Sexual Reproduction

in the Human
Learning Objectives
Structure of the male reproductive system
 Bladder

Seminal Vesicle

Prostate gland

Cowper’s Gland

Sperm duct Penis

Urethra

Epididymis
Testis

Scrotum
Name:

Pelvic bone

Rectum
Erectile tissue

13.
 Male Reproduction-function
Testes
•Male gonad: the organ that produces sex cell in animals.
•develop inside the body at first, but a few weeks before birth
descend into the scrotum.
•Keep sperm (male gamete) at lower temperature (35°)
•Seminiferous tubules: inside the testes are lined with sperm
producing cells
•Sertoli cells feed the sperm
•Interstitial cells produce testosterone.
Epididymis
• All the seminiferous tubules join to form the epididymis.
•Sperm mature and are stored here until ejaculation
 Internal structure of testes

Seminiferous tubule

Sperm producing cells (2n)

Sperm

Sertoli cell –
nourishes sperm

Blood capillary

Interstitial cells –
produce testosterone
 Sperm Structure – Male Gamete
Acrosome (contains digestive enzymes)
Head
Nucleus (contains 23 chromosomes)

Collar (contains mitochondria)

Middle

Tail Flagellum (allows sperm to swim)

Sperm
 Sperm duct and urethra
Sperm Duct (Vas Deferens)
•the epididymis leads to the sperm
duct (vas deferens)
•The sperm duct brings sperm to the
urethra by peristalsis
•The urethra is responsible for
carrying sperm and urine out of the
body
 Male Reproduction-function
1. Seminal Vesicle: adds sugar (fructose)to feed the
sperm
2. Prostate Gland:
• sperm ducts join the urinary system here and form
the urethra. and more fluid is added to produce
semen.(seminal fluid & sperm)
• About 5 mL of semen per ejaculation containing
about 300 million sperm.
3. Cowper’s Gland: neutralises urine & adds lubricating
fluid.
Penis: delivers sperm close to female cervix.
• Made of erectile tissue (engorges with blood during
arousal)
 Functions of the main parts of the Male reproductive system
Bladder

Seminal Vesicle

Prostate gland

Cowper’s Gland

Sperm duct Penis

Urethra

Epididymis
Testis

Produces
1. Sperm Scrotum
2 Testosterone
Functions of the main parts of the Male reproductive system
Bladder

Seminal Vesicle

Prostate gland

Cowper’s Gland

Sperm duct Penis

Urethra

Epididymis
Testis

Stores sperm
Scrotum
 Functions of the main parts of the Male reproductive system
Bladder

Seminal Vesicle

Prostate gland

Cowper’s Gland

Sperm duct Penis

Urethra

Epididymis
Testis

Carries sperm from the

Scrotum
epididymis to the urethra
 Functions of the main parts of the Male reproductive system
Bladder

Seminal Vesicle

Prostate gland

Cowper’s Gland

Sperm duct Penis

Urethra

Epididymis
Testis

Produces Seminal Fluid

- For sperm to swim in Scrotum

- Nourishment for sperm
 Functions of the main parts of the Male reproductive system
Bladder

Seminal Vesicle

Prostate gland

Cowper’s Gland

Sperm duct Penis

Urethra

Epididymis
Testis

Tube through which

the sperm travel Scrotum
through the penis
 Functions of the main parts of the Male reproductive system
Bladder

Seminal Vesicle

Prostate gland

Cowper’s Gland

Sperm duct Penis

Urethra

Epididymis
Testis

Keeps testes at a lower

Scrotum
temperature
 Functions of the main parts of the Male reproductive system
Bladder

Seminal Vesicle

Prostate gland

Cowper’s Gland

Sperm duct Penis

Urethra

Epididymis
Testis

Places sperm in the Scrotum

females body
 Summary of functions of main parts of male reproductive system

Part Function
Testis Produces sperm and testosterone

Epididymis Matures and stores sperm

Sperm duct Carries sperm from the epididymis to the urethra

Seminal vesicles, Produces seminal fluid which feeds the sperm and
Cowper’s gland and allows them to swim. Sperm and seminal fluid are
Prostate gland collectively called semen.
Urethra Allows the passage of either urine or sperm.

Penis Places sperm inside the body of a female

Keeps testes at a lower temperature (35°). This is the

Scrotum
optimum temperature for Meiosis to occur.
 Male Hormone - Testosterone
• Responsible for the development of the primary and
secondary male sexual characteristics
• Primary sexual characteristics: are the presence of the
male and female reproductive parts
• Secondary sexual characteristics: refer to features that
distinguish males from females, apart from the sex organs
themselves

Male 2ary sexual characteristics.

• The growth of pubic, facial and body hair
• The enlargement of larynx and ‘breaking’ of the voice
• Increased muscular development and bone development
• A growth spurt at puberty
• An increased secretion of sebum in the skin
Structure of the female reproductive system
Structure of the female reproductive system
 Female reproductive system: functions
Ovary:
•Produce an egg (female gamete) every 28
days (survives 1-2 days)
•All the eggs in an ovary are present at birth.
Oestrogen & Progesterone
•Female hormones
•Produces in the ovaries from puberty until
menopause
Fallopian tubes (12 cm long)
•Funnel catches the egg on ovulation
•Lined with cilia which, with peristalsis waft
the egg towards the uterus
•Fertilization occurs here or the egg dies!
 Eggs – female Gamete
• Produced in the ovaries by meiosis (haploid)
– First meiotic division happens before birth, so you have all your
potential eggs when you are born (about 250,000).
• Eggs stay dormant until puberty when they start to
mature.
– FSH & LH are involved in the development of eggs to maturity
• Ovulation is the release of a mature egg from the ovary
• Egg is considerably bigger
Than sperm(only delivering DNA)
Egg contains all machinery
& resources for development
of embryo for about 5 days, until
It implants into the uterus wall.
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Ovum_Diagram.svg
 Female reproductive system: functions
Uterus
•Muscular structure approximately the size of your fist.
•Outer wall made of involuntary muscle.
•Inner lining is called the endometrium (where implantation & placenta
formation occurs) and is shed each month in Menstruation (Monthly loss of
30 – 90 mL of fluid over 3 – 7 days)
•This lining thickens each month with cells and blood vessels to nourish the
embryo.
•The cervix (neck of the womb) separates the uterus from the vagina

Vagina: lubricated with mucus & protected with lactic acid.

Vulva: outer lips of the vagina
Structure of the Female reproductive system

Fallopian tube
(Oviduct)

Funnel

Ovary

Ovarian Ligament
Uterus
Lining of uterus
(endometrium)
Cervix
Wall of uterus
Vagina

Vulva
Functions of the main parts of the female reproductive system

Fallopian tube
(Oviduct)

Funnel

Ovary

Ovarian Ligament
Uterus
Lining of uterus
(endometrium)
Cervix
Wall of uterus
Vagina Produces :
1. Egg
Vulva 2. Oestrogen
3. Progesterone
Functions of the main parts of the female reproductive system

Fallopian tube
(Oviduct)

Funnel

Ovary

Ovarian Ligament
Uterus
Lining of uterus
(endometrium)
Cervix
Wall of uterus
Vagina
1. Catches the egg after release from ovary
Vulva 2. Transports egg from ovary to womb
3. Site of fertilisation
Functions of the main parts of the female reproductive system

Fallopian tube
(Oviduct)

Funnel

Ovary

Ovarian Ligament
Uterus
Lining of uterus
(endometrium)
Cervix
Wall of uterus
Vagina
1. Implantation
Vulva 2. Hold foetus
3. Forms placenta
Functions of the main parts of the female reproductive system

Fallopian tube
(Oviduct)

Funnel

Ovary

Ovarian Ligament
Uterus
Lining of uterus
(endometrium)
Cervix
Wall of uterus
Vagina

Vulva 1. Allows entry of sperm into female system

2. Birth canal to allow exit of baby
Summary of functions of main parts of female reproductive system

Part Function

To produce the egg (ova). To produce the hormones

Ovary
oestrogen and progesterone

Fallopian tube Catches the egg from the ovary and transports it to
(oviduct) uterus. Site of fertilisation.

Site of implantation. Holds the developing embryo.

Has a lining (endometrium) enriched with blood
Uterus vessels to nourish the embryo.
Forms the placenta.

Vagina Allows entry of sperm and exit of baby at birth.

 Female Hormones
• Female Hormones: Oestrogen and progesterone

• A combination of oestrogen and progesterone at puberty

causes the development of the secondary female
characteristics:
Female 2ary sexual characteristics
• The maturing and enlargement of the breasts.
• The widening of the pelvis to allow for birth.
• The growth of pubic and underarm hair.
• Thickening of subcutaneous fat giving a more rounded
figure
• A growth spurt.
Role of meiosis in sperm and egg production
 Role of meiosis in sperm and egg
production
Sperm and egg producing cells are diploid i.e. they contain
46 chromosomes.
• Mother cells divide by meiosis to form sperm and egg
cells.
• Each sperm and egg cell, therefore, has a haploid number
of chromosomes i.e. they have 23 each
• On fertilisation the sperm and egg join together to form a
diploid zygote 23 + 23 = 46
• The zygote divides by mitosis
• The chromosome number is maintained
 The Menstrual Cycle vs Oestrus cycle
• Oestrus cycle is ovulation without bleeding. Endometrium is
reabsorbed
• Menstrual cycle involves shedding of endometrium.
– Different animals ovulate at different times. Once a year, every few days…

• In humans the average menstrual cycle is a 28 day sequence of

events that produces an egg and prepares the body for pregnancy.
• This cycle begins at puberty and continues until the menopause (the
end of the woman’s reproductive life).
 Summary of events in Menstrual cycle
Day 1:
– First day of bleeding, which will continue for 4-7 days
– Shedding of old lining of uterus
Day 5:
– Graafian follicle is producing oestrogen in the ovary
– Endometrium begins to rebuild.
•Fertile period:
– Time period during which fertilisation of an egg is possible.
– Stretches from day 10 to 20 (depends on the individual) day 11-17
– Sperm can survive up to 5 days inside the female body so intercourse before
ovulation can lead to fertilisation
Day 14:
– Average day of ovulation (release of egg from ovary).
– Graafian follicle reaches edge of ovary and bursts releasing egg
– Oestrogen FSH & LH levels are highest at this point
 Summary of events in Menstrual cycle
Day 15 – 21:
– Empty follicle becomes the corpus luteum (yellow body) and
produces progesterone
– This causes the endometrium lining to thicken more in
preparation for an embryo.
Day 21 – 28:
– If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum eventually stops
producing progesterone.
– The endometrium begins to break down.

– If pregnancy does occur the endometrium is maintained by

HCG(Human Chorionic Gonadotrophic hormone) produced by the
embryo & placenta (this is what you are testing for with
pregnancy tests)
 If fertilisation has not occurred the
The Menstrual Cycle cycle begins again with the breakdown
of the endometrium.
28 1 2
27
26 3
4 DAY 1-5 : Blood from the
25
5 womb lining is shed from
24 the body
23 6
22 7 After day 5 the lining of
the uterus repairs and
21
8 builds up again
20
9
19
18 Fertile period 10
17 11
16 12
15 14 13

Implantation may happen Ovulation occurs on Day 14

Inside the Ovary Developing Graafian follicle –
secretes oestrogen
Potential egg

Egg is released from ovary Graafian follicle now changes to

(ovulation) the Corpus luteum which
secretes progesterone
 Graafian follicle Corpus Luteum

Oestrogen________
Progesterone _____
Hormones
Endometrium

5 14 Days 28
Sexual Reproduction in the
Human
(Extended Study HL)
 Learning objectives
• Outline the stages in the menstrual cycle
• Discuss the role of hormones in the menstrual cycle
• Discuss the Cause/Prevention/Treatment for fibroids or
for endometriosis
Menstrual Cycle
 Hormonal control in the menstrual
cycle
• Four hormones involved:
– FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone)
– Oestrogen
– LH (Luteinising Hormone)
– Progesterone

• Each hormone causes the production of the hormone

following it and inhibits the hormone preceding it
• (E.g. negative feedback loop)
 FSH – Follicle Stimulating Hormone

