondary consumers (snake)  fourth link  Tertiary
consumers (eagle).

17. Explain Detritus food chain.

 Important source of energy begins with dead organic matter.

 This food chain is present in all ecosystems.
 The transfer of energy from the dead organic matter, is transferred through a series of
organisms called detritus consumers (detritivores)- small carnivores- large(top)
carnivores with repeated eating and being eaten respectively.

18. Pyramid of energy – Explain.

  A graphical representation of energy flow at each successive trophic level.
 The bottom of this pyramid is occupied by the producers.
 There is a gradual decrease in energy transfer at successive trophic levels.
 Pyramid of energy is always upright.

19. Explain carbon cycle.

 The circulation of carbon between organisms and environment is called carbon cycle.
 Cycling of carbon between organisms and atmosphere by two processes-
photosynthesis and respiration.
 Carbon increases due to burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, forest fire, volcanic
eruption and decomposition of dead organic matters.

20. Explain Phosphorus cycle.

 It is a type of sedimentary cycle.
 It is present in rock deposits, marine sediments and guano.
 The producers absorb phosphorus in the form of phosphate ions and it is transferred in
the food chain.
 Again death of the organisms and degradation by the action of decomposers, the
phosphorus is released back.

21. Classify different types of plant succession.

 Hydrosere - succession in plenty of water Eg. Ponds, lakes
 Mesosere - succession where moisture is adequate.
 Xerosere - succession starts in minimal amount of water
 Lithosere – begins on barren rock.
 Halosere - starts on saline water
 Psammosere - initiates on sand

22. List the significance of food web.

 It is constructed to describe species interaction/direct interaction.
 Illustrate indirect interactions among different species.
 It can be used to study control of community structure.
 Energy transfer in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems can be studied.

Five Mark Questions

23. Describe the components of structure of ecosystem.

Two major components are:
Abiotic components:
 It includes climatic factors, edaphic factors, topography, organic components, and
inorganic components.
 It play vital role in any ecosystem.
 The total inorganic substances present in any ecosystem at a given time is called
standing quality.
 Biotic components:
 It includes all living organisms like plants, animals, fungi and bacteria.
 They form the trophic structures of any ecosystem.
 Based on nutritional relationships, they are of two types:
Autotrophic components:
 Organisms which manufacture the organic compounds from simple inorganic
components through photosynthesis and are called producers.
Heterotrophic components:
 Organisms which consume the producers are called consumers.
 Macroconsumers - herbivores, carnivores and omnivores.
 Microconsumers - decomposers.
Decomposers:
 Decompose the dead plants and animals Eg. Bacteria and Fungi.
 They all are essential to construct food chain, food web and ecological pyramids.

24. Briefly explain the mechanism of decomposition.

It is a step wise process of degradation mediated by enzymatic reactions.
Fragmentation: The breaking down of detritus into smaller particles by detritivores like
bacteria, fungi and earthworm.
Catabolism: The decomposers breaks out complex organic and inorganic compounds into
simple ones by extracellular enzymes.
Leaching/Eluviation: The movement of decomposed water soluble compounds from the
surface to the lower layer of soil or the same transported by water.
Humification: Here the detritus is changed into dark coloured substance called humus. It is
highly resistant to microbial action and reservoir of nutrients.
Mineralisation: The release of inorganic nutrients from the humus of the soil by microbes.

25. What is Pyramid of number? Explain Pyramid of number in detail with examples.

A graphical representation of the number of organisms present at each successive trophic level
in an ecosystem.
Shapes - upright, spindle and inverted.
UPRIGHT – Eg. Grassland and pond ecosystems.
A gradual decrease in the number of organisms in each trophic level from producers to tertiary
consumers.
SPINDLE – Eg. Forest ecosystem
The base of the pyramid (T1) occupies large sized trees which are lesser in number.
 The second trophic level (T2) occupying herbivores are more in number than producers.
The final trophic level (T4) are lesser in number than (T3) secondary consumers, hence it is
spindle shaped.
INVERTED – Eg. Parasite ecosystem
It starts with a single tree followed by gradual increase from producer to tertiary consumers.

