Direct Current OR EMF: The magnitude of current does not change with

time, then it is called direct current.

DC can be generated by using DC generator battery or solar panels.
Rectifiers converts alternating current to direct current.
DC cannot be controlled using transformers.
Frequency of direct current is zero.
Graphical representation of DC:

Alternating quantity (current OR emf): An alternating quantity is one

whose magnitude changes continuously with time between zero and a
maximum value and whose direction reverses periodically.
Alternating current can be generated using ac generator.
Oscillators converts DC to AC.
AC can be controlled using Transformers.
AC has both positive and negative values
Examples of AC:
Condition required for current/ voltage to be Alternating:

• Amplitude is constant.

• Alternate half cycle is positive and half negative.

• The alternating current continuously varies in magnitude and periodically

reverses its direction

Equation for I and V:

Alternating current or voltage varying as sine function can be written as

I = I0 sin t or I = I0 cos t E = E0 sin t or I = E0 cos t

I = I0 sin (t + φ)
Instantaneous value of AC (i) : The current flow at any instant of time in AC
circuit.
Peak value (OR) amplitude of AC (i0): The maximum value of AC on either
direction.
Time Period (T) : The time taken by alternating current to complete one
cycle of variation. Units : Seconds
Frequency (f) : The number of cycle completed by an alternating current in
one second.
T= 1/f UNIT: (cycle/s) or (Hz)

Angular frequency (): A measurement of the rate of change of the

waveform per unit of time.
Unit : rad/ sec  = 2π f = 2π/T
If a coil completes N rotations in t time, then
Time period = t/N Frequency = t/N

Angular Frequency = 2 πN/t

In India: f = 50 Hz, supply voltage = 220 volt

In USA: f = 60 Hz, supply voltage = 110 volt
Some important points regarding AC:
If the frequency of AC is ‘f’ then:
The current flows f times in One Direction f times in opposite direction, in the
electric circuit
The current becomes zero 2f times in one second.
The direction of current changes 2f times in one second.
The current becomes maximum 2f times in one second.
The rate of change of A.C.:

Minimum, at that instant when they are near their peak values

Maximum, at that instant when they change their direction.

For a symmetrical AC/AEMF area under positive cycle is equal to area under
Negative cycle.
The value of AC/ AEMF reaches from zero to maximum, and vice versa in time
T/4.
Ohm’ s law Kirkhoff’s and Joules law are applicable for AC.
Skin Effect: The alternating current has more tendency to flow near the outer
surface of electric conductor, such as metal wire.
The effect becomes more and more apparent as the frequency increases. It
increases effective resistance of wire, Since the effective area cross section
decreases.
Advantages of AC over DC:
AC is cheaper than DC
It can be easily converted to DC
It can be controlled easily by using choke coil
It can be transferred over long distances at negligible power losses
It can be stepped up or step down with the help of transformer
Average Value of AC:
𝑡
∫𝑡 2 ⅈ ⅆ𝑡 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛ⅆ𝑒𝑟 ⅈ−𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ
𝑖𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑖 ̅ = 1
𝑡 = .
∫𝑡 2 ⅆ𝑡 𝑡ⅈ𝑚𝑒 ⅈ𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
1

Where i is the instantaneous value of current.

The average value of sinusoidal AC over one complete cycle[0-T] is zero.
𝑇
∫0 𝑖 ⅆ𝑡
𝑖𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑖 ̅ = 𝑇 =0
∫0 ⅆ𝑡
Proof:
The Average value for for +ve Half Cycle: [ 0-T/2] is 2i0 / π
Proof:
The Average value for -Negative Half Cycle: [ T/2 -T] is - 2i0 / π
From the graph of Sinusoidal AC:
The area under positive half cycle = +A/2, Time Interval = T/2
I avg ( + half cycle) = (A/2)/( T/2) = A/T = 2i0 / π
Area under negative half cycle = - A/2, Time Interval= T/2
I avg ( - half cycle) = (-A/2)/ (T/2) = -A/T = -2i0 / π
Area under full cycle = +A/2 – A/2 = 0 Time Interval = T
I avg (Full Cycle) = 0/T = 0

Important Formula:

Physical significance of Average Current:

 Charge flown by DC of value iavg = Charge flown by AC of value i

Note:
(a) Since average value of AC over complete cycle is zero therefore,
batteries cannot be charged by using ac.
(b) Electrolysis and electroplating cannot be done by using AC (Due to
large inertia ions cannot follow the frequency of AC)
The average potential difference on any element in ac circuit is zero.
The area under IT graph gives charge.
For a symmetrical ac the area under the positive cycle is equal to area
under negative cycle The total area under complete one cycle is 0
Root Mean Square (RMS) value of current:
𝑡
∫𝑡 𝑖 2 ⅆ𝑡
2

𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √𝑖̅2 ⇒ 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠

2
= 𝑖̅2 = 1
2 𝑡
∫𝑡 ⅆ𝑡
1

It is also called as effective value /Apparent value/virtual value

RMS value of sinusoidal ac for one cycle is equal to i0/√2
Proof:
Significance of RMS value

 Heat produced by DC = Heat produced by AC

The instrument based on heating effects of current works on both ac and dc
supply, and also provides same heating for same value of ac and dc. That’s
why a bulb grows equally in dc and ac of the same value.
Important Note:
If nothing is mentioned then values printed in a.c circuit on electrical
appliances, any given or unknown values, reading of AC meters are assumed
to be RMS
In our houses ac is supplied at 220 V, which is the r.m.s. value of voltage. It's
peak value is √2 × 220=311 V.
For alternating current in half cycle: i0 > irms > I avg
Measurement of AC:
Alternating current and voltages are measured by a.c. ammeter and a.c.
voltmeter respectively. Working of these instruments is based on heating
effect of current, hence they are also called hot wire instruments

Note: DC meter measures Average value, hence they cannot be used to

measure AC
Phase:
Physical quantity which represents both the instantaneous value and
direction of alternating quantity at any instant is called its phase.
It’s SI unit is radian. It is a dimensionless quantity

I = I0 sin (t ± )

Initial phase =  (it does not change with time)

Instantaneous phase = t ±  (it changes with time)

• Phase decides both value and sign.

Phase difference between voltage and current:

Voltage V = V0 sin ( t + 1)

Current I = I0 sin (t +2)

•Phase difference of I w.r.t. V Δ = 2 – 1

• Phase difference of V w.r.t. I Δ = 1 – 2

Lagging and leading Concept”

(a) V leads I or I lags V → It means, V reach maximum before I

Let if V = V0 sin t then I = I0 sin (t – )

and if V = V0 sin (t+ ) then I = I0 sin t

(b) V lags I or I leads V → It means V reach maximum after I

Let if V = V0 sin t then I = I0 sin (t + )

and if V = V0 sin (t –  ) then I = I0 sin t

Phasor and Phasor diagram: A diagram representing alternating current

and voltage (of same frequency) as vectors (phasor) with the phase angle
between them is called phasor diagram

Let V = V0 sin t and I = I0 sin (t +)

Properties:
The length of phasors represents the maximum value of quantity.
The phase angle is the angle made by phasor with horizontal line. They rotate
anticlockwise
The projection of a phasor on y-axis represents the instantaneous value of
quantity. OR Vertical component represents its instantaneous value.

Power in AC Power in ac-circuit

The rate of doing work or the amount of energy transferred by a circuit
per unit time is known as power in AC circuits. It is used to calculate
the total power required to supply a load.
Wattless current: That component of current in ac-circuit which is not
active.
Hence,
cos is the activity component of current
because it is in phase with applied voltage.
But sin is the component which is inactive,
called as wattless current because
it is in /2 phase with applied voltage.

In order to study the behaviour of A.C. circuits we classify them into two
categories:
(a) Simple circuits containing only one basic element i.e., resistor (R) or
inductor (L) or capacitor (C) only.
(b) Complicated circuit containing any two of the three circuit elements R, L
and C or all of the three elements.

Resistance(R):
Reactance (XL OR XC): the non-resistive opposition to the flow of A.C. in a circuit

Susueptence: The Reciprocal of reactance.

Impedance(Z): The total opposition offered by both resistive and non-

resistive elements to the AC flow.
Admittance: The reciprocal of impedance
AC circuit containing pure Resistor:

Let at any instant t, the current in the circuit is I.

