Problems 147

Stacking fault A surface defect in metals caused by the improper stacking sequence of close-
packed planes.
Strain hardening Strengthening of a material by increasing the number of dislocations by defor-
mation, or cold working. Also known as “work hardening.”
Substitutional defect A point defect produced when an atom is removed from a regular lattice
point and replaced with a different atom, usually of a different size.
Surface defects Imperfections, such as grain boundaries, that form a two-dimensional plane
within the crystal.
Thermal grooving A technique used for observing microstructures in ceramic materials that
involves heating a polished sample to a temperature slightly below the sintering temperature for a
short time.
Tilt boundary A small angle grain boundary composed of an array of edge dislocations.
Transmission electron microscope (TEM) An instrument that, by passing an electron beam
through a material, can detect microscopic structural features.
Twin boundary A surface defect across which there is a mirror image misorientation of the crys-
tal structure. Twin boundaries can also move and cause deformation of the material.
Twist boundary A small angle grain boundary composed of an array of screw dislocations.
Vacancy An atom or an ion missing from its regular crystallographic site.
Yield strength The level of stress above which a material begins to show permanent deformation.

Problems
Section 4-1 Point Defects (a) the fraction of the lattice points that
4-1 Gold has 5.82 * 108 vacancies> cm3 at equi- contain vacancies; and
librium at 300 K. What fraction of the (b) the total number of vacancies in a
atomic sites is vacant at 600 K? cubic centimeter.
4-2 Calculate the number of vacancies per cm3 4-6 BCC lithium has a lattice parameter of
expected in copper at 1080°C (just below 3.5089 * 10-8 cm and contains one
the melting temperature). The energy for vacancy per 200 unit cells. Calculate
vacancy formation is 20,000 cal> mol. (a) the number of vacancies per cubic
4-3 The fraction of lattice points occupied by centimeter; and
vacancies in solid aluminum at 660°C is (b) the density of Li.
10-3. What is the energy required to create 4-7 FCC lead has a lattice parameter of
vacancies in aluminum? 0.4949 nm and contains one vacancy per
4-4 The density of a sample of FCC palla- 500 Pb atoms. Calculate
dium is 11.98 g> cm3, and its lattice param- (a) the density; and
eter is 3.8902 Å. Calculate (b) the number of vacancies per gram
(a) the fraction of the lattice points that of Pb.
contain vacancies; and 4-8 Cu and Ni form a substitutional solid
(b) the total number of vacancies in a solution. This means that the crystal struc-
cubic centimeter of Pd. ture of a Cu-Ni alloy consists of Ni atoms
4-5 The density of a sample of HCP beryllium substituting for Cu atoms in the regular
is 1.844 g> cm3, and the lattice parameters atomic positions of the FCC structure. For
are a0 = 0.22858 nm and c0 = 0.35842 nm. a Cu-30% wt.% Ni alloy, what fraction of
Calculate the atomic sites does Ni occupy?

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148 CHAPTER 4 Imperfections in the Atomic and lonic Arrangements

4-9 A niobium alloy is produced by introduc- (b) Fe3+ ions substitute for magnesium
ing tungsten substitutional atoms into the ions in MgO;
BCC structure; eventually an alloy is pro- (c) Li1+ ions substitute for magnesium
duced that has a lattice parameter of ions in MgO; and
0.32554 nm and a density of 11.95 g> cm3. (d) Fe2+ ions replace sodium ions in
Calculate the fraction of the atoms in the NaCl.
alloy that are tungsten. What other changes in each structure
4-10 Tin atoms are introduced into an FCC might be necessary to maintain a charge
copper crystal, producing an alloy with balance? Explain.
a lattice parameter of 3.7589 * 10-8 cm 4-17 Write down the defect chemistry equation
and a density of 8.772 g> cm3. Calculate for introduction of SrTiO3 in BaTiO3
the atomic percentage of tin present in using the Kröger-Vink notation.
the alloy.
4-11 We replace 7.5 atomic percent of the Section 4-3 Dislocations
chromium atoms in its BCC crystal with 4-18 Draw a Burgers circuit around the dislo-
tantalum. X-ray diffraction shows that the cation shown in Figure 4-21. Clearly
lattice parameter is 0.29158 nm. Calculate indicate the Burgers vector that you find.
the density of the alloy. What type of dislocation is this? In what
4-12 Suppose we introduce one carbon atom for direction will the dislocation move due
every 100 iron atoms in an interstitial posi- to the applied shear stress t ? Reference
tion in BCC iron, giving a lattice parame- your answers to the coordinate axes
ter of 0.2867 nm. For this steel, find the shown.
density and the packing factor.
4-13 The density of BCC iron is 7.882 g> cm3,
and the lattice parameter is 0.2866 nm
when hydrogen atoms are introduced at
y
interstitial positions. Calculate
(a) the atomic fraction of hydrogen
atoms; and
(b) the number of unit cells on average x
that contain hydrogen atoms.

