Allied Physics - I (17upha01)

SYLLABUS
Internal Marks: 25 Marks External Marks : 75 Marks
UNIT I PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Elasticity–Bending of beams – Expression for bending moment – Expression for Young’s
modulus (uniform and non–uniform bending) – experimental determination of Young’s modulus using
pin and microscope method (uniform and non–uniform bending) –Torsion of a body – expression for
couple per unit twist – determination of rigidity modulus of a wire by torsional pendulum– Static torsion
method with scale and telescope – drop weight method of determining surface tension and interfacial
surface tension.
UNIT II SOUND
Laws of transverse vibrations of strings–Sonometer – verification of laws of transverse
vibrations of strings–determination of AC frequency.
ULTRASONICS:
Introduction to ultrasonics – piezo electric effect–production by piezo electric method –
properties – applications– Acoustics: Acoustics of buildings – reverberation time – derivation of
Sabine's formula – determination of absorption coefficient.
UNIT III HEAT
Vander Waal’s equation of state–critical constants–determination of critical constants–Joule–
Kelvin effect–Porous plug experiment–theory of porous plug experiment–temperature inversion–
Liquefaction of gases– liquefaction of Hydrogen–Thermal conductivity–coefficient of thermal
conductivity– determination of coefficient of thermal conductivity of bad conductor by Lee’s disc
method.
UNIT IV GRAVITATION
Newton’s law of gravitation – inertial mass– gravitational mass–Kepler’s laws of planetary
motion–deduction of newton’s law of gravitation from Kepler’slaws–determination of G by Boy’s
experiment–variation of g with altitude– variation of g with depth.
UNIT V ELECTRICITY
Electric circuit–open circuit–closed circuit–switches–types of switches– fuses–types of fuses–
rewirable type fuse–cartridge fuse–circuit breaker–merits of circuit breaker – Carey foster’s bridge–
theory – measurement of resistance– potentiometer–principle and theory determination of internal
resistance of a cell–calibration of low range voltmeter.
Books for Study and Reference:
1. R. Murugeshan, Allied Physics I & II, S. Chand & Co, New Delhi (2006).
2. D.S. Mathur, Elements of properties of matter, S.Chand & Company Ltd., New
Delhi (2010).
3. R. Murugeshan, Properties of matter and acoustics, S. Chand & Co, New Delhi (2012).
4. Brijlal & Dr.N.Subramanyam and P.S. Hemne, Heat and Thermodynamics, S. Chand & Co, New
Delhi , (2004).
5. R. Murugesan, Electricity, S. Chand & Co, New Delhi (2010).
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS 1
UNIT I
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Elasticity:
A body can be deformed (i.e., changed in shape or size) by the suitable
application of external forces on it. A body is said to be perfectly elastic, if it
regains its original shape or size, when the applied forces are removed. This
property of a body to regain its original state or condition on removal of the applied
forces is called elasticity.
A body which does not tend to regain its original shape or size, even when the
applied forces are removed, is called a perfectly plastic body. No body, in nature,
is either perfectly elastic or perfectly plastic. Quartz fibre is the nearest approach
to a perfectly elastic body.
When an external force is applied on body, there will be relative displacement
of the particles and due to the property of elasticity, the particles tend to regain
their original positions. Stress is defined as the restoring force per unit area. If a
force F is applied normally to the area of cross-section A of a wire, then stress =
F/A. Its dimensions are ML-1 T-2.
Bending of beams:
Beam:
A beam is defined as a rod or bar of uniform cross-section (circular or
rectangular) whose length is very much greater than its thickness.
It can be bent by applying an external couple. Inner layers below the
central layers of the bent beam along its length are subjected to a compression
strain while the layers above it are elongated. The length of the middle layer
along the length of the beam does not change. This is called the neutral
surface.
As the beam is bent by the external couple, elastic forces come into play
and oppose this. In the bent position the couple due to elastic forces balance the
external couple and the moment of this couple is called the beading moment.
EXPRESSION FOR BENDING MOMENT
Consider a portion of the beam to be bent into a circular arc, as shown in Fig. 4.2. ef
is the neutral axis. Let R be the radius of curvature of the neutral axis and  the
angle subtended by it at its centre of curvature C.
Filaments above ef are elongated while filaments below ef are compressed. The
filament ef remains unchanged in length.
Let ab be a filament at a distance z from the neutral axis. The length of this
filament ab before bending is equal to that of the corresponding filament on the
neutral axis ab.
We have, original length = ab = R
Fig 1.1.
Its extended length = ab = (R+z) 
Increase in its length = ab -ab = (R+z)  - R = z. .
increase in length z. z
 Linear strain = = =
original length R. R
If E is the Young’s modulus of the material,
E = Stress / Linear strain
ie., Stress = E X Linear strain = E(z/R)
If A is the area of cross-section of the filament,
E.z
the tensile force on the area A = stress X area =  A.
R
Moment of this force about the neutral axis ef
E.z E
=  A.z =  A.z 2 .
R R
The sum of the moments of  E
 =   A.z .
2
forces acting on all the filaments  R

