Module 3

LEARNING AND PERCEPTION

Module Introduction
Learning is a continuous and never ending process. This is a lifelong process. To be
competitive, organizations must also take into account that people in the workplace have
their own behavior and perceptions on things based on what they have learned through
experiences, observations and others. Further, the management needs to understand the
principles and processes that govern an individual's learning. Effective managers acquire
talents who are willing to learn and grow. While relative to learning is the concept of
perception. Using our senses, we then process the ideas in our mind, create decisions and
behave accordingly.
This chapter primarily deals with the concepts of learning and perception. We aim to
lay down conditions anchored from various theories which could be of help to learning. We
shall also focus on perceptions of people and different perceptions can indirectly create a
firm's human capital. Problems encountered regarding learning and perceptions are also
important concepts to look at.

Topic Outcomes
After reading and understanding this module, students will be able to:
1. Examine how contingencies of reinforcement affect organizations;
2. Distinguish other conditions for learning; and
3. Compare and recognize different perceptions of people in organizations.

LEARNING: DEFINITION, NATURE AND THEORIES

Learning is part of everyone’s human life. Everyday, people get to learn as they go
along their journey. In organizational behavior, the formula for learning can be written as
Situation + Behavioral Response + Consequence of Response = Learning. When a child sees a
dog from afar (situation), out of so much fear he runs away as fast as he could (behavioral
response). The dog then ran after him, till the child was chased and got bitten (consequence of
response). Now, how can the child learn from this experience? Will the child run again every
time seeing a dog?

Exhibit 3.3
 Basic Elements of Learning (Hitt, Miller & Collela, 2012)

Definition and Nature of Learning

Learning can be defined as a process of changing one’s behavior as a result of a
previously encountered positive or negative situation. Learning is evident only if one
exhibits change of behavior. This change is relatively permanent and requires practice or
experience. Along the process of learning, one’s feelings can be too influencing. As some
individuals earn, their sense of achievement can boost their confidence. While for others, this
can be frustrating as changes also create new knowledge about things that they were not
used to. Some see these changes awkward to them. Generally, learning is powerful.
Most people think that learning comes from formal school, i.e. through teaching or
training, but learning can also occur from experiences and even observations. Learning in
the workplace occurs in day to day work demands that employees experience, e.g. creating
solutions to problems and dealings with the clients or customers.

Models of Learning: Theories and Conditions

The models of learning can be best understood through the development of modern
behavioral learning theory. This reflects the four stages of the development in research as
regards learning.

Exhibit 3.2
 The Development of Modern Behavioral Learning Theory
(Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license)

Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning was developed by a Russian classical behaviorist, Ivan Pavlov.
It was defined as a process in which S-R connection or stimulus-response connection shows
that when a “neutral stimulus” is paired with an “unconditioned stimulus”, it becomes a
conditioned stimulus resulting in a conditioned response. Pavlov conducted this experiment
with dogs. He tried presenting meat powder as an unconditioned stimulus to the dog which
eventually resulted in the dog's salivation (unconditioned response). Next, when he rang a
bell (neutral response), there was no salivation. Pavlov tried associating the ring of a bell
with a coming food. He rang the bell with the accompanying meat. After being repeated
several times, the dog salivated. The next time Pavlov tried ringing a bell, he did not present
any meat, but the dog still salivated. The ring of a bell (now, a conditioned stimulus),
classically conditioned the dog salivation (conditioned response).
However, this theory has also been criticized by other psychologists as it only explains
a limited part of the total learning of individuals. B.F. Skinner argued that classical
conditioning cannot explain a much larger and complex learning. Thus, it led to some more
theories relative to learning.

Thorndyke’s Law of Effect

The Law of effect by Edward Thorndike suggests that those responses in a given
situation accompanied or followed by satisfying effect (reinforcement) will have more
likelihood of recurrence, while those accompanied or followed by discomforting effect
(punishment) shall reduce the likelihood that the said response will be repeated. This
principle was noted by Thorndyke in his experiment with animals. He found out that
learning occurs through trial and error. When one response results in a reward, there is a
high chance of repeated behavior and otherwise.
Thorndyke’s law of effect has led to the development of operant conditioning.