Section 4-2 Other Point Defects

4-14 Suppose one Schottky defect is present in
every tenth unit cell of MgO. MgO has the
sodium chloride crystal structure and a lat-
tice parameter of 0.396 nm. Calculate Figure 4-21 A schematic diagram of a dislocation for
Problem 4-18.
(a) the number of anion vacancies per
cm3; and
(b) the density of the ceramic.
4-15 ZnS has the zinc blende structure. If the 4-19 What are the Miller indices of the slip
density is 3.02 g> cm3 and the lattice directions:
parameter is 0.59583 nm, determine the (a) on the (111) plane in an FCC unit cell?
number of Schottky defects (b) on the (011) plane in a BCC unit cell?
(a) per unit cell; and 4-20 What are the Miller indices of the slip
(b) per cubic centimeter. planes in FCC unit cells that include the
4-16 Suppose we introduce the following point [101] slip direction?
defects. 4-21 What are the Miller indices of the {110}
(a) Mg2+ ions substitute for yttrium ions slip planes in BCC unit cells that include
in Y2O3; the [111] slip direction?

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 Problems 149

4-22 Calculate the length of the Burgers vector Section 4-4 Significance of Dislocations
in the following materials: 4-28 What is meant by the terms plastic and
(a) BCC niobium; elastic deformation?
(b) FCC silver; and 4-29 Why is the theoretical strength of metals
(c) diamond cubic silicon. much higher than that observed experi-
4-23 Determine the interplanar spacing and the mentally?
length of the Burgers vector for slip on the 4-30 How many grams of aluminum, with a dis-
expected slip systems in FCC aluminum. location density of 1010 cm> cm3, are
Repeat, assuming that the slip system is a required to give a total dislocation length
(110) plane and a [1q11] direction. What is that would stretch from New York City to
the ratio between the shear stresses Los Angeles (3000 miles)?
required for slip for the two systems?
4-31 The distance from Earth to the Moon is
Assume that k = 2 in Equation 4-2.
240,000 miles. If this were the total length
4-24 Determine the interplanar spacing and the of dislocation in a cubic centimeter of
length of the Burgers vector for slip on the material, what would be the dislocation
(110)/ [1q11] slip system in BCC tantalum. density? Compare your answer to typical
Repeat, assuming that the slip system is a dislocation densities for metals.
(111)/ [1q10 ] system. What is the ratio
4-32 Why would metals behave as brittle mate-
between the shear stresses required for slip
rials without dislocations?
for the two systems? Assume that k = 2 in
Equation 4-2. 4-33 Why is it that dislocations play an impor-
tant role in controlling the mechanical
4-25 The crystal shown in Figure 4-22 contains
properties of metallic materials, however,
two dislocations A and B. If a shear stress
they do not play a role in determining the
is applied to the crystal as shown, what will
mechanical properties of glasses?
happen to dislocations A and B?
4-34 Suppose you would like to introduce an
interstitial or large substitutional atom
into the crystal near a dislocation. Would
the atom fit more easily above or below the
dislocation line shown in Figure 4-7(c)?
Explain.