26. Define Pyramid of biomass. Illustrate with examples.

A graphical representation of the amount of biomass present at each successive trophic level
in an ecosystem.
Shapes – upright and inverted
UPRIGHT – Eg. Grassland and forest ecosystems
A gradual decrease in biomass of organisms at successive trophic levels from producers to
tertiary consumers.
INVERTED – Eg. Pond ecosystem
The bottom of the pyramid is occupied by the producers which includes very small organisms
with least biomass. Followed by gradual increase toward the tip of the pyramid.

27. Write a note on the structure of pond ecosystem.

It is a natural, aquatic, freshwater, lentic type of ecosystem.
It is a self- sustaining and self-regulatory fresh water ecosystem.
Components:
Abiotic - consists of dissolved organic and inorganic substances.
Factors: Light, temperature, pH value of water and climatic conditions.
Biotic – consists of producers, consumers and decomposers.
Producers: phytoplanktons eg. Chlamydomonas, Filamentous algae eg. Spirogyra, floating
plants eg. Pistia, rooted plants Nymphaea and macrophytes like Typha
Consumers: zooplanktons eg. Paramoecium, benthos eg. Molluscs followed by frog then duck
even manetc.
Decomposers: microconsumers helps to recycle the nutrients in the ecosystem Eg. Bacteria
and fungi.
28. Explain stratification of pond ecosystem.

Based on the factors like distance from the shore, penetration of light, depth of water, types
of plants and animals, there are three zones, littoral, limnetic and profundal.
Littoral zone: shallow water region, closest to the shore, easy penetration of light, occupied
by rooted plants.
Limentic zone: open water region, effective light penetration with domination of planktons.
Profundal zone: deeper region of a pond, no effective light penetration, predominance of
heterotrophs.
Benthic zone: bottom zone of a pond, occupied by a community of organisms.

29. Explain the various stages of succession in Hydrosere.

Phytoplankton stage: It is the first stage consisting of the pioneer community i.e., blue green
algae, green algae, diatoms, bacteria.
They enrich the amount of organic matter and nutrients of pond.
Submerged plant stage: As a result of death and decomposition of planktons, silt brought
from land by rain water forms the bottom of the pond.
Rooted submerged hydrophytes begin to appear eg. Chara etc.
The death and decay of these plants forms the substratum of pond.
Submerged free floating stage: During this stage, the depth of the pond is almost 2-5 feet.
Rooted floating plants eg. Trapa etc., free floating plants e.g. Azolla etc. are also present.
By death and decay of these plants the pond becomes more shallow.
Reed-swamp stage: also called as amphibious stage. Rooted floating plants are replaced by
plants which live in aquatic and aerial environment e.g. Typha
At the end of this stage water level is very much reduced.
Marsh meadow stage: Due to decreasing water level, species of Poaceae etc. colonise the area
forming a mat-like vegetation with branched root system.
At the end of this stage, the marshy vegetation disappears and soil becomes dry.
Shrub stage: These areas are now invaded by terrestrial plants like shrubs, trees.
The accumulation of humus with a rich flora favours the arrival of new tree species in the area.
Forest stage: It is the climax community of hydrosere. A variety of trees invade the area and
develop any one of the diverse type of vegetation eg. Tropical rain forest.

30. Explain Ten percent law with an example.

 This law was proposed by Lindeman (1942).
  During transfer of food energy from one trophic level to other, only about 10% stored
at every level and rest of them (90%) is lost in respiration, decomposition and in the
form of heat.
 Hence, the law is called ten percent law.

Example:
 It is shown that of the 1000 Joules of Solar energy trapped by producers.100 Joules of
energy is stored as chemical energy through photosynthesis.
 The remaining 900 Joules would be lost in the environment. In the next trophic level
herbivores, which feed on producers get only 10 Joules of energy and the remaining 90
Joules is lost in the environment.
 Likewise, in the next trophic level, carnivores, which eat herbivores store only 1 Joule
of energy and the remaining 9 Joules is dissipated.
 Finally, the carnivores are eaten by tertiary consumers which store only 0.1 Joule of
energy and the remaining 0.9 Joule is lost in the environment. Thus, at the successive
trophic level, only ten percent energy is stored.

