KIX 1001 Engineering Mathematics

Week 9 – Engineering Applications of

Integrals
Dr. Hanee Farzana Hizaddin
[email protected]
Engineering Applications of Integrals
At the end of this week, you should be familiar with the following
applications of integrals:

• Arc length
• Area of a surface of revolution
• Hydrostatic pressure and force
• Pressure on a vertical surface
• Moments and centers of mass
• Centroid of plane
• Theorem of Pappus

2
9.1 ARC LENGTH
Objective is to derive this formula:

𝑏
𝐿=න 1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

• How would you approximate the length of the given

curve from 𝑥 = 𝑎 to 𝑥 = 𝑏?

• Divide the curve into equal width of ∆𝑥, each point is

named 𝑃0, 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑖−1 , 𝑃𝑖 , … , 𝑃𝑛
• Connect the points using straight lines
• Total length is the sum of the length of the connected
points
• Thus,
𝑛

𝐿 = lim ෍ 𝑃𝑖−1 𝑃𝑖
𝑛→∞
𝑖=1
3
Derivation of the arc length formula
𝑛

𝐿 = lim ෍ 𝑃𝑖−1 𝑃𝑖
𝑛→∞
𝑖=1
∆𝑦2
• not very convenient for computational purposes
∆𝑦1
• we can derive an integral formula for 𝐿 in the case
where 𝑓 has a continuous derivative
• The length of the line 𝑃𝑖−1 𝑃𝑖 can be calculated from
the distance formula:
∆𝑥

𝑃𝑖−1 𝑃𝑖 = (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖−1 )2 +(𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖−1 )2

• Since we divided the distance from 𝑎 to 𝑏 into equal

width of ∆𝑥, ∆𝑥 is constant
• However, ∆𝑦 is not constant
4
Derivation of the arc length formula
• So, let ∆𝑦𝑖 = 𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖−1
• Thus, the length of line 𝑃𝑖−1 𝑃𝑖 becomes

𝑃𝑖−1 𝑃𝑖 = (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖−1 )2 +(𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖−1 )2 = (∆𝑥)2 +(∆𝑦𝑖 )2

• Apply Mean Value Theorem
∆𝑦𝑖
𝑓 ′
𝑥𝑖∗ =  ∆𝑦𝑖 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑖∗ )∆𝑥
∆𝑥
• Thus,
𝑃𝑖−1 𝑃𝑖 = (∆𝑥)2 +(∆𝑦𝑖 )2 = (∆𝑥)2 +[𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑖∗ )∆𝑥]2

5
Derivation of the arc length formula
𝑃𝑖−1 𝑃𝑖 = 1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑖∗ )]2 (∆𝑥)2 = 1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑖∗ )]2 ∆𝑥

• Substitute this into 𝐿 = lim σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖−1 𝑃𝑖 , obtain:

𝑛→∞

𝐿 = lim ෍ 1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑖∗ )]2 ∆𝑥

𝑛→∞
𝑖=1

• Convert into definite integral with limits from 𝑎 to 𝑏, we get:

𝑏
𝐿=න 1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
6
Derivation of the arc length formula
• If a curve has the equation x = g (y), c  y  d, and g  (y) is
continuous, then by interchanging the roles of x and y, the arc length
formula can be written as

𝑑 𝑑 2
𝑑𝑥
𝐿=න 1+ [𝑔′ (𝑦)]2 𝑑𝑦 = න 1+ 𝑑y
𝑐 𝑐 𝑑𝑦

7
Example 1: Arc length formula
Find the length of the arc of the semi-
cubical parabola 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 3 between the Use the formula
𝑏
points (1, 1) and (4, 8). 𝐿 = ‫𝑎׬‬ 1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥 or
𝑏 𝑑𝑦 2
𝐿= ‫𝑎׬‬ 1+ 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Steps:

• Find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) (or 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥)

• Substitute into the arc length
formula
• Perform the necessary
integration with the given limits

8
9.1.1 THE ARC LENGTH FUNCTION
• Difference from arc length formula?
• a function that measures the arc length of a curve from a particular starting
point to any other point on the curve

• Define 𝑠 𝑥 as the function that measures the arc length from a point
𝑎 to any point 𝑥. Thus, the arc length function can be written as:

𝑥
𝑠 𝑥 =න 1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑡)]2 𝑑𝑡
𝑎

9
 9.1.1 THE ARC LENGTH FUNCTION
• Derivative of the arc length function 𝑠 𝑥 :

2
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦
= 1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑥)]2 = 1+ … (6)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
• the rate of change of 𝑠 with respect to 𝑥 is always
at least 1 and is equal to 1 when 𝑓′ 𝑥 , the slope of
the curve, is 0
• The differential of arc length is

𝑑𝑦 2
𝑑𝑠 = 1+ 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

also can be written as (𝑑𝑠)2 = (𝑑𝑥)2 +(𝑑𝑦)2

10
Example 2: Arc Length Function
Find the arc length function for the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 1Τ8 ln 𝑥 , taking P0(1, 1) as
the starting point.