Operant Conditioning
While classical conditioning is dependent on the development of associations between
situations (stimulus-response bond), learning that occurs from the consequences of behavior
is the idea of operant conditioning (response-stimulus bond). In operant conditioning, there
must be a positive response in a given situation to lead to a reward. Learning by consequence
was developed by B.F. Skinner. He has proven this with his experiment on animals whereby
animals have associated a positive or negative response to a reward or punishment
respectively.
When a given behavioral response results in a pleasant consequence, the tendency
that the said behavior will be repeated is high. For instance, an employee who gets rewarded
for a job well done or reports submitted ahead of time is more likely to repeat the behavior
in similar situations. This is the concept of positive reinforcement. It is a reinforcement
contingency whereby a behavior in a particular situation results in a positive consequence,
thus, strengthening the probability that the behavior will be performed again. In a similar
way, negative reinforcement is also effective in increasing the likelihood of repeated
behavior. Negative reinforcement is another reinforcement contingency in which a
behavior is followed by the prevention of a previously experienced negative consequence,
thus, strengthening the probability that the behavior will be repeated. Employees who report
to work early (behavior) removes the employer's habit of nagging all day long in the office
(withdrawal of the negative consequence). Ergo, employees try to go to work everyday to
minimize the unpleasant consequences.
On the other hand, punishment exists to stop the repeated behavior for similar
situations by introducing a negative consequence. An example of this is an employee who
gets a salary deduction everytime he comes to work late. The negative consequence, i.e.
salary deduction will lead to a lesser frequency of reporting to work late. Punishment,
however, must be utilized appropriately by the organizations in particular situations. As
punishment gives negative consequences to individuals, it creates various impressions to
those who experienced being punished and those who have seen the process of punishing
others. Since punishment seems to be challenging for some to implement, another
reinforcement contingency was developed. This is known as extinction. It refers to the
procedure whereby a behavior is followed by the prevention of a previously experienced
pleasant consequence, thus, reducing the probability that the undesirable behavior will be
done again. For example, employees are used to sending emails to the employer anytime they
have personal issues and concerns, not considering whether this is within office hours, early
in the morning or late at night. This has been habitual to most of the employees since the
employer regularly sends responses. Eventually, it becomes a bit cumbersome to the
employer. To cease this behavior portrayed by the employees, it began to be no longer
reinforced. The employer stopped responding to emails, until the employees themselves
withdrew the said behavior.
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule is used to control the frequency of
reinforcement for the desired behavior. Generally, there are two types of reinforcement
schedule. Continuous reinforcement is a schedule in which the reward immediately follows
a given behavior. This is the simplest type as it is very easy to understand. After the
performance of each desired behavior, the reward is given. This is an easy and effective tool
when teaching a new behavior. On the other hand, intermittent reinforcement is a
schedule in which the reward does not immediately follow after each behavior, but only
after a certain ratio or interval of responses. Shown in Exhibit 3.3 are the four intermittent
schedules.
Type of Nature of Reinforcement Example
Intermittent
Schedule

1. Fixed Interval Behavior is rewarded based on a Daily pay, Weekly pay,

Schedule fixed amount of time Periodical examinations of
students

2. Variable Reinforcement is made available Random monthly observation

interval based on unpredictable time and performance monitoring as
 Schedule part of employee recognition
program, unannounced quizzes
in class

3. Fixed ratio Reward is based from the set or Piece-rate pay

schedule fixed number of times that a
behavior is done

4. Variable ratio Reward is based on the Lottery, gambling activities,

performance of the desired rewards given unpredictably,
behavior an unpredictable often applicable to business
number of times organization particularly in
giving sales bonuses
Exhibit 3.3
Types of Intermittent Schedule

Each of the reinforcement schedules is advantageous. Ratio schedules are more on

response-contingent while interval schedules are time-contingent. This means that when
rewards are given based on time (interval : hourly, monthly) and independent of the
employee behavior, it would often result in a weakened desired behavior. An employee who
is compensated based on the number of outputs he/she produces is more likely to perform
better.

Social Learning Theory

Social Learning Theory, developed by Psychologist Albert Bandura, suggests that
individuals learns through observations as they interact with others. This theory argues that
the learning process does not require one to experience a given situation for them to learn
and change his behavior. While other psychologists explain that the concept of learning from
consequences, this theory focuses on learning from others which results to imitated
behaviors. Further, social learning theory acknowledges cognitive process and refuses to
agree on the idea that higher mental process is irrelevant in learning process.

