Expand

http- Hypertext Transfer Protocol.

dhcp- Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

smtp- Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
Dhcp- Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

ftp- File Transfer Protocol

nic- network interface card

thcp- (incomplete)

tcp- Transmission Control Protocol

udp- User Datagram Protocol

smnp- Simple Network Management Protocol

ip- internet Protocol

ppp- Point-to-Point Protocol

telnet- Teletype Network Protocol

Explain guided and unguided transmission medium

Explain the components of un guided medium

Explain twisted pair cable(2nd question)

Explain coaxial cable(2nd question)

Explain optical fibre cable(2nd question)

Explain radio wave propagation(2nd que)

Explain microwave propagation(2nd que)

Explain infrared wave propagation(2 nd que)

 Analog and digital signals

Difference between Analog and Digital Signal

Analog Signals Digital Signals

Continuous signals Discrete signals

Represented by sine waves Represented by square waves

Human voice, natural sound, analog electronic Computers, optical drives, and other electronic
devices are a few examples devices

Continuous range of values Discontinuous values

Records sound waves as they are Converts into a binary waveform

Only used in analog devices Suited for digital electronics like computers,
mobiles and more

Guided and unguided medium

S.No. Guided Media Unguided Media

1. In guided media, the signal energy In unguided media, the signal energy
communicates via wires. communicates through the air.

2. Guided media is generally preferred when we Unguided media is generally preferred for radio
want to execute direct communication. broadcasting in all directions.

3. The guided media formed the different The unguided media formed the continuous
network topologies. network topologies.

4. Here, the signals are in the state of current and Here, the signals are in the state of electromagnetic
voltage. waves.

5. In the case of guided media, the transmission In the case of unguided media, it is not feasible to
capacity can be boosted by counting more acquire more capacity.
wires.

6. Open Wire, Twisted Pair, Coaxial Cable, and Microwave Transmission, Radio Transmission,
Optical Fibre are the different kinds of guided and Infrared Transmission are the types of
media. unguided media.

Stp and utp

 UTP STP

UTP stands for Unshielded Twisted STP stands for Shielded Twisted
Pair. Pair.

In UTP grounding cable is not While in STP grounding cable is

necessary. required.

Data rate in UTP is slow compared to

STP. Data rate in STP is high.

The cost of UTP is less. While STP is costlier than UTP.

In UTP much more maintenance is not While in STP much more

needed. maintenance is needed.

In UTP noise is high compared to

STP. While in STP noise is less.

In UTP the generation of crosstalk is While in STP generation of

also high compared to STP. crosstalk is also less.

In UTP, attenuation is high in

comparison to STP. While in STP attenuation is low.

In UTP, speed offered is about 10 to While in STP speed offered is

up to 1000 Mbps. about 10 to up to 100 Mbps.

It is used for data transmission within

short distance such as for home and Generally used for connecting
office networks. organizations over a long distance.

Electromagnetic interference is more Shielded Twisted Pair cable

in Unshielded Twisted Pair cable reduces Electromagnetic
compared to Shielded Twisted Pair interference because of the
cable. protective sheath.
Radio waves and microwaves

Define

Amplitude

Amplitude is the height of the radio signal that it reaches while attenuating (bouncing up
and down in its sine wave). Thus, amplitude is often referred to as the power of a radio
signal, too.

The more amplitude a radio signal starts with, the farther it can travel. Likewise, the more
amplitude a radio signal has, the more it can penetrate other objects.

Frequency

Frequency is a measure of the number of cycles that are done per unit of time and is
generally measured in hertz (cycles per second). Data cabling is normally rated
in kilohertz (kHz) or megahertz (MHz).

Wavelength

Wavelength is the distance between identical points (adjacent crests) in the adjacent cycles
of a waveform signal propagated in space or along a wire. In wireless systems, this length is
usually specified in meters (m), centimeters (cm) or millimeters (mm). In the case of infrared
(IR), visible light, ultraviolet (UV), and gamma radiation (γ), the wavelength is more often
specified in nanometers (nm), which are units of 10-9 m, or angstroms (Å), which are units of
10-10 m.
Wavelength is inversely related to frequency, which refers to the number of wave cycles per
second. The higher the frequency of the signal, the shorter the wavelength.

Phase

Phase is the same frequency, same cycle, same wavelength, but are 2 or more
wave forms not exactly aligned together.

"Phase is not a property of just one RF signal but instead involves the relationship
between two or more signals that share the same frequency. The phase involves the
relationship between the position of the amplitude crests and troughs of two
waveforms.

Bit rate

In networking and digital telecommunications, bit rate refers to the per-

second measurement of data that passes through a communications
network. In this context, bit rate is synonymous with data transfer rate
(DTR).

For multimedia encoding, bit rate refers to the number of bits used per
unit of playback time, such as video or audio after compression
(encoding). Multimedia size and output quality often depend on the bit
rate used during encoding.

Bit interval

Data can be represent by a digital signal . For Example a 1 can be encoded as a positive
voltage and a 0 can be encoded as a zero voltage . The bit interval is the time required to send
one single bit . This means that the bit rate is number of bits sent in one second, usually expressed
in bits per seconds (bps)

Bit length

The Bit Length is the distance of one Bit occupies on the transmission medium.

Bit Length = Propagation speed * Bit duration

Band rate :

Band width:

Bandwidth, or precisely network bandwidth, is the maximum rate at which

data transfer occurs across any particular path of the network. Bandwidth is
basically a measure of the amount of data that can be sent and received at
any instance of time. That simply means that higher is the bandwidth of a
network, larger is the amount of data network can be sending to and from
across its path. Be careful not to confuse bandwidth with closely related
terms such as the data rate and the throughput. Bandwidth is something that
deals with the measurement of capacity and not the speed of data transfer.
Explain Transmission impairment 5m

Transmission impairment is the damage or harm caused to the signal during the signal
transmission. Due to the transmission impairment, the signal received at the receiver end may
differ from the signal sent by the sender. This difference in the strength of the signal is signal
impairment.

Now the question what is the reason behind transmission impairment? The signal needs
transmission media to travel from sender to receiver. The transmission media have some
imperfection which causes transmission impairment.

The reason behind the transmission impairment is attenuation, distortion, and noise. In this
section, we will discuss the reasons that cause transmission impairment.

Transmission Impairment

1. Attenuation
2. Distortion
3. Noise

Attenuation

Attenuation can be defined as the loss in the strength and energy of the signal. Whenever the
signal travels through any transmission medium it has to overcome the resistance of that
transmission medium doing which the signal some of its energy.

You may have experienced that sometimes the wire (medium) carrying signal gets a little
warm. This is because the electrical energy in the signal is converted to heat while the signal
tries to overcome the resistance in the medium.

To overcome this loss in the energy of the signal amplifiers are send at a finite distance to
amplify the signals.

Distortion

Distortion can be defined as the change in the shape or form of the signal while it travels
through the transmission medium. Each signal component has its own propagation speed in
the transmission medium due to which it has its own delay in reaching the final destination.
If the delay is not exactly the same as it may also create a difference in the phase of the
signal. This means that the phase of the signal at the sender’s end is not the same as the phase
of the signal at the receiver’s end.

For example, observe the composite signal in the figure below, as you can see it has
components each of which is in a different phase. You can see that the composite signal at the
receiver end has a distorted shape.

Noise

Noise can be defined as unwanted variation or fluctuation in the signal that may corrupt the
signal. Noise can be classified into various types such as impulse noise, crosstalk thermal
noise, induced noise.

Thermal noise can be defined as the impairment that is caused because of the random motion
of the electrons inside the wire when the signal travels through the wire. This creates an extra
signal inside the wire which is not originally sent by the sender.

Crosstalk is the impairment caused by one wire over another among which one is the sender
wire and the other is the receiver. The impulse noise is a sudden spike in the signal which
means signals with high energy which come from power lines lightning and so on.

The sources such as motor or appliance when act as the sender of signal then the noise
generated in the circuit of the device due to varying magnetic field or electrostatic field is
termed as the induced noise.

What is Nyquist signalling rate for noiseless channel

Bit Rate = 2 x bandwidth x l0g2 L In this formula, bandwidth is the bandwidth of

the channel, L is the number of signal levels used to represent data, and Bit
Rate is the bit rate in bits per second.

For Example:

Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz transmitting a signal with

two signal levels. The maximum bit rate can be calculated as Bit Rate =2 x 3000 x
log2 2 =6000 bps.

What is Shannon channel capacity for noisy channels

Capacity =bandwidth X log2 (1 +SNR)In this formula, bandwidth is the bandwidth
of the channel, SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio, and capacity is the capacity of the
channel in bits per second.