What would be the arc length along the curve from P0(1, 1) to P1(3, f(3))?

Steps:
𝑥
• Use the arc length generic function 𝑠 𝑥 = ‫𝑎׬‬ 1 + [𝑓 ′ (𝑡)]2 𝑑𝑡 to obtain the
required arc length function specific to this curve
• Determine the value for the length of the curve between the two given points

11
9.2 AREA OF A SURFACE OF REVOLUTION
• The lateral surface area of a cylinder is
2𝜋𝑟ℎ

12
9.2 AREA OF A SURFACE OF REVOLUTION
• a circular cone with base radius 𝑟 and slant
height 𝑙
• flatten it to form a sector of a circle with
2𝜋𝑟
radius 𝑙 and central angle 𝜃 =
𝑙
1 2 1 2 2𝜋𝑟
•𝐴= 𝑙 𝜃 = 𝑙 = 𝜋𝑟𝑙
2 2 𝑙

13
9.2 AREA OF A SURFACE OF REVOLUTION
• What about more complicated surfaces of revolution?
• Follow similar strategy that we did in arc length, where we
approximate the curve with a polygon
• The polygon rotated (revolved) about an axis will create a surface
area  this is what we call the AREA OF A SURFACE OF
REVOLUTION

14
Derivation of the area of a surface revolution formula
𝑏
Goal: to derive this formula: 𝑆 = ‫ 𝑎׬‬2𝜋𝑓 𝑥 1 + 𝑓′ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

• Consider a cone with the some of the top part removed, we are left with the
lower part of the cone called “frustum”
• Area of the frustum

𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟2 𝑙1 + 𝑙 − 𝜋𝑟1 𝑙1 = 𝜋 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 𝑙1 + 𝑟2 𝑙

• We are only interested in the area of the frustum, and we want to remove the
term 𝑙1 from the equation

• From similar triangle with same angle 𝜃,

Frustum 𝑙1 𝑙1 + 𝑙
=
𝑟1 𝑟2
• Rearrange,
𝑟2 𝑙1 = 𝑟1 𝑙1 + 𝑟1 𝑙

𝑟2 − 𝑟1 𝑙1 = 𝑟1 𝑙 15
Derivation of the area of a surface revolution formula
From 𝐴 = 𝜋 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 𝑙1 + 𝑟2 𝑙 , substitute 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 𝑙1 = 𝑟1 𝑙 into 𝐴 and
obtain:
𝐴 = 𝜋 𝑟1 𝑙 + 𝑟2 𝑙
𝑟1 +𝑟2
Let 𝑟 = i.e. the average radius of the band, thus,
2

𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑙

16
Derivation of the area of a surface revolution formula

• Consider the surface shown, obtained by rotating the

function 𝑓 𝑥 about the 𝑥-axis between the limits 𝑎
and 𝑏.
• 𝑓 𝑥 is positive and has a continuous derivative
• Similar to arc length approach, to find the surface
area, we divide the interval 𝑎 and 𝑏 into equal widths
of ∆𝑥
• In each band, the length 𝑙 = 𝑃𝑖−1 𝑃𝑖 and the average
1
radius 𝑟 = 𝑦𝑖−1 + 𝑦𝑖
2
• Thus, the area becomes
𝑦𝑖−1 + 𝑦𝑖
𝐴 = 2𝜋 𝑃𝑖−1 𝑃𝑖
2

17
Derivation of the area of a surface revolution formula
2
• From arc length formula, we derived 𝑃𝑖−1 𝑃𝑖 = 1 + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑖∗ ) ∆𝑥
• When ∆𝑥 is small, we have 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑓 𝑥𝑖 ≈ 𝑓 𝑥𝑖∗ and also 𝑦𝑖−1 = 𝑓 𝑥𝑖−1 ≈ 𝑓 𝑥𝑖∗ , since f
is continuous
• Therefore
𝑦𝑖−1 + 𝑦𝑖 ∗ ′ ∗ 2
2𝜋 𝑃𝑖−1 𝑃𝑖 ≈ 2𝜋𝑓(𝑥𝑖 ) 1 + 𝑓 (𝑥𝑖 ) ∆𝑥
2
• Approximation of the total surface area would be
𝑛
∗ 2
෍ 2𝜋𝑓(𝑥𝑖∗ ) 1+ ′
𝑓 (𝑥𝑖 ) ∆𝑥
𝑖=1
• Putting a limit of 𝑛 as 𝑛 approaches ∞, the area becomes:

𝑛 𝑏
2
lim ෍ 2𝜋𝑓(𝑥𝑖∗ ) 1 + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑖∗ ) ∆𝑥 = න 2𝜋𝑓 𝑥 1 + 𝑓′ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑛→∞ 𝑎
𝑖=1
18
Formula for the area of a surface revolution
Using notation for arc
Formula Leibniz notation
length (with 𝒅𝒔)
Rotation about the 𝑥-axis

𝑆 = න 2𝜋𝑦 𝑑𝑠
𝑏 𝑏 2
𝑑𝑦
𝑆 = න 2𝜋𝑓 𝑥 1 + 𝑓′ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑆 = න 2𝜋𝑓 𝑥 1+ 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑠 = 1+ 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Rotation about the 𝑦-axis

𝑆 = න 2𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑠
𝑏 𝑏 2
2 𝑑𝑥
𝑆 = න 2𝜋𝑔 𝑦 1 + 𝑔′ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑆 = න 2𝜋𝑔 𝑦 1+ 𝑑𝑦
𝑎 𝑎 𝑑𝑦
2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑠 = 1+ 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦
19
Example 3: Area of a surface of revolution
The curve 𝑦 = 4 − 𝑥 2 , −1≤𝑥 ≤
1, is an arc of the circle
Steps:
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4. Find the area of the 𝑑𝑦
• Find
surface obtained by rotating this arc 𝑑𝑥
about the x-axis. (The surface is a
portion of a sphere of radius 2). • Use the formula
𝑏 𝑑𝑦 2
𝑆= ‫ 𝑎׬‬2𝜋𝑓 𝑥 1+ 𝑑𝑥 within
𝑑𝑥
the specified limits

• Solve!

20
9.3 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE AND FORCE
• It is easy to find the pressure and force of fluid
acting on a horizontally uniform surface
• E.g. consider the diagram shown, the force
exerted by the fluid of density 𝑝 at height/depth
𝑑 on the horizontal surface 𝐴 can be found by:

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝜌𝑉 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴𝑑
• And the pressure can be found by:

𝐹
𝑃 = = 𝜌𝑔𝑑
𝐴

21
9.3 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE AND FORCE
• What about the pressure and force acting
upon a vertical surface, e.g. a wall or a
dam?
• not a straightforward problem because
the pressure is not constant but increases
as the depth increases
• Pascal’s principles of hydrostatic pressure:
at any point in a liquid the pressure is the
same in all directions

22
Example 4: Hydrostatic pressure and force
A dam has the shape of the
trapezoid shown in Figure 9.13. The
height is 20 m and the width is 50 m
at the top and 30 m at the bottom.
Find the force on the dam due to
hydrostatic pressure if the water
Figure 9.13: A dam with shape of trapezoid
level is 4 m from the top of the dam.

23
Example 4 – Solution
• Choose a vertical x-axis with origin at the surface
of the water and directed downward
• Divide the depth of water into intervals between
[0,16] of equal length
• At the ith strip 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑖∗ ,

𝑎 10
∗ =
16 − 𝑥𝑖 20
From which
16 − 𝑥𝑖∗ 𝑥𝑖∗
𝑎= =8−
2 2
Width of the dam at the ith strip, 𝑤𝑖 can be found by

𝑥𝑖∗
𝑤𝑖 = 2 15 + 𝑎 = 2 15 + 8 − = 46 − 𝑥𝑖∗
2 24
Example 4 – Solution (cont’d)
• At the ith strip, the area 𝐴𝑖 can be approximated by

𝐴𝑖 ≈ 𝑤𝑖 ∆𝑥 = (46 − 𝑥𝑖∗ )∆𝑥

• When ∆𝑥 is small, the pressure acting on the ith strip, 𝑃𝑖 is almost constant:

𝑃𝑖 ≈ 1000𝑔𝑥𝑖∗

• The hydrostatic force on the ith strip, 𝐹𝑖

𝐹𝑖 = 𝑃𝑖 𝐴𝑖 ≈ 1000𝑔𝑥𝑖∗ (46 − 𝑥𝑖∗ )∆𝑥

25
Example 4 – Solution (cont’d)
• Adding these forces and taking the limit as n  ∞,

𝐹 = lim σ𝑛𝑖=1 1000𝑔𝑥𝑖∗ 46 − 𝑥𝑖∗ ∆𝑥

𝑛→∞
16
= ‫׬‬0 1000𝑔𝑥 46 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
16
= 1000 9.8 ‫׬‬0 46𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 3 16
= 9000 23𝑥 2 − ቚ
3 0
7
≈ 4.43 𝑥 10 𝑁

26
9.4 MOMENTS AND CENTRES OF MASS
• To find the point P on which a thin plate of
any given shape balances horizontally
• This point is called the center of mass (or
center of gravity) of the plate

• Two masses m1 and m2 are attached to a

rod of negligible mass on opposite sides of
a fulcrum and at distances d1 and d2 from
the fulcrum
• The rod will balance if 𝑚1 𝑑1 = 𝑚2 𝑑2

27
9.4 MOMENTS AND CENTRES OF MASS

• suppose that the rod lies along the x-axis with m1 at x1 and m2 at x2 and the center
of mass at 𝑥ҧ
• Compare with the previous figure,
𝑑1 = 𝑥ҧ − 𝑥1 and 𝑑2 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥ҧ
• Thus,
𝑚1 (𝑥ҧ − 𝑥1 ) = 𝑚2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥)ҧ m1x1 and m2x2 are called
𝑚1 𝑥ҧ + 𝑚2 𝑥ҧ = 𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥2 the moments of the
masses m1 and m2 (with
respect to the origin)
𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥2
𝑥ҧ =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 28
9.4 MOMENTS AND CENTRES OF MASS
• In general, for a system with 𝑛 particles with the mass of each particle
𝑚1 , 𝑚2 … , 𝑚𝑛 located at points 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 … , 𝑥𝑛 on the 𝑥-axis,

σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖
𝑥ҧ = 𝑛
σ𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖
• If we let 𝑚 = σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 and the sum of individual moments 𝑀 = σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖 , we
obtain
𝑚𝑥ҧ = 𝑀
the sum of individual
moments 𝑀 is also
called the moment of
the system about the
origin

29
9.4 MOMENTS AND CENTRES OF MASS
• consider a system of 𝑛 particles with masses
𝑚1 , 𝑚2 … , 𝑚𝑛 located at the points
𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦𝑛 in the 𝑥𝑦-plane
• By analogy with the one-dimensional case, we
define the moment of the system about the y-
axis to be M measures the
𝑛 y
tendency of the
𝑀𝑦 = ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖 system to rotate
𝑖=1 about the y-axis

and the moment of the system about the x-axis as

𝑛
Mx measures the
𝑀𝑥 = ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖 tendency of the
system to rotate
𝑖=1 about the x-axis

30
9.4 MOMENTS AND CENTRES OF MASS
• the coordinates (𝑥ഥ , 𝑦)
ത of the center of mass are given in terms of the
moments by the formulas

𝑀𝑦 𝑀𝑥
𝑥ҧ = and 𝑦ത =
𝑚 𝑚

• the center of mass (𝑥ഥ , 𝑦)

ത is the point where a single particle of mass
m would have the same moments as the system

31
Example 5: Moments and centres of mass
Find the moments and center of mass of the system of objects that have masses 3, 4,
and 8 at the points (–1, 1), (2, –1), and (3, 2), respectively.

Solution
• Calculate the moments about 𝑥- and 𝑦-axes from the formula 𝑀𝑥 and 𝑀𝑦
𝑀𝑦
• Calculate the coordinate for the centre of mass (𝑥ഥ , 𝑦)
ത from the formula 𝑥ҧ = and
𝑚
𝑀𝑥
𝑦ത =
𝑚

32
CENTROID OF A LAMINA
• What about the center of mass of a flat plate (lamina) that occupies the region ℛ
on a plane?
• The center of mass of the plate is called the centroid of ℛ
• Use the symmetry principle: if ℛ is symmetric about a line l, then the centroid of
ℛ lies on l
• Example: what is the centroid of a rectangle?
• Next, define moments such that if the entire mass of a region is concentrated at
the center of mass, its moments remain unchanged.