31. Generally, human activities are against to the ecosystem, whereas you a student how will you
help to protect the ecosystem.
 Grow more trees
 Reduce the use of natural resources
 Recycle and reduce the amount of wastes you produce
 Reduce consumption of water and electricity
 Maintain your cars and vehicles properly
 CHAPTER - 8
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

Two Mark Questions

1. What is green house effect?
 The radiant heat from the sun is captured by the gases in the atmosphere that increase
the temperature of the earth untimely.
 This is called Green House Effect.

2. Name the green house gases.

Carbon dioxide, Methane, Nitrous Oxide and Chlorofluorocarbon.

3. What is Ozone hole?

The decline in the thickness of the ozone layer over restricted area is called Ozone hole.

4. Distinguish between Afforestation and Deforestation.

Afforestation Deforestation
Planting of trees where there was no trees and The conversion of forested area into a
converting them forests by planting trees. non-forest area.

Three Mark Questions

5. What are the effects of Global Warming on plants?

 Low agricultural productivity in tropics.
 Species extinction
 Strong storms and intense flood damage.

6. Expand CCS and explain.

CCS – Carbon Capture and Storage
Capturing Carbon di oxide and injects it deep into the underground rocks to a depth of 1km or
more and it is an approach to mitigate global warming.

7. What is remote sensing?

It is the process of detecting and monitoring the physical characteristics of an area by measuring
its reflected and emitted radiation at a distance from the targeted area.

8. Write about Chipko Movement.

 It was started by the tribal women of Himalayas to protest against the exploitation of
forest in 1972.
 Later it was transformed into Chipko Movement by Sundarlal Bahuguna
 People protested by hugging trees together which were felled by a sports goods
company.
 Five Mark Questions

9. What is global warming? What are its effects?

 The increase in mean global temperature due to increased concentration of green house
gases is called global warming.
Effects of global warming
 Sea levels to rise as polar ice caps and glaciers begin to melt causing submergence of
many coastal cities.
 Drastic change in weather patterns leading to more floods or droughts.
 Biological diversity may get modified leading to decreased food production.

10. What are the effects of Ozone depletion?

 Juvenile mortality of animals.
 Increased incidents of mutation.
 Increased incidence of cataract, throat and lung irritation, skin cancer etc., in human
beings.
 Changes in climate and rainfall results in flood/drought’ seawater rise etc.
 In plants, photosynthetic chemicals will be affected and photosynthesis will be
inhibited, leading to food crisis.
 CHAPTER – 9
PLANT BREEDING

Two Marks Questions

1. Define biofertilizers. Write their uses.
 Biofertilizers are defined as preparations containing living cells of efficient strains of
microorganisms.
 It helps crop plants uptake of nutrients by their interactions in the rhizosphere when
applied through seed or soil.

2. What is meant by plant breeding ?

The science of improvement of crop varieties with higher yield, better quality, resistance to
diseases and shorter durations which are suitable to particular environment are called Plant
breeding

3. What is meant by bio-pesticides ?

 Bio-pesticides are biologically based agents used for the control of plant pests.
 They are in high use due to their non-toxic, cheaper and eco-friendly.

4. Define heterosis.
The superiority of the F1 hybrid in performance over its parents is called heterosis or hybrid
vigour. Vigour refers to increase in growth, yield, greater adaptability of resistance to diseases,
pest and drought.

Three Mark Questions.

5. Mention some of the N2 fixing biofertilizer.

 Free-living: Azotobacter, Clostridium, Anabaena, Nostoc,
 Symbiotic: Rhizobium, Anabaena azollae
 Associative Symbiotic: Azospirillum

Five Mark Questions

6. Enumerate the objectives of plant breeding.

 To increase yield, vigour and fertility of the crop
 To increase tolerance to environmental condition, salinity, temperature and drought.
 To prevent the premature falling of buds, fruits etc.
 To improve synchronous maturity.
 To develop resistance to pathogens and pests.
 To develop photosensitive and thermos-sensitive varieties.
7. Explain mutation breeding.
 Muller and Stadler (1927- 1928) coined the term mutation breeding.
 It is a new method of conventional breeding procedures.
 The advantage is to improving the defect without losing agronomic and quality in
agriculture and crop improvement.
 Mutation means the sudden heritable changes in the genotype or phenotype of an
organism.
 Gene mutations are of considerable importance in plant breeding.
 They provide essential inputs for evolution, re-combination and selection.
 It is the only method for improving seedless crops.
 Mutation induces by radiation such as UV short wave, X-ray, Alpha (α), Beta (β),
Gamma waves.
 Many chemicals such as cesium,EMS (ethyl methane sulfonate), nitromethyl, urea
induces mutation.
Example: Triple gene dwarf wheat with increase in yield and height. Atomita 2 – rice with
saline tolerance and pest resistance.