E
=
R
  A.z 2
  A.z 2
is called the geometrical moment of inertia of the cross-section of the beam
about an axis through its centre perpendicular to the plane of bending. It is written
as equal to Ak2. i.e.,   A.z 2
= Ak2. (A = Area of cross-section and k = radius of
gyration).
But the sum of moments of forces acting on all the filaments is the internal
bending moment which comes into play due to elasticity.
Thus, bending moment of a beam = E Ak2 / R.
Notes : (i) For a rectangular beam of breadth b, and depth (thickness) d, A =
bd and k2 = d2 / 12.
 Ak2 = bd3 / 12.
(ii) For a beam of circular cross-section of radius r, A = r2 and k2= r2 / 4.
 Ak2 = r4 / 4.
(iii) E Ak2 is called the flexural rigidity of the beam.
Expression for Young’s modulus (uniform and non–uniform bending):
(1) Young’s modulus - Non-uniform Bending:
The given beam is symmetrically supported on two knife-edges (Fig. 1.2). A
weight-hanger is suspended by means of a loop of thread from the point C exactly
midway between the knife-edges. A pin is fixed vertically at C by some wax.
A traveling microscope is focused on the tip of the pin such that the horizontal
cross-wire coincides with the tip of the pin. The reading in the vertical traverse scale
of microscope is noted.
Weights are added in equal steps of m kg and the corresponding readings are
noted. Similarly, readings are noted while unloading. The results are tabulated as
follows: -
Fig. 1.2
The mean depression y is found for a load of M kg. The length of the beam (l)
between the knife-edges is measured.
Load Readings of the scale as seen in the telescope Depression

in kg Load Load Mean in reading
increasing decreasing for M kg
The breadth b and the thickness d of the beam are measured with a vernier
calipers and screw gauge respectively.
Wl 3 Wl 3
Then, y= orE =
48 EAk 2 48 Ak 2 y
Mgl 3
( W = Mg and A k = bd /12)
2 3
or E=
48 X (bd 3 /12) Xy
Mgl 3
 E=
4bd 3 y
Example 1: In an experiment a rod of diameter 0.0126 m was supported on two
knife-edges, placed 0.7 metre apart. On applying a load of 0.9 kg exactly midway
between the knife-edges, the depression on the middle point was observed to be
0.00025 m. Calculate the Young’s modulus of the substance.
Mgl 3 (0.9)(9.8)(0.7)3
E= =
12 y r 4 12(0.00025) (0.0063) 4
 E = 2.039 X 1011 Nm −2
2. Young’s modulus - Uniform bending:

The given beam is supported symmetrically on two knife-edges A and B (Fig.
1.3). Two equal weight-hangers are suspended, so that their distances from the knife-
edges are equal.
The elevations of the centre of the beam may be measured accurately by using
a single optic level (L). The front leg of the single optic lever rests on the centre of the
loaded beam and the hind legs are supported on a separate stand. A vertical scale
(S) and telescope (T) are arranged in front of the mirror. The telescope is focused on
the mirror and adjusted so that the reflected image of the scale in the mirror is seen
through the telescope.
The load on each hanger is increased in equal steps of m kg and the
corresponding readings on the scale are noted. Similarly, readings are noted while
unloading. The results are tabulated as follows:
Fig. 1.3
Load in Readings of the scale as seen in the Shift in reading for

kg telescope M kg
Load Load Mean
increasing decreasing
The shift in scale reading for M kg is found from the table. Let it be S. If
D = The distance between the scale and the mirror,
x = the distance between the front leg and the plane containing the two hind
legs of the optic lever,
then y = Sx / 2D.
The length of the beam l between the knife-edges, and a, the distance between
the point of suspension of the load and the nearer knife-edge (AC = BD = a) are
measured. The breadth b and the thickness d of the beam are also measured.
Wal 2 Sx Mgal 2
Then, y= or =
8EAk 2 2 D 8 E (bd 3 /12)
[Since W = Mg and Ak2 = bd3 / 12]
3Mgal 2 D
 E=
Sxbd 3
Experimental determination of Young’s modulus Uniform bending using - Pin
and Microscope Method:
The given beam is supported symmetrically on two knife-edges A and B. Two
equal weight-hangers are suspended so that their distances from the knife-edges are
equal.
A pin is placed vertically at the centre of the beam. The tip of the pin is viewed by a
microscope. The load on each hanger is increased in equal steps of m kg and the
corresponding microscope readings are noted.
Similarly, readings are noted while unloading. The results are tabulated as
follows:
The mean elevation (y) of the centre for M kg is found. The length of the beam
l between the knife-edges and a, the distance between the point of suspension of the
load and the nearer knife-edge (AC = BD = a) are measured. The breadth b and the
thickness d of the beam are also measured.
Wal 2 Mgal 2  bd 3 
y= =  W = Mg and Ak 2
= 
8 EAk 2 8 E (bd 3 /12)  12 
Mgal 2
E =
2bd 3 y
Using the above formula we can calculate the Young’s modulus of the material
of the beam.
Torsion of a body:
When a body fluid at one end and twisted about its axis by means of a torque
at the other end, the body is said to be under torsion. Torsion involves shearing
strain and so the modulus involved is the rigidity modulus.
Expression for couple per unit twist:
Consider a cylindrical wire of length L and radius a fixed at its upper end and twisted
through an angle  by applying a torque at the lower end. Consider the cylinder to
consist of an infinite number of hollow co-axial cylinders. Consider one such cylinder
of radius x and thickness dx.
Fig. 1.4 (1) Fig. 1.4(2)
A line such as AB initially parallel to the axis OO' of the cylinder is displaced
to the position AB′ through an angle  due to the twisting torque [Fig. 4.8(2)]. The
result of twisting the cylinder is a shear strain. The angle of shear = BAB' = .
Now BB′ = x. = L  or  = x./L
Shearing stress
We have, rigidity modulus = G =
angle of shear (  )
 Shearing stress = G. = Gx/L
Shearing force
But, Shearing stress =
Area on which the force acts
 Shearing force = Shearing stress X Area on which the force acts.
The area over which the shearing force acts = 2x dx
Gx
Hence, the shearing force = F = X 2 xdx
L
The moment of this 
 Gx 2 G 3
force about the axis = 2 xdx.x = x dx
 L L
OO' of the cylinder 
Twisting torque on the  2 G 3
a

whole cylinder


= C = 
0
L
x dx
 Ga 4
or C=
2L
The torque per unit twist (i.e.,   Ga 4
=c=
the torque when  = 1 radian)  2L
Note 1: When an external torque is applied on the cylinder to twist it, at once an
internal torque, due to elastic forces comes into play. In the equilibrium position,
these two torques will be equal and opposite.
Note 2: If the material is in the form of a hollow cylinder of internal radius a and
external b, then,
The torque acting  2 G 3  G 4 4
b
=C = x dx = (b − a )
on the cylinder  a
L 2L
Torque per unit twist = c = G(b4-a4)/(2L)
Determination of rigidity modulus of a wire by torsional pendulum with mass