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
Knowledge is often defined as “justified true belief” based from the old traditions in
the philosophy of knowledge. According to Plato, “Knowledge is the set of beliefs that are
true and that we are justified in believing.”
Peter Drucker, management guru, on the other hand, defined knowledge as
“information in action, information focused in results.” The way knowledge is important in
everyday usage, knowledge is vital in every organization. Gained knowledge provides value
in the businesses. In the context of organizational behavior, knowledge needs to be managed
properly since it is acquired and transmitted by individuals and groups in the organization.
First, knowledge is classified into three : explicit, tacit and implicit. Explicit
knowledge includes words and statements which can be documented. Thus, this type of
knowledge is easy to share with others. Examples are company policies and procedures,
written company reports, and researches. Knowledge that is difficult to articulate and be
presented in tangible or written form is known as tacit knowledge. It is also referred to as
knowledge of experience or the “know-how”. This tends to become subjective and personal.
On the other hand, implicit knowledge is application or practice of explicit knowledge. Skills
that can be transferred from one job to another are considered implicit knowledge.
Knowledge is anywhere in the organization. Management must understand that knowledge
can be found in individuals and groups, systems and structures. Hence, they need to ensure
that knowledge is retained and utilized in the organization.
Knowledge management as defined by Tom Davenport is “the process of capturing,
distributing, and effectively using knowledge.” It involves processes, strategies and systems
of knowledge acquisition, creation, refinement, storage, transfer, sharing and utilization.
Through knowledge management, organization’s knowledge assets are improved and made
available for greater productivity and organizational performance. Moreover, knowledge
management is an organizational activity wherein the management is tasked to ensure
employee participation in achieving the goals and purpose of knowledge management.
Ikujiro Nonaka, one of the early founders of the concept of knowledge management explains
that knowledge is “one sure source of the lasting competitive advantage” of the organization.
Human resources as organization’s assets are likewise associated with the term
knowledge management. It encompasses the individuals’ knowledge acquired and made
available for the organization. Hence, it is crucial for the management to create a culture
where learning and knowledge sharing is a priority of its people.

ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING: TYPES AND PRINCIPLES

Organizational learning is viewed as one of the goals of knowledge management.
Researches have shown that a relationship between the two concepts exists. Organizational
Learning is a process whereby knowledge is created, utilized and transferred within the
organization. Ergo, an organization that is able to create, use, share knowledge and make
necessary changes to arrive at a new knowledge is coined as a learning organization.

Types of Organizational Learning

James March, an American sociologist, proposed two principal types of organizational
learning strategies that management may consider. (1) Exploration of new possibilities
involves searching, experimenting, innovating and developing new routines and behaviors
to increase effectiveness. Under this type of organizational learning, organization members
invest resources looking and taking risks to try new alternative ways and practices; although
returns are uncertain, it’s benefits are long-term in nature. (2) Exploitation of old certainties,
on the other hand, focuses on the existing routines and procedures for efficiency and
productivity. Returns are more predictable since exploitation looks at the existing
competencies, and simply, concentrates on refining and improving them. Thus, it involves
total quality management. Exploration and exploitation are equally important in the
organization, however the management is responsible in keeping a balance between the two
organizational learning strategies.

Principles of the Learning Organization

Peter Senge, in his book “The Fifth Discipline” developed the five principles of the
learning organization.
 Systems Thinking. This principle stresses on looking at a big picture of the
organization as a whole. It focuses on a larger system where individuals and groups interact,
thus, affecting one another. The management must put emphasis on understanding each
action and consequences as it observes the processes in the entire system. This results in
more appropriate solutions and sound decisions. Senge further argues that outside forces,
e.g. economy, environment, etc., should be considered in arriving at a long term systemic
solution.
Personal Mastery. Individuals of high level of mastery, i.e. with clear vision and
goals, and aware of their capabilities, tend to become creative in the workplace. Senge
suggests that since there is a need for the individuals to develop their personal mastery,
management must take part in empowering them to create and explore what they can and
what they want.
Mental Models. Senge defined mental models as the process of challenging one’s
personal assumptions about the others. In the process of developing personal mastery, it goes
hand in hand with organizations using mental models to provide individuals the opportunity
to assume more responsibility in decision making. Indeed, those organizations who are able
to adapt to new models become successful organizations.
Building a shared vision. Senge believes that paying attention to a well established
and clear vision is part of creating a learning organization. This principle emphasizes that
building a shared vision provides a guide to managing employee behaviors. When personal
values jibe with the organizational vision, it fosters a greater possibility of goal achievement.
Team Learning. This principle values the importance of groups in the learning
process. It involves collective and shared learning as groups interact and eventually learn
from one another. Team learning also depends on mental models and personal mastery.