Botany
Two Mark Questions
8. Discuss the importance of neem in seed storage?
Seeds are coated with Neem leaf powder and stored for short duration as a traditional way of
seed protection.

9. What is meant by Seed Pelleting?

The process of enclosing seed in a filter inert material using an adhesive with bioactive
chemicals.

Three Mark Questions

10. What are the benefits of seed treatment?

Prevents spread of plant disease. • Protects seed from seedling blights. • Improves germination. •
Provides protection from storage insects.

11. What are the benefits of seed hardening?

It increases the yield, root growth and vigour of seed germination • The uniformity of seedling
emergence. • Uniform seed set and maturity • Exposes the seed to drought tolerance
 12. List the ways by which seeds can be stored for longer duration.

13. Mention the various modern methods of seed protection.

Seed storage in cryopreservation :
It is the technique of germplasm conservation (storage of cells, tissue, embryo or seeds) by
ultra-low temperature in liquid nitrogen at -196°C. It is not practical for commercial seed
storage purpose, but is useful to store the valuable germplasm for use in future which cannot
be preserved by conventional methods.
Seed storage in gene bank:
In gene bank, seed storage is the preservation of seed under controlled environmental condition
which will prolong the viability of the seeds for long periods. The temperature, relative
humidity and seed moisture content. Containers and distribution arrangement vary for each and
every type of seed.
Svalbard seed bank:
The seeds are stored in four ply sealed envelopes, and then placed into plastic tote containers
on metal shelving racks. The storage rooms are kept at -18°C. The low temperature and limited
access to O2 will ensure low metabolic activity and delayed seed ageing. The permafrost
surrounding will help to maintain low temperature of the seed when the electricity supply fails.

14. Explain the traditional methods of seed protection.

 In traditional method seeds are coated with fine red soil, Guntur Chilli Powder, Neem leaf
Powder, Powder of Bitter Gourd, Drumstick extract, Pongamia leaf extract and stored for
short duration.
 Paddy Seeds are immersed in salt water in the ratio of 1:10 to remove the floating chaffy
seed and then dried in shade for one -two years of storage.
 Sorghum seeds were treated with lime water (1 kg of lime in 10 litres of H20) for 10 days
and then the seeds are dried and stored.
 Chickpea were treated with citronella leaf oil, cotton seed oil, soya bean oil, castor seed oil
(500 ml of oil for 100 kg of seed).
 Sunflower seeds were kept inside the dried fruit of sponge gourd after removing the seeds.
These fruits were kept in an airtight container.
 CHAPTER – 10
ECONOMICALLY USEFUL PLANTS AND
ENTREPRENEURIAL BOTANY

Two Mark Questions

1. Which is called as the “King of Bitters”? Mention their medicinal importance.
 Nilavembu (Andrographis paniculata) is known as the King of Bitters.
 The medicinal importance of nilavembu
 Andrographolides is the major chemical component.
 Andrographis is a potent hepatoprotective.
 It is widely used to treat liver disorders.
 Concoction of Andrographis paniculata and eight other herbs (Nilavembu Kudineer)
is effectively used to treat malaria and dengue.

Three Mark Questions

2. Name the humors that are responsible for the health of human beings.
 Siddha is principally based on the Pancabūta philosophy.
 According to this system three humors namely Vātam, Pittam and Kapam.

3. Enumerate the uses of turmeric.

 It is one of the most important and ancient Indian spices.
 It is an important constituent of curry powders.
 It is used as a colouring agent in pharmacy, confectionery and food industry.
 Curcumin is a very good anti-oxidant which may help fight various kinds of cancer.
 It has anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal and anti-viral
activities.
 It stops platelets from clotting in arteries, which leads to heart attack.