33
CENTROID OF A LAMINA
• Suppose that the region ℛ lies between the lines x =
a and x = b, above the x-axis, and beneath the graph
of f, where f is a continuous function
• divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals with
endpoints x0, x1, . . . , xn and equal width x
• choose the sample point xi* to be the midpoint 𝑥,
of the i th subinterval, that is, 𝑥, = (𝑥𝑖−1 +𝑥𝑖 )/2
• The centroid of the i th approximating rectangle Ri is
1
its center 𝐶𝑖 𝑥ҧ𝑖 , 𝑓 𝑥ҧ𝑖 . Its area is 𝑓(𝑥ҧ𝑖 )∆𝑥.
2
• The mass of the lamina is thus 𝜌𝑓(𝑥ҧ𝑖 )∆𝑥

34
CENTROID OF A LAMINA
• The moment of Ri about the y-axis is the product of its mass
and the distance from Ci to the y-axis, i.e. 𝑥ҧ𝑖 .
• Thus,
𝑀𝑦 𝑅𝑖 = 𝜌𝑓(𝑥ҧ𝑖 )∆𝑥 𝑥ҧ𝑖 = 𝜌𝑥ҧ𝑖 𝑓(𝑥ҧ𝑖 )∆𝑥

• Adding these moments, we obtain the moment of the

polygonal approximation to R

• By taking the limit as n  ∞, we obtain the moment of R

about the y-axis
𝑛 𝑏
𝑀𝑦 = lim ෍ 𝜌𝑥ҧ𝑖 𝑓 𝑥ҧ𝑖 ∆𝑥 = 𝜌 න 𝑥𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛→∞ 𝑎
𝑖=1
35
CENTROID OF A LAMINA
• Similarly, we compute the moment of Ri about the x-axis as the product of its
mass and the distance from Ci to the x-axis:

1 1
𝑀𝑥 𝑅𝑖 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑥ҧ𝑖 ∆𝑥 𝑓(𝑥ҧ𝑖 ) = 𝜌 ∙ 𝑓(𝑥ҧ𝑖 ) 2 ∆𝑥
2 2

• Adding the moments and take the limit to obtain the moment of R about the x-
axis:

𝑛 𝑏
1 2
1 2
𝑀𝑥 = lim ෍ 𝜌 ∙ 𝑓(𝑥ҧ𝑖 ) ∆𝑥 = 𝜌 න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑛→∞ 2 𝑎 2
𝑖=1

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CENTROID OF A LAMINA
• Recall the center of mass for a system of particles:

𝑀𝑦 𝑀𝑥
𝑥ҧ = and 𝑦ത =
𝑚 𝑚
• For a plate, the mass is
𝑏
𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴 = 𝜌 න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
• Thus,
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
𝜌 is cancelled out
𝑀𝑦 𝜌 ‫𝑥 𝑓𝑥 𝑎׬‬ 𝑑𝑥 ‫𝑥 𝑓𝑥 𝑎׬‬ 𝑑𝑥 1  The location of
𝑥ҧ = = 𝑏 = 𝑏 = න 𝑥𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 the center of mass is
𝑚 𝜌 ‫𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬ 𝑑𝑥 ‫𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬ 𝑑𝑥 𝐴 𝑎
independent of the
density
𝑏1 2 𝑏1
𝑀𝑥 𝜌 ‫𝑎׬‬
2
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ‫ 𝑎׬‬2 𝑓 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑏 1
𝑦ത = = = = න 𝑓 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 𝑏 𝑏 𝐴 𝑎 2
𝜌 ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬ ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬
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CENTROID OF A LAMINA ENCLOSED BETWEEN TWO CURVES

• If the region R lies between two curves y = f

(x) and y = g (x), where f (x)  g (x)
• The centroid can be found following similar
argument for a lamina to obtain:

1 𝑏
𝑥ҧ = න 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐴 𝑎

1 𝑏1 2
𝑦ത = න 𝑓 𝑥 −𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐴 𝑎 2

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THEOREM OF PAPPUS
Let ℛ be a plane region that lies entirely on one side of a line 𝑙 in the plane. If ℛ is
rotated about 𝑙, then the volume of the resulting solid is the product of the area 𝐴
of ℛ and the distance 𝑑 traveled by the centroid of ℛ

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Example 6: Theorem of Pappus
A torus is formed by rotating a circle of radius r about a line in the plane of the
circle that is a distance R (> r) from the center of the circle. Find the volume of the
torus.
Solution
The circle has area A =  r2. By the symmetry
principle, its centroid is its center and so the
distance traveled by the centroid during a
rotation is d = 2 R.
Therefore, by the Theorem of Pappus, the
volume of the torus is
𝑉 = 𝐴𝑑 = 2𝜋𝑅 𝜋𝑟 2 = 2𝜋 2 𝑟 2 𝑅

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