Figure 4-22 A schematic diagram of two dislocations

for Problem 4-25.
Figure 4-7(c) (Repeated
for Problem 4-34).

4-26 Can ceramic and polymeric materials con- 4-35 Compare the c> a ratios for the following
tain dislocations? HCP metals, determine the likely slip
4-27 Why is it that ceramic materials are brittle? processes in each, and estimate the approxi-

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150 CHAPTER 4 Imperfections in the Atomic and lonic Arrangements

mate critical resolved shear stress. Explain. (b) the strength of the titanium when the
(See data in Appendix A.) grain size is reduced to 0.2 * 10-6 m.
(a) zinc 4-43 A copper-zinc alloy has the following
(b) magnesium properties
(c) titanium
(d) zirconium
(e) rhenium Grain Diameter (mm) Strength (MPa)
(f) beryllium 0.015 170 MPa
0.025 158 MPa
Section 4-5 Schmid’s Law 0.035 151 MPa
4-36 A single crystal of an FCC metal is ori- 0.050 145 MPa
ented so that the [001] direction is parallel
to an applied stress of 5000 psi. Calculate
the resolved shear stress acting on the (111) Determine
slip plane in the [ q110], [0q11], and [10q1] slip (a) the constants in the Hall-Petch equa-
directions. Which slip system(s) will tion; and
become active first? (b) the grain size required to obtain a
4-37 A single crystal of a BCC metal is oriented strength of 200 MPa.
so that the [001] direction is parallel to the 4-44 For an ASTM grain size number of 8, cal-
applied stress. If the critical resolved shear culate the number of grains per square
stress required for slip is 12,000 psi, calcu- inch
late the magnitude of the applied stress (a) at a magnification of 100 and
required to cause slip to begin in the [1q11] (b) with no magnification.
direction on the (110), (011), and (10q1) slip 4-45 Determine the ASTM grain size number if
planes. 20 grains> square inch are observed at a
4-38 A single crystal of silver is oriented so that magnification of 400.
the (111) slip plane is perpendicular to an 4-46 Determine the ASTM grain size number if
applied stress of 50 MPa. List the slip sys- 25 grains> square inch are observed at a
tems composed of close-packed planes and magnification of 50.
directions that may be activated due to this 4-47 Determine the ASTM grain size number for
applied stress. the materials in Figure 4-17 and Figure 4-23.

Section 4-6 Influence of Crystal Structure

4-39 Why is it that single crystal and polycrys-
talline copper are both ductile, however,
only single crystal, but not polycrystalline,
zinc can exhibit considerable ductility?
4-40 Why is it that cross slip in BCC and FCC
metals is easier than in HCP metals? How
does this influence the ductility of BCC,
FCC, and HCP metals?
4-41 Arrange the following metals in the expected
order of increasing ductility: Cu, Ti, and Fe.

Section 4-7 Surface Defects

4-42 The strength of titanium is found to be
65,000 psi when the grain size is 17 * 10-6 m
and 82,000 psi when the grain size is Figure 4-17 (Repeated for Problem 4-47)
0.8 * 10-6 m. Determine Microstructure of palladium (* 100). (From ASM
(a) the constants in the Hall-Petch equa- Handbook, Vol. 9, Metallography and Microstructure
tion; and (1985), ASM International, Materials Park, OH 44073.)

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 Problems 151

Figure 4-23 Microstructure of iron. (From

ASM Handbook, Vol. 9, Metallography and
Microstructure (1985), ASM International, Figure 4-25 Microstructure of an alumina ceramic.
Materials Park, OH 44073.) (Courtesy of Dr. Richard McAfee and Dr. Ian Nettleship.)