Five Mark Questions

4. What are psychoactive drugs? Add a note Marijuana and Opium

The phytochemicals / drugs from some of the plants alter an individual’s perceptions of mind
by producing hallucination are known as psychoactive drugs.
Origin and area of cultivation of Cannabis / Marijuana:
It is native to China. States of Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarkand, Uttarpradesh and
Madhaya Pradesh have legally permitted to cultivate this.
Medicinal properties of Cannabis / Marijuana:
The active principle in marijuana is trans-tetrahydrocanabinal (THC). It is an effective pain
reliever and reduces hypertension. THC is used in treating Glaucoma a condition in which
 pressure develops in the eyes. THC is also used in reducing nausea of cancer patients
undergoing radiation and chemotherapy. THC provides relief to bronchial disorders, especially
asthma as it dilates bronchial vessels.
Origin and area of cultivation of opium poppy:
It is native to South Eastern Europe and Western Asia. Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar
Pradesh are the licenced states to cultivate opium poppy.
Medicinal properties of poppy:
Opium was traditionally used to induce sleep and for relieving pain. Opium is derived from the
exudates of fruits of poppy plants. Opium yields Morphine, a strong analgesic which is used in
surgery.

5. What are the King and Queen of spices? Explain about them and their uses.
Pepper is referred to as the “King of Spices”.
Cardamom is called as “Queen of Spices”.
Origin and area of cultivation of cardamom:
It is indigenous to Southern India and Sri Lanka. Cardamom is called as “Queen of Spices”.
In India it is one of the main cash crops cultivated in the Western Ghats, and North Eastern
India
Uses of cardamom
 The seeds have a pleasing aroma and a characteristic warm, slightly pungent taste.
 It is used for flavouring confectionaries, bakery products and beverages.
 The seeds are used in the preparation of curry powder, pickles and cakes.
 Medicinally, it as a stimulant and carminative.
 It is also chewed as a mouth freshener.
Origin and area of cultivation of black pepper:
It is indigenous to Western Ghats of India. Pepper is referred to as the “King of Spices”. It
termed as “Black Gold of India”. Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are the top producers in
India.
Uses of black pepper:
 The characteristic pungency of the pepper is due to the presence of alkaloid Piperine.
 Two types of pepper namely black and white pepper.
 It is used for flavouring in the preparation of sauces, soups, curry powder and pickles.
 It is used in medicine as an aromatic stimulant for enhancing salivary and gastric
secretions. and stomachic.
 Pepper also enhances the bio-absorption of medicines.
6. How will you prepare an organic pesticide for your home garden with the vegetables
available from your kitchen?

Botany
Two Mark Questions

7. What is terrarium ?
A terrarium is a collection of small plants growing in a transparent, sealed container. Terrarium
are easy to make, low maintenance gardens, and it can survive indefinitely with minimal water.

Three Mark Questions

8. How will you make a Bonsai tree?

Bonsai is a Japanese art form using miniature trees grown in containers that mimic the shape
and scale of full size trees.

Procedure :
 Visualize the finished product of bonsai while selecting a plant species and the pot.
 Plug out the sapling and clean and prune the roots.
 Prepare the pot and position the tree in it.
 After re-potting leave the plant in a semi shaded area until the roots have re-established.
 Five Mark Questions

9. List out the steps involved in mushroom cultivation.

 The straw used for composting should be ripe and golden-yellow in colour. It should
be cut into 2-4 inches and properly sterilized.
 The culture space should be clean and the ventilators and windows should be covered
with fine wire mesh to prevent the entry of flies and birds. The culture space should be
sprayed with 0.1% Nuvan and 5% Formalin, two days prior to spawning and
transferring to bags to cropping rooms.
 The spawn used for mushroom should be free from contaminations. Bags should be
filled with 8 kg of wet straw.
 During spawning running temperature and relative humidity should be maintained 200
C to 300 C, 75 to 85% respectively.
 Proper watering should be done when the growth coverings are removed. There should
not be dry patches on blocks. Excess watering must be avoided.
 About 20 cm gap should be maintained in between two bags or blocks.
 Picking must be done as their caps become 10 – 12 cm by twisting.
 Two kinds of mushrooms are cultivated namely button and oyster.