(Dynamic torsion method):
The torsion pendulum consists of a wire with one end fixed in a split chuck
and the other end to the centre of a circular disc as in Fig. 4.9.
Two equal symmetrical masses (each equal to m) are placed along a diameter
of the disc at equal distances d1 on either side of the centre of the disc. The disc is
rotated through an angle and is then released. The system executes torsional
oscillations about the axis of the wire. The period of oscillations T1 is determined.
Fig. 1.5
I1
Then T1 = 2
c
4 2
or T12 = I1 .
c
Here, I1 = Moment of inertia of the whole system about the axis of the wire and
c= torque per unit twist.
Let I0 = M.I. of the disc alone about the axis of the wire.
i = M.I. of each mass about a parallel axis passing through its centre of gravity.
Then by the parallel axes theorem,
I1 = I 0 + 2i + 2md12
4 2
 T12 =  I 0 + 2i + 2m.d12  . …(1)
c
The two masses are now kept at equal distances d 2 from the centre of the disc
and the corresponding period T2 is determined. Then,
4 2
T2 2 =  I 0 + 2i + 2m.d 2 2  . …(2)
c 
4 2
 T2 2 − T12 = .2m. ( d 2 2 − d12 ) …(3)
c
 Ga 4
But c=
2L
4 2 .2m. ( d 2 2 − d12 ) 2 L
Hence T2 − T =
2 2
1
 Ga 4
16 Lm(d 2 2 − d12 )
or G=
a 4 (T2 2 − T12 )
Using this relation, G is determined.
M.I. of the disc by torsional oscillations. The two equal masses are removed and
the period T0 is found when the disc alone is vibrating. Then,
4 2 cT0 2
T0 =
2
I 0 orI 0 = 2 …(4)
c 4
4 2 .2m. ( d 2 2 − d12 )
From (3), c=
T2 2 − T12
4 2 .2m. ( d 2 2 − d12 ) T0 2 2m. ( d 2 2 − d12 ) T0 2

Hence I0 = . 2 =
T2 2 − T12 4 T2 2 − T12
From this relation, the moment of inertia of the disc about the axis of the wire
is calculated.
Static torsion method with scale and telescope(Searle’s apparatus – Scale and
Telescope):
A plane mirror strip is fixed to the rod at a distance L from the fixed end of the rod
[Fig.1.5]. A vertical scale (S) and telescope (T) are arranged in front of the mirror. The
telescope is focused on the mirror and adjusted so that the reflected image of the
scale in the mirror is seen through the telescope.
With some dead load W on the weight-hanger, the reading of the scale
division coinciding with the horizontal cross-wire is taken. Weights are added in
steps of m kg and the corresponding scale readings are taken. Weights are then
decreased continuously in steps of m kg and the readings taken again.
The torque is reversed now, by passing the tape anticlockwise on the
wheel. The readings are taken as before. From these readings, the shift in scale
reading (s) for a load m kg is found.
Fig 1.5
The length L of the rod from the fixed end to the mirror is measured. The
mean radius a of the rod is accurately measured with a screw gauge. The radius (R)
of the wheel is found by measuring its circumference with a thread. The distance (D)
between the scale and the mirror is measured with a metre scale.
4mgRLD
G is calculated using the formula G =
 a4s
Work done in twisting a wire
Consider a cylindrical wire of length L and radius a fixed at its upper end and
twisted through an angle  by applying a torque at the lower end.
If c is the torque per unit angular twist of the wire, then the torque required
to produce a twist  in the wire is
C = c.
The work done in twisting the wire through a small angle d is
Cd = c d.