Potential difference across the resistance = I R
Using Kirchhoff's circuital law:

E–IR=0

 E0 sin t = R

 I = (E0/R) sin t (i0 = (E0/R) = peak value

Alternating current developed in a pure resistance is also of the sinusoidal

nature.

The voltage and current are in the same phase. (φ = 0)

Phasor Diagram: Graphical Representation:

E = E0 sin t & i= i0 sin t

I0 = E0/R and Irms = Erms/R

Φ = 0 hence cos φ = cos 0 = 1

Average Power = pavg = irms Erms cos φ = irms Erms cos 0= irms Erms

There is power dissipation in the circuit

AC circuit containing pure Inductor:

Let the Inductor have zero ohmic resistance

ⅆⅈ
Emf induced across inductance = −𝐿 ⅆ𝑡

Negative sign indicates that induced emf acts in

opposite direction to that of applied emf

using Kirchhoff's law:

ⅆⅈ
𝐸 + (−𝐿 ⅆ𝑡) = 0
ⅆⅈ
𝐸 = 𝐿 ⅆ𝑡

In a pure inductive circuit current always lags behind the emf by  /2 or

alternating emf leads the a. c. by a phase angle of  /2

Graphical Representation: Phasor Diagram

Inductive reactance (XL): The opposition offered by inductor (non -resistive) to
the flow of AC

XL = L = 2 f L where f = frequency of A.C

Units : Ohm = henry / Sec = Volt/ampere

For d.c. circuit, f = 0

 XL = L = 2fL = 0

Hence, inductor offers no opposition to the flow of D.C.

whereas a resistive path to AC

For given L, Inductive reactance XL  f or XL  ω

For given frequency, Inductive reactance XL  L

As f → ∞, XL → ∞

Higher the frequency of A.C. higher is the inductive reactance offered by an

inductor in an A.C. circuit

I.e., Inductor Blocks high frequency AC

If an iron core is introduced into an air core inductor, then its inductance L
increases which leads to increase in XL.

Inductor is called low pass filter because it allows low frequency signal to pass.

Power factor = cos φ = 0 (φ = + /2)

Pavg = irms Erms cos φ = 0

The Average power consumed in the circuit is equal to zero.

AC circuit containing pure Capacitor:

The two plates of the capacitor become alternately positively

and negatively charged and the magnitude of the charge on
the plates of the capacitor varies sinusoidally with time. Also,
the electric field between the plates of the capacitor varies
sinusoidally with time.

Let at any instant t charge on the capacitor = q

instantaneous potential difference across the capacitor

E = q/C

The current always leads the e.m.f. by a phase angle of /2. The alternating emf
lags behinds the alternating current by a phase angle of /2.

Waveforms: Phasor Diagram:

Capacitive reactance XC: the opposition offered by capacitor (non – resistive) to
the flow of A.C.
𝟏 𝟏
𝑿𝒄 = =
𝝎𝒄 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪
Units: Ohm
𝟏
For DC current→ f = 0, 𝑿𝒄 = =∞
𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪

Capacitor blocks the flow of DC, but provides an easy path for AC
1 𝟏
For a given Capacitance C, XC 𝛼 ,XC 𝛼 f is frequency of AC
𝑓 𝝎

XC decreases as the frequency ‘f’ increases

1
For a given frequency f, XC 𝛼 𝐶

XC decreases as the Capacitance ‘C’ increases.

As f → ∞, XC → 0

Hence, capacitor gives low opposition to high frequency AC.

i.e., it gives easy path to high frequency AC
if a dielectric is inserted between the plates of capacitor its capacitance C
increases
1
𝑋𝑐 α hence Xc decreases
𝐶

Capacitor is called high pass filter because it allows high frequency signal to
pass.

Power factor = cos φ = cos (- /2) = 0 (φ = -  /2)

Pavg = irms Erms cos φ = 0

The Average power consumed in the circuit is equal to zero.

Instantaneous i0 sin (t – φ) i0 sin (t + φ) i0 sin (t ± φ)
Current(i)
𝑅 𝑅
Power factor 0
√𝑅2 +𝑋𝐿2 √𝑅2 +𝑋𝐶2

Cos φ

Tan φ XL/R XC/R 0

AC through series R-L Circuit: