1.what is analog signal?

Analog signals are continuous signals that vary in amplitude and/or frequency over time.

They represent a physical quantity such as sound, light, or temperature

In contrast, digital signals are discrete signals that only have specific values at specific times, and are
represented as a series of ones and zeroes.

Analog signals are used in many applications, such as music and audio, video, and measurement and
control systems.

They are often converted to digital signals using analog-to-digital converters (ADCs)

Examples of analog signals include:

Sound waves produced by a musical instrument or voice

The voltage produced by a temperature sensor

The varying brightness of a television screen

The varying frequency of an FM radio signal

2.Digital signal?

A digital signal is a discrete-time, discrete-amplitude signal that represents information as a sequence of

typically represented by binary digits (bits)

These signals are commonly used in modern digital electronic devices and communication systems.

Digital signals are different from analog signals in that they only have a limited number

Examples of digital signals include:

The binary code used to represent text and other data in digital devices

The on/off signals used to control electronic devices such as light switches and thermostats

The digital audio signals used in music players and digital audio workstations

The digital signals used in telecommunications and computer networks to transmit and receive data.

3.what is guided medium?

These media use a physical pathway to guide the transmission of data signals, which can be in the form
of electrical, optical, or electromagnetic signals.

Some common examples of guided media include:

Twisted-pair copper wire: This is the most common type of guided media used in local area networks
(LANs) and telephone systems. Twisted-pair copper wire consists of two insulated copper wires twisted
together, which reduces interference and increases the data transfer rate.

Coaxial cable: This type of guided media is used to transmit data signals over long distances, and is
commonly used in cable television and high-speed internet connections. Coaxial cable consists of an
inner conductor surrounded by a layer of insulation, a metallic shield, and an outer layer of insulation.

Optical fiber: This type of guided media uses thin strands of glass or plastic to transmit data signals in
the form of light. Optical fiber is widely used in high-speed telecommunications networks and provides
faster data transfer rates over longer distances than copper wire or coaxial cable.

4.what is unguided medium?

Unguided media, also known as unbounded media

are physical communication channels that do not require a physical medium to transmit signals.

Instead, they use free space as a medium to transmit electromagnetic waves through the air,

Radio waves: This type of unguided media is used for radio broadcasting, satellite communication, and
wireless local area networks (WLANs). Radio waves have a long wavelength and can travel long
distances, but are subject to interference from other sources of electromagnetic radiation.

Infrared waves: This type of unguided media is used for short-range communication, such as remote
control devices and wireless keyboards. Infrared waves have a short wavelength and cannot penetrate
solid objects, which limits their range and makes them susceptible to interference from bright light
sources.

Microwave transmission: This type of unguided media is used for satellite communication, cellular
communication, and wireless local area networks (WLANs). Microwaves have a higher frequency and
shorter wavelength than radio waves, which allows them to carry more information and travel shorter
distances, but they are also subject to interference from other sources of electromagnetic radiation.

5.shield twisted cable?

This is a type of copper cable commonly used in network and telecommunications applications, where
protection from electromagnetic interference (EMI) is important.

A shielded twisted pair cable consists of two insulated copper wires twisted together to reduce
interference, similar to an unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cable.

the cable also includes a metallic shield layer, such as a layer of foil or braided wire mesh, which
surrounds the twisted pair to provide additional protection from EMI.

The metallic shield layer helps to prevent electromagnetic radiation from entering or leaving the cable,
which can cause interference and degrade signal quality.

Shielded twisted pair cables are often used in Ethernet

6.unshield twisted cable?

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cable is a type of copper cable commonly used in local area networks
(LANs) and other telecommunications applications.

It consists of two insulated copper wires twisted together in a helix pattern, which helps to reduce
electromagnetic interference (EMI) and crosstalk between adjacent pairs of wires.

Category 5 (Cat5): Supports data transmission rates up to 100 Mbps and cable lengths up to 100 meters.

Category 5e (Cat5e): Supports data transmission rates up to 1 Gbps and cable lengths up to 100 meters.

7.what is radio wave?

A radio wave is a type of electromagnetic radiation that has a wavelength longer than infrared light, but
shorter than microwaves.

Radio waves are used for a wide range of applications, including broadcasting, wireless communication,
and radar.

Radio waves are a form of energy that travels through space at the speed of light. They are created by
oscillating electric and magnetic fields

Some common examples of devices that use radio waves include radio and television broadcasting
systems, cell phones, wireless local area networks (WLANs), and radar systems used for navigation and
weather forecasting.
8.what is micro wave?

A microwave is a type of electromagnetic wave with a wavelength that is shorter than radio waves but
longer than infrared radiation.

Microwaves are part of the electromagnetic spectrum, which includes radio waves, infrared radiation,
visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays.

Microwaves are used in a variety of applications, including cooking, communication, and sensing.

While exposure to high levels of microwave radiation can be harmful

9.transmission impairment

Transmission impairment refers to any distortion or degradation of a signal as it travels over a

able, a wireless link, or a satellite connection. Transmission impairment can cause errors, delay, or loss
of information in the transmitted signal.

There are several factors that can cause transmission impairment, such as:

Attenuation: This refers to the loss of signal strength as the signal travels over a communication channel.
Attenuation can be caused by factors such as distance, interference, and the medium through which the
signal is transmitted.

Noise: This refers to any unwanted signal that interferes with the transmitted signal. Noise can be
caused by various factors such as thermal noise, crosstalk, and interference from other devices.

Interference: This refers to any signal that interferes with the transmitted signal. Interference can be
caused by various factors such as radio frequency interference (RFI), electromagnetic interference (EMI),
and signal reflections.

Distortion: This refers to any change in the shape or timing of the transmitted signal. Distortion can be
caused by factors such as signal reflections, phase shift, and frequency distortion.

10.what is nuquist signal rate for noiseless channel?

The Nyquist rate, named after the American engineer Harry Nyquist

is the minimum sampling rate that is required to accurately capture a signal without introducing any
distortion or errors due to undersampling. The Nyquist rate is twice the bandwidth of the signal.
For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist rate is the same as the Shannon capacity, which is the theoretical
maximum rate at which data can be transmitted over a channel without error,

C = B log2(1 + S/N)

where C is the capacity of the channel in bits per second, B is the bandwidth of the channel in hertz, S is
the signal power, and N is the noise power.

The Nyquist rate for a noiseless channel is therefore given by:

F = 2B

where F is the Nyquist frequency in hertz.

11.what is shanmon channel capacity for noisy channel

The Shannon channel capacity, named after the American mathematician Claude Shannon,

is the maximum rate at which information can be transmitted over a noisy communication

The channel capacity is dependent on the channel's bandwidth, signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), and the
power of the transmitted signal.

The formula for the Shannon channel capacity in bits per second is:

C = B log2(1 + S/N)

where C is the channel capacity, B is the channel bandwidth in hertz, S is the signal power, and N is the
noise power. The quantity (S/N) is the signal-to-noise ratio.

In a noisy channel, the received signal may be corrupted by various forms of noise and distortion, which
can cause errors in the transmitted data.

The Shannon channel capacity provides a theoretical upper bound on the achievable data rate, given the
characteristics of the channel.

12.different type of switching technique

Circuit switching: In circuit switching, a dedicated physical circuit is established between the source and
the destination for the duration of the communication. During the communication, the entire bandwidth
of the circuit is reserved for the use of the communicating devices.

Packet switching: In packet switching, data is transmitted in discrete packets over a shared network.
Each packet is independently routed through the network based on the destination address, and the
packets may take different paths to reach the destination.

Message switching: In message switching, a message is stored at each intermediate node in the network
before being forwarded to the next node.

The message may be sent in its entirety or broken up into smaller units for transmission. Message
switching is rarely used in modern networks, but was commonly used in early data networks and is still
used in some specialized applications.

13.what is multiplaning diff types.

Multilevel multiplexing, also known as multistage switching or multilevel switching, is a technique used
in telecommunications networks to increase the capacity and efficiency of data transmission. There are
different types of multilevel multiplexing techniques, including:

Time-division multiplexing (TDM): In TDM, multiple signals are interleaved in time, with each signal
being transmitted for a short time period called a time slot. The time slots are allocated in a round-robin
fashion to each signal, and the signals are reassembled at the receiving end. TDM is commonly used in
digital telephony and other applications where the bandwidth of

Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM): In FDM, multiple signals are separated in frequency, with each
signal being transmitted in a different frequency band. The frequency bands are allocated to each signal,
and the signals are combined at the receiving end.

Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM): In WDM, multiple signals are transmitted on different