The total work done in twisting 

the wire through an angle  
 = W = 0 c. d
1 2
or W= c.
2
The work done in twisting the wire is stored up in the wire as potential energy.
Introduction about surface tension:
Any liquid in small quantity, so that gravity influence is negligibly small, will
always assume the form of a spherical drop – e.g., rain drops, small quantities of
mercury placed on a clean glass plate etc. So a liquid must experience some kind of
force, so as to occupy a minimum surface area. This contracting tendency of a liquid
surface is known as surface tension of liquid. This is a fundamental property of every
liquid.
Fig.1.6 (a) Fig. 1.6(b)

The following experiment illustrates the tendency of a liquid to decrease its
surface area.
When a camel hair brush is dipped into water, the bristles spread out [Fig. 5.6
(a)]. When the brush is taken out, the bristles cling together on account of the films
of water between them contracting [Fig. 5.6 (b)]. This experiment clearly shows that
the surface of a liquid behaves like an elastic membrane under tension with a
tendency to contract. This tension or pull in the surface of a liquid is called its surface
tension.
Definition- surface tension:

It may be defined as the force per unit length of a line drawn in the liquid surface,
acting perpendicular to it at every point and tending to pull the surface apart along
the line.
Unit of surface tension: Surface tension being force per unit length, its SI unit
is Newton per meter (Nm-1).
Dimensions of surface Tension: Since it is the ratio of a force to a length, its
dimensions are MLT-2/L = MT-2.
Drop weight method of determining surface tension and interfacial surface
tension:
A short glasstube is connected to the lower end of a burette (or funnel)clamped
vertically, by means of a rubber tube [Fig. 5.8.]. The funnel is filled with the liquid
whose S.T. is to be determined. A beaker is arranged under the glass tube to collect
the liquid dropping from the funnel. The stopcock is adjusted so that the liquid drops
are formed slowly. In a previously weighed beaker a known number of drops, (say
50) are collected.

Fig.1.7
The beaker is again weighed. The difference between this weight and the weight
of the empty beaker gives the weight of 50 drops of the liquid. From this the mass m
of each drop is calculated. The inner radius r of the tube is determined using a venire
calipers. The S.T. of the liquid at the room temperature is calculated using the
formula,
m.g
=
3.8r
Theory: Here, we consider the vertical forces that keep a small drop of liquid
in equilibrium, just before it gets detached from the end of a vertical glass tube of
circular aperture. At the instant the drop gets detached, it assumes a cylindrical
shape at the orifice of the tube (Fig. 1.7). Let σ = S.T. of the liquid and r = radius of
the orifice.
Excess pressure (p) inside the drop over  

=
the outside atmospheric pressure  r
The area of the section is r2. Therefore,
Downward forces on the drop  2
 =r
due to this excess of pressure  r
The weight mg of the drop also acts vertically downwards.
 Total force on the drop = (r2σ/r)+mg
This downward force is balanced by the upward pull due to surface tension 2rσ
acting along a circle of radius r. Therefore
 r 2
2 rσ = + mg or 2 rσ = rσ+mg
r
m.g
 =
 .r
But the equilibrium of the drop at the instant of its detachment is dynamic and not
static. Lord Rayleigh, taking dynamical aspect into account, showed that
m.g
=
3.8r
Introduction about Interfacial Tension:

At the surface of separation between two immiscible liquids there is a tension
similar to surface tension. It is called the interfacial tension.
Definition: When one liquid rests on another without mixing with it, the
Interface between the two liquids possesses energy just like the surface of a liquid.
The interfacial tension is the value of the force acting per meter normal to a line drawn
on the interface.
Experiment to determine the interfacial tension between water and kerosene

Sufficient amount of the lighter liquid (kerosene) is taken in a beaker. The
weight w1 of the beaker with kerosene is determined. The heavier liquid (water) is
taken in the burette [Fig 1.8]. The glass tube is fixed vertically with its end under the
surface of kerosene. The flow of water is regulated so that drops of water detach
themselves into kerosene one by one. After collecting 50 drops, the beaker is again
weighed. Let this weight be w2. Then w2-w1 gives the mass of 50 drops.
Fig 1.8
From this the average mass m of each drop is calculated. The interfacial
tension σ between water and kerosene is calculated using the formula
m.g   2 
= 1 − 
3.8r  1 
Mass of beaker + Mass of beaker Mass of 50