• Produced by anterior pituitary gland

• Produced early in the cycle (days 1-5)
• Stimulates a few potential eggs (ovum or ova) to
develop, surrounded by Graafian follicles
• Only one usually survives
• Sometimes used in fertility treatments to stimulate
ovaries to produce eggs – often lots of eggs develop.
This explains some multiple births
• Each Graafian follicle then produces oestrogen
 Oestrogen
• Produced by the Graafian follicle in the ovary
• Produced from days 5 -14
• Causes the endometrium to develop
• Inhibits FSH ensuring no further eggs develop (useful in
contraceptive pill)
• High levels of oestrogen just before day 14 stimulate
release of LH
 LH - Luteinising Hormone
• Produced by the pituitary gland
• Produced on day 14
• Causes ovulation
• Causes the remains of Graafian follicle to develop
into corpus luteum (yellow body)
• Corpus luteum makes final hormone in the cycle
progesterone (along with small amounts of
oestrogen)
 Progesterone
• Produced by the Corpus Luteum in the ovary
• Produced from days 14-28
• Maintains structure of endometrium
• Inhibits FSH to stop further eggs developing
• Inhibits LH to stop further ovulation and
pregnancies
• Prevents contractions of the uterus
 Menstrual disorder (Fibroids)
• Fibroids are tumours of
the uterus
• They are the result of
the overproduction of
cells
• They do not invade
other tissues and do not
spread (benign)
 Menstrual disorder (Fibroids)
• Slow growing and range from the size of a pea to
the size of a melon
• Common between ages of 35 and 45
• Small fibroids often produce no symptoms
• As they enlarge they produce heavy and
prolonged menstrual bleeding (this can lead to
anaemia, pain, miscarriage or infertility)
 Cause
• Cause is uncertain
• May be an abnormal response to oestrogen
• Can occur in women taking the contraceptive pill
 Prevention and treatment
• Small fibroids require no treatment just monitoring to
check their growth
• Large fibroids can be removed by surgery
• If many large fibroids are present a Hysterectomy may be
necessary. This is where the uterus is removed
 Menstrual disorder (Endometriosis)

• Growth of endometrial cells outside the uterus (often in fallopian

tube)
• Normally endometrium is shed each month in the menstrual cycle. In
endometriosis misplaced endometrium is unable to exit the body
• Results in internal bleeding, inflammation of surrounding area and
pain
• Formation of scar tissue may result
• If there is scarring in the fallopian tube this can interfere with the
passage of eggs to the uterus (infertility)
 Cause
• Exact cause remains unknown
• Several theories (response to excess oestrogen creation)
 Prevention and treatment

• No known cure
• Hysterectomy (removal of uterus) - no guarantee that
symptoms will disappear
• Medication can be taken to interfere with hormones
resulting in a reduction or elimination of menstrual flow

(End of HL section)
 Copulation – Sexual intercourse
• Sexual arousal
– The penis becomes erect
– The vagina becomes lubricated
• Copulation
– The process of depositing semen in the body of the female (beside
the cervix)
– The penis is inserted into and moved inside the vagina
– This can be achieved artificially
• Orgasm
– Sperm is released from the penis (Ejaculation)
– Contraction (peristalsis) of vagina and uterus
 Insemination

• Insemination is the release of sperm into the female

• Contractions of uterus and fallopian tubes move the
sperm to the fallopian tubes within 5 minutes
• If an egg is present it releases chemicals to attract the
sperm this is called chemotaxis
 Fertilisation

Fertilisation is the fusion of the egg and sperm nuclei to form a

diploid zygote.
 Fertilisation
• Fertilisation usually occurs in the
fallopian tube.
– The acrosome releases enzymes to digest
the egg membrane
– A number of sperm may reach the egg at
the same time.
– The sperm loses its tail and the head
enters the egg.
• The sperm and egg nuclei fuse to
form a diploid zygote
– A chemical reaction at the membrane
prevents other sperm cells entering.
 Implantation
• This occurs 6 - 9 days after fertilisation.

• Implantation is the embedding of the fertilised egg

into the lining of the uterus
(this is when you become ‘pregnant’)

• By this time the zygote has grown into an embryo.

• During implantation a membrane called the amnion

develops around the embryo.
• This secretes amniotic fluid which will surround the
developing embryo keep it clean and safe and act as a
shock absorber.
• After implantation the placenta forms.
Human Embryo
Development

Extended Study
 Learning Objectives
• List the sequence of development of an embryo
• Explain the term fertilized egg
• Explain the term blastocyst
• Explain the term amnion
• Explain how the placenta is formed
• Explain how the embryo develops up to the third month
of gestation
Sequence of development
from fertilised egg
Early stages
 Zygote

Fertilisation: in the fallopian

tubes

Implanted embryo

Implantation: is the embedding of

the fertilised egg
into the lining of the
uterus
 Sequence of development from
fertilised egg
• The zygote contains 46
chromosomes, twenty
three from the egg and 23
from the sperm
It divides every 8 – 12 hours by mitosis to produce 2
cells, then 4, then 8, 16 etc. and continues to divide
 Day 3