All these principles are interrelated although these are a bit challenging for the
organizations. Implementation of the five principles results in a continuous learning process
and a competitive business organization.

LEARNING STYLES
Learning styles vary from one person to another. Each individual has his preference
on the methods, approaches and ways of learning.

David Kolb’s Model of Learning Style

One of the most known theories on learning styles was developed by Davis Kolb. He
suggests that learning is a cycle having four stages. He likewise proposes four independent
learning styles.

Kolb’s Learning Cycle

The four stages include:
1. Concrete Experience. This is the first stage in which it involves having a new
experience is introduced or encountered by the individual. It could also be a
reinterpretation of an existing experience.
2. Reflective Observation. This stage is the beginning of one’s reflection of his
experience to have a greater understanding.
 3. Abstract Conceptualization. After reviewing the encountered experience, the
individual concludes and eventually comes up with a new idea or concept.
This stage is known as abstract conceptualization.
4. Active Experimentation. This stage involves the application or practice of the
new concept. The outcomes are then observed and tested.

Generally, learning according to Kolb involves experiencing, reflecting,

conceptualizing and testing.

Kolb’s Learning Styles

Based on the four stages of learning, Kolb arrived with the four independent learning
styles.

Active Experimentation Reflective Observation

(Doing) (Watching)

Concrete Experience Accommodating Diverging

(Feeling) (CE/AE) (CE/RO)

Abstract Conceptualization Converging Assimilating

(Thinking) (AC/AE) (AC/RO)
Exhibit 3.4
Matrix of Kolb’s Learning Styles

1. Accommodating (Feeling and Doing). This learning style corresponds to the first and
fourth stages of learning. Individuals who prefer this learning style are “hands-on”
Accommodating learners rely on gut-feel and are open to new experiences. Their
actions are based mostly on intuition rather than logic.
2. Diverging (Feeling and Watching). Diverging learners prefer concrete experiences
and are able to reflect on various perspectives, as based on the first two stages of
learning. Individuals using this learning style are good at imagination and generation
of new ideas. They are good at brainstorming and are generally artistic.
3. Converging (Thinking and Doing). This learning style is based from the third and
fourth stages of learning. It enables individuals specialist and technical abilities.
People with this learning style best perform in solving problems and finding solutions
to practical issues. They prefer experimenting, simulating and applying ideas to
practical, “hands-on solutions. Their actions focus on technical tasks and not so much
with interpersonal aspects.
4. Assimilating (Thinking and Watching). This corresponds to the second and third
stages of learning. People with assimilating learning styles are logical. To arrive with
ideas, they follow logic in processing information. Similar to convergence, they also
do not focus on people and interpersonal aspects.However, they require a clearer and
logical explanation than a practical opportunity. They are primarily focusing on ideas
and concepts. They prefer to learn through lectures, reading and analyzing. This
 learning style is significant to the field of science.

The Seven Learning Styles

The Memletic Learning Styles Inventory by Sean Whiteley includes seven learning
styles and thus more popularly known as The Seven Learning Styles. This was based on the
multiple intelligence theory of Howard Gardner.

Exhibit 3.5
The Seven Learning Styles
Learning Style Nature of Learning Skills Learned

1. Visual (Spatial) Individuals prefer to learn Drawing, painting,

through images and are good at designing, sense of
imagining different physical direction
configuration.

2. Aural Individuals prefer to learn Singing, playing musical

(Auditory/Musical through sounds and tend to think instruments,
) in rhythms and patterns. understanding music

3. Verbal (Linguistic) Individuals prefer to learn Speaking, explaining,

through words and language. writing, persuading,
listening and storytelling

4. Physical Individuals prefer to learn Dancing, acting, physical

(Kinaesthetics) through sense of touch, balance coordination, using body
and coordination, and are good at language, playing sports
controlling their bodies.

5. Logical Individuals prefer to learn Problem solving, drawing

(Mathematical) through the use of reasoning and logical conclusions, doing
logic. mathematical
calculations,
experimenting

6. Social Individuals prefer to learn Good public relations,

(Interpersonal) through sensing and relating with listening, conflict
others, and seeing things in resolution, empathy,
multiple perspectives. communication

7. Solitary Individuals prefer to learn Self analysis and

(Intrapersonal) through self reflection. awareness, evaluating
one’s thoughts
Honey and Mumford Learning Styles

Inspired by Kolb’s Learning Styles, Peter Honey and Alan Mumford developed Honey
and Mumford Learning Styles. This learning style is a simplified model of Kolb’s Learning
Styles. The four learning styles are:

1. Activists. These learners prefer new challenges and experiences. They enjoy learning
by doing. They are good at brainstorming, role playing and competitions. Activists are
flexible and open-minded.
2. Reflectors. These individuals learn by watching others. They are keen observers and
gather enough information before arriving into conclusions. Reflectors prefer
coaching sessions, observations, self analysis and paired discussions.
3. Theorists. These are logical individuals and have the tendency of being perfectionists.
They value rationality and objectivity and they enjoy assimilating disparate facts into
coherent theories. They prefer models, theories, statistics, storytelling, quotes and
systems thinking.
4. Pragmatists. These learners prefer to try new experiments and apply the learning
into practice as they want to see things put in actions and know if they work in the
real world. Pragmatists act quickly on ideas, however, they easily get bored in long-
term discussions. Case studies and practical problem solving are suited to them.

Exhibit 3.6
Honey and Mumford Learning Styles

BASIC CONCEPTS OF PERCEPTION

 People may like or dislike others whom they met the first time because they may be
perceived of having the same or different characteristics respectively. Perhaps, perceptions
of individuals really create the first impressions. And these perceptions often result in
judgements and behaviors. While humans think and see others in different perspectives, it is
important to study and analyze perceptual processes. Thus, when we solely use our senses
without looking at the full range of data, there comes inaccuracy in our perceptions about
and towards other people.
Perception refers to the process by which an individual senses the environment,
interprets and transforms the inputs to meaningful information for appropriate behavioral
response. This is how people interpret sensory data. Perceptual process includes receiving,
selecting, organizing and interpreting the inputs through a person's senses. In organizational
behavior, there is really a need to understand the role of perception. The three components
of perception includes (1) the perceiver or the person who interprets the inputs from his/her
senses, (2) the target, anyone or anything that a person focuses on and (3) the situation
wherein the perception is taking place.

Selective Attention
With the voluminous information that goes through our senses, we get bombarded
with lots of thoughts and stimuli, and emotions as well. Hence, we fail to look at much
important information. Theorists have explained that individuals are actually capable of
screening and selecting objects that vie attention. This is known as perceptual selectivity or
selective attention.
Selective attention is the process in which individuals select and direct attention to
specific objects in the environment. Thus, it leads to what a person opt to learn and
remember. A person who watches a demonstration does not mind the noise of people
chatting around nor the sound of the vehicles passing by. This process then allows
individuals to direct and focus their attention to achieve target learning. It also suggests that
the limited capacity of people to focus their attention can be conceptualized as a bottleneck
that restricts the flow of information. Ergo, “the narrower the bottleneck, the lower the rate
of flow of information.”

Factors Affecting Perception

The way an individual perceives is affected by several factors. Even if there is one and
the same stimulus, people may perceive it differently.
1. Sensory Limits or Thresholds. Individuals vary on the limits of their sensing
capabilities. For some, watching a TV show on a bigger screen with loud sounds seems
to be enjoyable and exciting, while for others it is irritating and unpleasant. Further, a
person’s readiness to sense input can also affect his perception. When people expect
and prepare for a stimulus, attention and focus is given.
2. Psychological Factors. These factors include personality, motivation, needs and
expectations, interests and others. For example, when one is motivated to work for
him to receive the needed bonus, his focus will be on the tasks among any other
things around him in the workplace.
3. Perceptual Learning. This refers to the process by which one’s ability to sense and
respond to stimuli is enhanced through experience. Example of perceptual learning is
 a full-fledged teacher in classroom performing than a common teacher who was not
exposed to training and teaching pedagogy. Another is a person who is able to
distinguish differences between shades of color blue.
4. Cultural Differences. Culture and diversity also affect individuals’ perception. This
becomes a problem when stereotyping occurs.

PERCEPTUAL DISTORTION AND ERRORS

Social perception is the process through which sensory data are interpreted to create
impression towards other people. When we misjudge and conclude wrongfully, they are
likely to persist.Problems and biases occur because selectivity exists in the perceptual
process. There is a need to address these perceptual distortions and errors to reduce
inaccurate perception and judgements.
1. Attribution Theory. Attributions are explanations of what have caused events and
behaviors. Attribution theory is concerned on how people explain the causes of
behaviors. People's attributions can be internal or external. Internal or dispositional
attribution relates people’s behavior to the characteristics and traits of an individual.
While external or situational attribution relates the causes of behavior to external
forces and environment. Attributional biases include (1) Fundamental Attribution
Error - perception problem wherein the person tends to over attribute the behavior of
others to internal causes rather than external and (2) Self-serving bias - a perceptual
error in which the individual attributes success to internal factors but blame others
for failures.
2. Selective Perception. Since people selectively interpret what they see, hear or feel,
especially from the basis of what they need or have interest in, they tend to ignore
other viewpoints, consciously and unconsciously.
3. Halo Effect. Thorndike has first used the term “halo effect”. It is a perception problem
in which people are assessed based solely from one positive or negative trait or
characteristic they possess. This leads to a general impression of individuals while
their specific characteristics are missed and overlooked. This cognitive bias tends to
create inaccurate perceptions. Often, physical attributes of a person become part of
the halo effect. When one is seemingly of good posture, nice and well-dressed, people
perceive him/her as a smart person. In contrast (usually known as “horn effect”), a
student who comes to school late is perceived by his teacher as a lazy poor performer
in class. This is a big problem when the interviewer during the selection process gets
impressed by a single trait and the applicant gets hired without being evaluated for
his specific qualifications.
4. Contrast Effects. It is a perceptual error in which the person’s perceptions of others
affect his perception of an individual that he is trying to assess. The evaluation then is
influenced by the comparison with persons who were previously encountered. For
instance, a manager is rating his employee based on the performance of the recently
evaluated employee. Instead of looking at the standard criteria, the manager tends to
compare the performance of the employee with the other. So if one is rated A+, and
the following employee is seemingly on the average, he will be graded very low since
the previous is outstanding.
5. Projection. This is a common perceptual error in which people assume that their own
 characteristics are shared by others. Projecting people think and attribute others’
values and beliefs to themselves. For example, a student who studies very well thinks
that others do the same way and that he must double his effort to be competitive.
While a student who gets low scores in examinations tends to think that those who
score high are wasting their time and efforts because at the end of the day, the
bottomline is they will both graduate from the same degree. Projecting people often
overestimate or underestimate the projection itself. It follows the saying, “to an
honest man, everybody is honest.” This can be addressed through empathy and self
awareness.
6. Stereotyping. As discussed earlier, stereotyping is a set of generalized and inaccurate
beliefs about the characteristics of a certain group. It is already understood that this is
one of the roadblocks to diversity. Stereotyping occurs when individuals meet a
person belonging to a particular group and perceive that this person has the same and
general characteristics attributed to the group. Stereotypes then miss the unique
characteristics of a person leading to inaccurate perception.
7. Self-fulfilling Prophecy. It is also known as “phygmalion effect”, a psychological
phenomenon in which high expectations results in greater performance. Self-fulfilling
prophecy predicts that something will come true because the perceiver expects and
believes it to come true. The failures of bank during the Great Depression is a classic
example of this perceptual error.

End of Chapter Test

Case Study
CASE: A BAD DAY IN BOONETOWN
Source : Retrieved from file:///HBO%20syllabus:module%20making/Chapter4-Perception.pdf, August 5, 2020.
Tom, plant manager of the began, but knew that Carl had people are all the same. They
Boonetown facility, sat with burst into his office before hate to touch a thing once a
his elbows on his desk, he'd finished his first cup of schedule is set." Tom tried to
holding his head. "What a day! coffee. "Those guys in calm him down, but Carl went
I've never seen it like this," he Production wouldn't give you on. "I even tried to talk to
said aloud, though he was the right time of day!" said Cranston. I figured maybe a
alone in his office. He was Carl, sales manager. "All I new guy would help me out.
relieved that in a few minutes wanted was to get this big But I should have known
he could get into his car and order scheduled, and you'd better. Last week at the
head for the golf course. He think I was asking for the welcoming party for him, I
couldn't remember when it all moon. Those production sensed he wasn't any
different. I guess I was right. I schedules and costs. They all commitments they make!"
shouldn't have wasted my think we can stop a run and Tom did what he could to
time on him." Tom told Carl set up for a new order in five soothe bad feeling, and
he'd look into the matter, minutes. I think they're promised Peter and Bonnie
though he knew this wasn't conditioned to bark three he'd have a meeting in a day
anything new. He also knew times every time a customer or two to discuss these issues.
he needed to get Production calls. I'll bet half of them let He was particularly upset with
and Sales to cooperate more. their kids tell them what to Bonnie's attitude. On more
After answering a few phone do!" Peter had his own ideas than one occasion she had
calls, Tom strolled out to the as well. He stood up and paced gotten very critical toward
Production area to see what the floor, yet in a controlled other people. He wondered
he could find out. He didn't voice said, "Sales needs some whether she had what it took
even have to let on the Carl appreciation for the total to do the job. Much of her
had come to see him. They company. I can't figure out performance was good, he
were hot under the collar in why they constantly tie us up admitted. She certainly put in
Production, too. Peter in knots. They make enough hours trying to
Kenilworth, production impossible promises to improve and enforce the
manager, and Bonnie Baines, customers. They should know production schedule. How
chief scheduler, were better. Where did they get many perceptual and
discussing Carl's visit and their training? Don't they judgmental tendencies are
turned to Tom for counsel. value what our situation is? exhibited by Tom, Carl, Peter,
Bonnie began: "I'm not sure I'm pretty sure no one in this and Bonnie?
how concerned those sales company is forcing them to
people are for production make the delivery

Chapter Review
I. Multiple Choice. Select the letter that best describes what is being referred to in the
following statements.
1. At 194gotten Antique Shop, hardworking individuals are given incentives for every
fifth piece of antique items sold per day to increase the rate of desirable behaviour
during store hours. What is being exhibited by the given statement?
A. positive reinforcement
B. punishment
C. extinction
D. negative reinforcement
2. In a coffee house like ESPRESSO-yourself Cafe, employees who frequently return to
work a few minutes late from lunch get reprimands and one-day suspension
consequently. ___________ is being exhibited.
A. positive reinforcement
B. punishment
C. extinction
D. negative reinforcement
3. Which of the following is not a problem in person perception?
A. Implicit Theories
B. Halo Effect
C. Stereotyping
D. NOTA
 4. n RIGHT-ur-idea Co., a publishing company, working harder and smarter removes the
frown from a manager’s face, thus the employees regularly submits the reports on
time to remove such negative consequence.
A. Positive Reinforcement
B. Negative Reinforcement
C. Punishment
D. NOTA
5. A schedule of reinforcement whereby the rewards immediately follows after each
behavior is known as ______________ reinforcement.
A. Continuous
B. Intermittent
C. Immediate
D. NOTA

II. Essay. Answer the following concisely based from the previous discussion.
1. Do reinforcement contingencies affect the employee performance? What are the
effects of these contingencies to the organization?
2. Explain the four stages of development of modern behavioral learning theory. Focus
on how each condition differs from the other.
3. Differentiate the two judgment errors according to attribution theory. Cite common
examples in the workplace.

References
Books
George, J. M., & Jones, G. R. (2012). Understanding and Managing Organizational
Behavior (6th ed.). Pearson Education Inc.

Hitt, M. A., Miller, C. C., Colella, A., & Triana, M. (2017). Organizational Behavior (5th
ed.). Wiley Global Education

Luthans, F. (2010). Organizational Behavior (12th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.

Mullins, L. J. (2010). Management and Organisational Behaviour (9th ed.). Pearson

Higher Ed.

Electronic Sources
Retrieved August 02, 2020, from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/theory-
knowledge/201312/what-is-knowledge-brief-primer

Retrieved August 02, 2020, from

https://medium.com/@stangarfield/knowledge-knowledge-management-defined-
5688407d9ac5 Stan Garfield
Retrieved August 02, 2020, from
https://hbr.org/1993/07/building-a-learning-organization W.R. King (ed.), Knowledge
Management and Organizational Learning, 3 Annals of Information Systems 4, DOI
10.1007/978-1-4419-0011-1_1, © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2009

Retrieved August 04, 2020, from https://hrdailyadvisor.blr.com/2019/05/30/what-is-

organizational-knowledge-and-where-can-i-find-it/https://www.valamis.com/hub/
organizational-learning

Retrieved August 06, 2020, from https://www.eln.io/blog/honey-and-mumford-learning-styles

Retrieved August 06, 2020, from https://www.simplypsychology.org/learning-kolb.html

Retrieved August 06, 2020, from http://www.emtrain.eu/learning-styles/