4-48 Certain ceramics with special dielectric

4-50 The angle  of a tilt boundary is given by
properties are used in wireless communi-
sin (u/2) = b/(2D) (See Figure 4-18.)
cation systems. Barium magnesium
Verify the correctness of this equation.
tantalate (BMT) and barium zinc tanta-
late (BZT) are examples of such materi-
als. Determine the ASTM grain size
number for a barium magnesium tanta- Figure 4-18
late (BMT) ceramic microstructure b (Repeated for Problems 4-50,
shown in Figure 4-24. 4-51 and 4-52) The small angle
grain boundary is produced by
an array of dislocations, causing
an angular mismatch  between
the lattices on either side of the
boundary.
D

4-51 Calculate the angle  of a small-angle grain

boundary in FCC aluminum when the dislo-
Figure 4-24 Microstructure of a barium magnesium cations are 5000 Å apart. (See Figure 4-18
tantalate (BMT) ceramic. (Courtesy of H. Shivey.) and the equation in Problem 4-50.)
4-52 For BCC iron, calculate the average distance
between dislocations in a small-angle grain
4-49 Alumina is the most widely used ceramic boundary tilted 0.50°. (See Figure 4-18.)
material. Determine the ASTM grain size 4-53 Why is it that a single crystal of a ceramic
number for the polycrystalline alumina superconductor is capable of carrying
sample shown in Figure 4-25. much more current per unit area than a

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152 CHAPTER 4 Imperfections in the Atomic and lonic Arrangements

polycrystalline ceramic superconductor of for this application? (Hint: Think about

the same composition? coatings of materials that can provide elec-
tronic or ionic conductivity; the substrate
Section 4-8 Importance of Defects has to be transparent for this application.)
4-54 What makes plain carbon steel harder than
pure iron?
4-55 Why is jewelry made from gold or silver
alloyed with copper?
Computer Problems
4-56 Why do we prefer to use semiconductor 4-65 Temperature dependence of vacancy con-
crystals that contain as small a number of centrations. Write a computer program
dislocations as possible? that will provide a user with the equilib-
4-57 In structural applications (e.g., steel for rium concentration of vacancies in a
bridges and buildings or aluminum alloys metallic element as a function of tempera-
for aircraft), why do we use alloys rather ture. The user should specify a meaningful
than pure metals? and valid range of temperatures (e.g., 100
4-58 Do dislocations control the strength of a to 1200 K for copper). Assume that the
silicate glass? Explain. crystal structure originally specified is
4-59 What is meant by the term strain hardening? valid for this range of temperature. Ask the
4-60 To which mechanism of strengthening is user to input the activation energy for the
the Hall-Petch equation related? formation of one mole of vacancies (Qy).
The program then should ask the user to
4-61 Pure copper is strengthened by the addi-
input the density of the element and crys-
tion of a small concentration of Be. To
tal structure (FCC, BCC, etc.). You can
which mechanism of strengthening is this
use character variables to detect the type
related to?
of crystal structures (e.g., “F” or “f ” for
FCC, “B” or “b” for BCC, etc.). Be sure to
pay attention to the correct units for tem-
perature, density, etc. The program should
Design Problems ask the user if the temperature range that
has been provided is in °C, °F, or K and
4-62 The density of pure aluminum calculated convert the temperatures properly into K
from crystallographic data is expected to before any calculations are performed. The
be 2.69955 g> cm3. program should use this information to
(a) Design an aluminum alloy that has a establish the number of atoms per unit vol-
density of 2.6450 g> cm3. ume and provide an output for this value.
(b) Design an aluminum alloy that has a The program should calculate the equilib-
density of 2.7450 g> cm3. rium concentration of vacancies at differ-
4-63 You would like a metal plate with good ent temperatures. The first temperature
weldability. During the welding process, will be the minimum temperature specified
the metal next to the weld is heated almost and then temperatures should be increased
to the melting temperature and, depending by 100 K or another convenient increment.
on the welding parameters, may remain You can make use of any graphical soft-
hot for some period of time. Design an ware to plot the data showing the equilib-
alloy that will minimize the loss of strength rium concentration of vacancies as a
in this “heat-affected zone” during the function of temperature. Think about
welding process. what scales will be used to best display the
4-64 We need a material that is optically trans- results.
parent but electrically conductive. Such 4-66 Hall-Petch equation. Write a computer
materials are used for touch screen dis- program that will ask the user to enter two
plays. What kind of materials can be used sets of values of y and grain size (d) for a

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