• The zygote cells have

divided three times
• At this point the
developing individual is
referred to as the morula

• Morula: solid ball of 16

cells, 3 days old.
 5-6 days
• The morula continues to
divide and the cells compact
and lose visible definition
• Around 5 days after
fertilisation the morula forms
a hollow ball of cells called
the blastocyst

• Blastocyst: hollow ball of

cells, 5 days old
 Blastocyst
• The outer layer of the blastocyst
forms the trophoblast.
– This will later develop into the layer
of membranes that surround the
embryo (placenta and amnion)

• Trophoblast: Outer layer.

Becomes placenta and amnion

• The blastocyst must ‘hatch’ out of

the Zona pellicuda in order to
access the uterus wall and
implant.
• The inner cells (called the inner
cell mass) of the blastocyst will
eventually form the embryo.
• These cells are not yet
specialised.
– They have a phenomenal ability to
differentiate – divide to give rise to
many different types of tissue
• Inner cell mass: becomes
embryo. Made of stem cells!

• Differentiation has occurred

between the inner cell mass and
the trophoblast
Inner cell mass
 Stem cells – remember!!
• Huge research potential to renew or repair damaged body
parts.
• Remember diversity of cells:
• If you don’t remember then you should re-watch this video.
The morula/blastocyst is pushed along the fallopian
tube until it enters the uterus
• The blastocyst will implant Implantation: the embedding
into the uterus wall. The of the fertilised egg into the
lining of the uterus. 6-9 days old
endometrium now provides
nourishment for the
developing blastocyst

• Connections with the mother

will begin to form (placenta
and umbilical cord)
This point marks the beginning of pregnancy
Sequence of development
from fertilised egg
Development of the embryo
 Early Development & differentiation

• About 10 days after fertilisation the inner cell

mass forms the embryonic disc
• This usually consists of three layers called germ
layers (differentiated cell layers)
• Triploblastic (3 cell layers)
– Ectoderm (outside)
– Mesoderm (middle, splits to form coelom)
– Endoderm (inside)
 Early Development & differentiation
• Each of these layers gives rise to specific structures in the developing
embryo
• In humans the mesoderm is split by a layer called the Coelom
• This allows space for more complex organs such as heart, lungs and
kidneys to develop
Structure of the embryonic disc – draw this to
show what structures arise form each layer
Ectoderm – skin, nervous system

Coelom – heart, lungs

Mesoderm – muscles,
skeleton

Endoderm – inner lining of

digestive system, respiratory
system, urogenital system &
glandular tissues
The Amnion
 The Amnion

• Amnion: a sac that forms around the embryo

• When first formed the amnion is in contact with the

embryo, but at about the fourth or fifth week fluid begins
to accumulate within it (amniotic fluid)

• The primary function: protection of the embryo for its

future development & movement.
 Four to five weeks after fertilisation

• The heart forms and starts

to beat
• The brain also develops
• The limbs have started to
form
 By the 6th week

• Eyes are visible

• The mouth, nose and ears
are forming
• The skeleton is at the
early stages of
development
 By the 8th week

• the major body organs are

formed
• Sex glands have
developed into testes or
ovaries
• Bone is beginning to
replace cartilage
 By the 8th week
• At this stage the embryo
has taken on a
recognisably human from.
• From this point it is
referred to as a foetus
• The foetus continues to
grow. No new organs are
formed from this point
 By the 12th week (3 months)

• The nerves and muscle

become co-ordinated
allowing the arms and legs
to move
• The foetus sucks its
thumb, urinates and even
releases faeces into the
amniotic fluid
 By the 12th week (3 months)

• The gender of the

foetus can be seen
in scans
 Gestation

• The time from

fertilisation to birth
(the gestation period)
lasts about 40 weeks
(9 months)
Placenta formation

The Extra Endocrine Organ

Placenta formation
 Placenta formation

• The placenta: combination of the

tissues of the uterus and the
embryo

• Soon after implantation a

membrane called the chorion
completely surrounds the amnion
and embryo
• The chorionic villi emerge
from the chorion and invade
the endometrium
• This allows the transfer of
nutrients from maternal
blood to fetal blood

• Placenta is fully formed by 3

months
• The placenta now produces
progesterone to maintain
the pregnancy
 The Placenta – Draw this
Chorion
Placenta Embryo
Mother’s
blood

Mother
Nutrients, Oxygen, antibodies

Wastes, Carbon Dioxide,

Amnion
Amniotic fluid
Umbilical cord
Water

Embryo’s
Embryo blood
 Function of the Placenta
• Placenta allows
– Gases exchange: O2 in CO2 out of foetus from mothers blood
– Nutrition: glucose, amino acids, fats, vitamins, minerals, nicotine,
some drugs, alcohol all pass from the mothers blood into the
foetus
– Excretion: metabolic wastes are removed from the foetus
– Antibodies: from the mothers blood pass to the foetus causing
passive immunity
– Endocrine: hormones progesterone, HCG enter the mother’s
blood from the placenta
– Protection: The placenta prevents the entry of many pathogens.
Bacteria are stopped but many viruses can be transmitted.
Rubella, chicken pox & cold sores (herpes) and HIV.
 NB!
• Placenta prevents the mixing of mothers’ and baby's blood
• Blood supplies of mother and embryo do not mix during
pregnancy
– Blood types may not be compatible
– Mother’s blood pressure might damage embryo
– Remember what we discussed about blood types? If not go back and look at it
again.
 The Umbilical Cord
• Umbilical cord connects the
embryo with the placenta

• it takes blood from the embryo

to the placenta and back again

• It must be cut at birth to

separate mother and baby

• The scar left from the umbilical

cord forms your bellybutton
45 seconds after birth!
 Depth of treatment
• Sequence of development from
– fertilised egg,
– morula,
– blastocyst,
– Embryonic disc & 3 germ layers
– Existence of the amnion,

• Development of embryo up to third month.

– Placenta formation from embroyonic and uterine tissue.
– Functions of the placenta
 Birth - Parturition
• The hormones oestrogen and progesterone are produced throughout
pregnancy firstly by the corpus luteum (3 months) and then by the
placenta. (The placenta acts as an endocrine gland).

After gestation (pregnancy) of aprox 280 days (40 weeks)

1 Immediately before birth the placenta stops making progesterone.
The walls of the uterus begin to contract as a result.
2 The pituitary gland releases the hormone called oxytocin.
This causes further contractions of the uterus
Labour has now begun
There are three main stages:
Stage 1 cervical dilation - (about 6 - 12 hours)
•Contractions intensify & lengthen
•Cervix dilates (widens) eventually to 10 cm& mucus plug releases (sticky
pink goo)
•Amniotic sac breaks (waters break)
Stage 2 -Delivery (20 minutes to 1 hour)
The foetus passes through the cervix and the birth canal
head first.
Stage 2 - (20 minutes to 1 hour)
The foetus passes through the cervix and the birth canal
head first.
Stage 2 - (20 minutes to 1 hour)
The foetus passes through the cervix and the birth canal
head first.
Stage 2 - (20 minutes to 1 hour)
The foetus passes through the cervix and the birth canal
head first.
Stage 2 - (20 minutes to 1 hour)
The foetus passes through the cervix and the birth canal
head first.
Stage 2 - (20 minutes to 1 hour)
The foetus passes through the cervix and the birth canal
head first.
The umbilical cord is tied and cut. This leaves a scar
which will eventually become the navel (belly button).
 Problems that can arise
• Breech birth: baby comes out feet first – more difficult

• Baby (head) is too big: need forceps to pull its head out

• Baby is distressed: heart rate is continuously monitored

and if the baby becomes distressed a caesarean section
may be necessary – cutting through the abdomen and
uterus to remove the baby.
Stage 3 – Placental Delivery (15 to 30 minutes)
The baby is now born.
The uterus now contracts again and expels the afterbirth
(the umbilical cord and placenta).
Stage 3 – Placental Delivery (15 to 30 minutes)
The baby is now born.
The uterus now contracts again and expels the afterbirth (the umbilical
cord and placenta).
Stage 3 – Placental Delivery (15 to 30 minutes)
The baby is now born.
The uterus now contracts again and expels the afterbirth (the umbilical
cord and placenta).
Stage 3 – Placental Delivery (15 to 30 minutes)
The baby is now born.
The uterus now contracts again and expels the afterbirth (the umbilical
cord and placenta).
Umbilical cord is cut
 Breastfeeding
• Suckling stimulates the anterior
pituitary gland to produce
prolactin (milk) and oxytocin
(bonding)

• Lactation: Expression of milk

from the mammary glands
(hence mammals)

• The first days after birth

colostrum produced

• Milk follows later – not a rich

• Important for bonding of mother

and infant
Breast is best because… Shut-up!! Every mother gets to choose for
herself and you don’t get to judge and your opinion is not irrelevant!!

Benefits of breastfeeding:
• For baby
– Colostrum and breastmilk provide essential antibodies
– Perfect nutrition
– Correct temperature
– Encourages mutualistic intestinal bacteria
– Reduces chances of allergies

• For mother
– Bonding
– Reduced risk of breast cancer
– Helps recovery from birth and uterus return to normal size
– Can be used as birth control if baby is exclusively fed on… oh my god
don’t use this method of birth control!!!!!!!
 Birth control
• methods employed to limit the number of children that
are born
• Removing the possibility of conception is called
contraception: prevention of fertilisation or implantation

• Also can help reduce the risk of STIs

• There are a number of methods:

 Mechanical contraception -male
• The use of condoms
 Mechanical contraception - female
• The use of diaphragms
• Female condom
 Chemical contraception
• Use of ‘the pill’. The
pill contains oestrogen
and progesterone
which prevents
ovulation and hence
conception.
• Use of spermicide
 Surgical contraception
• The fallopian tubes and sperm ducts can be cut and tied
• Vasectomy in men or ‘having tubes tied’ in women
 Natural contraception, aka, how
to get pregnant…
- Not having sexual intercourse during the fertile period of the
menstrual cycle
- Natural methods of contraception try to identify the time of
ovulation based on:
– Monitoring the body temperature. This rises slightly after ovulation
– Mucous secreted in the cervix (which changes its texture after ovulation)
– Withdrawal method: removing the penis before ejaculation (I actually
can’t believe this is in the book…)

People who practice these methods of contraception are called parents!

 Infertility

Infertility is the inability of a couple to

achieve conception.
 Male infertility disorders
• Low sperm count – Refers to a low number of sperm per
ml of seminal fluid.

• Low sperm mobility - If movement of the sperm is slow,

not in a straight line or both, the sperm may have
difficulty passing through the cervical mucous or
penetrating the shell of the egg.

• Endocrine gland failure – A failure of the testes to

produce sperm
 Low sperm count
Causes:
• The persistent use of drugs such as alcohol, cigarettes and
anabolic steroids.
• Abnormalities in sperm production or obstruction of
the tubes through which sperm travels.
• Stress
 Low sperm count
Treatment
• A change in diet.
• A change in lifestyle e.g. stopping alcohol consumption,
smoking.
• A reduction in stress levels.
 Female infertility disorders
• Blockage of the Fallopian Tube
– Scarring of the fallopian tube can block the passage of
the egg to the uterus
• Endocrine gland failure
– A failure of the ovaries to produce an egg
 Blockage of the fallopian tubes
Causes:
• Fragments of the uterus lining may spread to the fallopian
tube
• Inflammation as a result of infection

Treatment
• In-vitro fertilisation (I.V.F.)
 IVF

• IVF is a method of treating infertility.

• It involves removing eggs from an ovary and fertilising
them outside the body.
During the natural menstrual cycle an egg is
produced by the ovary every month
 During IVF fertility drugs are given to the female to
stimulate the ovaries to produce more than one egg
These eggs are then taken from the females
body and into the laboratory
In the meantime a sperm sample is taken
from the male
The eggs and sperm are mixed together in the hope
that fertilisation will occur
The sample is placed in the most ideal conditions for
fertilisation to occur
 The main aim of the procedure is to obtain a
zygote. If successful the zygotes development
will be monitored closely
If successful the zygote develops into a morula,
blastocyst and eventually becomes an embryo
The developing embryo can now be placed back into
the females body for implantation to take place
• Babies born as a result of IVF are often incorrectly called
‘test tube’ babies.
• While fertilisation takes place in the laboratory (‘in vitro’ –
in glass) the fertilised egg is re-inserted into the mother’s
body and develops naturally in the uterus
If analysis of a couples eggs and sperm suggests that
IVF treatment is unsuitable, other methods of
assisted fertility treatment are available