lighter liquid + lighter liquid drops =(w2-w1)
No Mean +50 drops Mean kg
Trial I Trial w1 kg Trial I Trial w2 kg
II II
Theory: Let 1 and 2 be the densities of water and kerosene respectively. Let m
be the mass of water drop in air.
 Volume of water drop = m/1
Volume of kerosene displaced  m
=
by the water drop  1
mass of kerosene displaced  m 2

by the water drop  1
Apparent weight of the  m 2 g
  = mg −
water drop in kerosene  1
Let σ be the S.T. at the interface between the two liquids.
 r 2 m  2 .g
Then, 2 r = + m.g −
r 1
m.g   2 
 = 1 − 
 r  1 
Again the more accurate equation will be
m.g  2 
= 1 − 
3.8r  1 
Question bank
UNIT –I
TWO MARK
1. Define elasticity? (Apr 2017)
2. What is beam? (Nov 2014 and Apr 2017 )
3. Define rigidity modulus. ( Nov 2014 )
4. What is meant by surface tension?( April 2014 and Apr 2017 )
5. What is meant by interfacial surface tension? ( April 2015 )
FIVE MARK
1. Derive an expression for couple per unit twist. ( Nov 2014, April 2013 and
Apr 2017)
2. Derive an expression for finding the rigidity modulus by torsion pendulum
( Nov 2015 )
3. Describe interfacial surface tension measurement by drop weight method.
( April 2014 and Apr 2017 )
4. Derive the expression for the bending moment with neat diagram.( Apr 2015)
TEN MARK
1. What is uniform bending? Describe the method of determination of young’s
modulus of a material of a beam by uniform bending effect.( April 2015 )
2. Using static torsion method, determine the rigidity modulus of a iron rod.(
Nov 2013 )
UNIT-II
SOUND
Laws of transverse vibrations of strings

The laws of transverse vibrations of stretched strings are (i) the law of length
(ii) law of tension and (iii) the law of mass.
(i). The law of length
For a given wire (m is constant), when T is constant, the fundamental frequency

of vibration is inversely proportional to the vibrating length,
n ∞ 1/L or nl = constant.
(ii). Law of tension:
For constant l and m, the fundamental frequency is directly proportional to

the square root of the tension (i.e) n ∞ √T.
(iii) The law of mass:
For constant l and T, the fundamental frequency varies inversely as the

square root of the mass per unit length of the wire (i.e) n ∞ √T.
Sonometer – verification of laws of transverse vibrations of strings:

The laws of transverse vibration of stretched string are verified by using
sonometer. A sonometer is a hollow wooden box with the wire fixed at its one end and
stretched with the load at its another end as shown in figure below. The vibration of
the wire is passed by the movable bridge through the box.
2.1. Sonometer
We can verify the three laws of vibration as follows:
Law of length (f ∝ 1/L):
When we take different tuning forks of different frequencies, and measure the
resonating length for each of them keeping tension applied and the material of the
wire as constant. The product of frequency and resonating length of one tuning fork
was found equal to the frequency and resonating length of another tuning fork. Also,
This verifies the law of length.
Law of tension (f ∝ √T):
The resonance of different tuning forks of different frequencies was observed

by varying tension keeping resonating length and wire as constant. When a graph for
f vs √T is plotted, a straight line is obtained. This verifies the law of tension.
Laws of mass (f ∝ 1√μ):
The resonance is observed by taking different tuning forks of different

frequencies and different wires with separate mass per unit length (μ) keeping
resonating length and tension applied as constant. When the graph for f vs 1√μ is
plotted and the graph is found to be a straight line. So, law of mass is verified.
Determination of AC frequency using sonometer:
A sonometer is an apparatus used to study the transverse vibrations of

stretched strings. It is in the form of a hollow wooden rectangular box.
On the wooden rectangular box there are two bridges and a pulley at one
end. A wire string is attached to one end of the wooden box, run over the bridges and
pulley and carries a weight hanger at the free end as shown in figure below.
A sonometer is used to determine the frequency of alternating current. A step down

transformer is used for the determination of frequency of A.C. because the voltage of
the A.C. mains is 220V, which is dangerous. The step down transformer reduces this
voltage to 6 volts.
2.2. Sonometer is used to determine the frequency of alternating current
The string wire of the sonometer is a non-magnetic metallic wire like brass or
copper. A horse shoe magnet is placed at the middle of the sonometer wire so that
the magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the sonometer wire in a horizontal
plane.
When an alternating current of definite frequency passes through the wire

there will be interaction between the magnetic field and the current carrying
conductor. So a force will act on the conductor in a direction perpendicular to both
the field and the direction of current.
When A.C. is passing through the conductor, since the current direction reverses
periodically, the direction of force also reverse periodically and hence, the conductor
vibrates.
Since the current flowing is alternating, the wire vibrates with a frequency
equal to the frequency of A. C. By adjusting the length of the vibrating wire segment,
this frequency can be made equal to the natural frequency of the wire segment.
Then the resonance takes place and the wire vibrates with maximum
amplitude. At this stage, the length of the wire segment is called the resonating length
and it increases with increase in the mass of the suspended weights.
Ultrasonics:
Vibrations upto 20,000 cycles can be heard by human beings and so, the
frequency range upto 20KHz is called sonic frequency. Sound waves do not belong to
the electromagnetic wave family like heat and light. As such, study of sound waves is
not exactly an electronic branch. However most of the ultrasonic sound waves find
very valuable industrial applications as flaw direction, submarine communication,
electronic soldering and welding.
Ultrasonics is today applied in medical diagnosis (echo-scanning) as an
alternative to X-ray scanning. Production of ultrasonic sound waves involves use of
electronic oscillators called transducers. Use of ultrasonic waves does not involve
harmful wave radiation. Radiation is present in other methods for the applications
mentioned above. Hence ultrasonics is a welcome substitute for electromagnetic
waves in many industrial applications.
Properties of ultrasound:
The ultrasonic waves travel in different media with different velocities. In air it
travels at 330m/sec. The velocities in liquids and solids range from 1200m/s to
4000m/s respectively. The property of a medium to conduct ultrasonic waves is
represented in its acoustic impedance. When ultrasound travels through a
homogeneous medium there is no change of velocity or wavelength and hence it
essentially continues in a straight line. When the ultrasound beam reaches an
interface between two different media, it undergoes reflection and refraction.
The reflected wave may be termed as the ultrasonic echo. The echoes produced
by large objects with smooth surface are specular echoes. Much energy is returned
by these specular echoes. Echoes from small objects with irregular shapes are called
scattered echoes.
When ultrasound gets reflected irregularly in multiple directions, only a small
part of ultrasonic energy returns to the source. Through analysis of reflected waves
leads to several useful applications in industry and medicine.
The properties of ultrasound are summed up as follows: Ultrasound 1. Can be
directed into a beam. 2. Obeys laws of reflection and refraction. 3. Is reflected by
small objects. 4. Permits recording of clear echoes from interface that are
approximately 1 mm part.
Ultrasonics Production
Ultrasonic waves are produced by the
Following methods.
(1) Magneto-striction generator or oscillator
(2) Piezo-electric generator or oscillator
Piezoelectric Effect
Piezoelectric Effect is the ability of certain materials to generate an electric
charge in response to applied mechanical stress. The word Piezoelectric is derived
from the Greek piezein, which means to squeeze or press, and piezo, which is Greek
for “push”.
Production by piezo electric method:

A slab of piezoelectric crystal is taken and using this a parallel plate capaci
tor is made. Then with otherelectronic components an electronic oscillator is desig
ned to produce electrical oscillations >20 kHz. Generally one can generate ultrasoni
c waves of the order ofMHz using piezoelectric generators. Quartz slabs arepreferre
d because it possesserare physical and chemical properties. A typical circuit diagr
am is given below.
The tank circuit has a variable capacitor 'C' and an inductor 'L' which decides the
frequency of the electrical oscillations. When the circuit is closed current rushes
through the tank circuit and the capacitor is charged, after fully charged no current
passes through the same.
Then the capacitor starts discharging through the inductor and hence the electric
energy is in the form of electric and magnetic fields associated with the capacitor and
the inductor respectively. Thus we get electrical oscillations in the tank circuit and
with the help of the other electronic components including a transistor, electrical
oscillations are produced continuously. This is fed to the secondary circuit and the
piezoelectric crystal (in our case a slab of suitably cut quartz crystal) vibrates, as it is
continuously subjected to varying (alternating) electric field, and produces sound
waves.
When the frequency of electrical oscillations is in the ultrasonic range then ultrasonic
waves are generated. When the frequency of oscillation is matched with the natural
frequency of the piezoelectric slab then it will vibrate with maximum amplitude. The
frequency generated is given as follows:
E- the Young's modulus of the piezoelectric material
and ρ- the density of the piezoelectric material
Applications for the Piezoelectric Effect

Due to the intrinsic characteristics of piezoelectric materials, there are
numerous applications that benefit from their use:
High Voltage and Power Sources

An example of applications in this area is the electric cigarette lighter, where
pressing a button causes a spring-loaded hammer to hit a piezoelectric crystal,
thereby producing a sufficiently high voltage that electric current flows across a small
spark gap, heating and igniting the gas. Most types of gas burners and ranges have
a built-in piezo based injection systems.
Sensors
The principle of operation of a piezoelectric sensor is that a physical dimension,
transformed into a force, acts on two opposing faces of the sensing element. The
detection of pressure variations in the form of sound is the most common sensor
application, which is seen in piezoelectric microphones and piezoelectric pickups for
electrically amplified guitars. Piezoelectric sensors in particular are used with high
frequency sound in ultrasonic transducers for medical imaging and industrial
nondestructive testing.
Piezoelectric Motors
Because very high voltages correspond to only tiny changes in the width of the
crystal, this crystal width can be manipulated with better-than-micrometer precision,
making piezo crystals an important tool for positioning objects with extreme
accuracy, making them perfect for use in motors, such as the various motor series
offered by Nanomotion.
Regarding piezoelectric motors, the piezoelectric element receives an electrical

pulse, and then applies directional force to an opposing ceramic plate, causing it to
move in the desired direction. Motion is generated when the piezoelectric element
moves against a static platform (such as ceramic strips).
The characteristics of piezoelectric materials provided the perfect technology

upon which Nanomotion developed our various lines of unique piezoelectric motors.
Using patented piezoelectric technology, Nanomotion has designed various series of
motors ranging in size from a single element (providing 0.4Kg of force) to an eight
element motor (providing 3.2Kg of force). Nanomotion motors are capable of driving
both linear and rotary stages, and have a wide dynamic range of speed, from several
microns per second to 250mm/sec and can easily mount to traditional low friction
stages or other devices. The operating characteristics of Nanomotion’s motors provide
inherent braking and the ability to eliminate servo dither when in a static position.
Acoustics
Acoustics is the interdisciplinary science that deals with the study of

all mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids including topics such
as vibration, sound, ultrasound and infrasound.
Acoustics of Buildings
An auditorium is a part of a building in which large number of people may be

seated to listen to a speech or music. It is not uncommon to find an auditorium,
which may be an architectural masterpiece but falls below standards on acoustic
considerations. In spite of the usage of amplifiers, the audience may not be able to
hear the speech clearly or may miss many of the tonal qualities present in the music.
A lecture hall or a concert hall has to be planned properly so that the sound energy
is distributed uniformly over the entire audience without affecting the speech
intelligibility and the tonal qualities of music.
An open window is a perfect absorber of sound. It absorbs the entire sound
energy incident on it and transfers it to the regions outside the building and reflects
none. The situation is quite different when reflecting surfaces, like a case in a concert
hall, surrounds a sound source. A sound wave strikes a wall and is reflected back
into hall, it propagates across the room until it strikes another surface and is again
reflected and so on.
A listener in an enclosure not only receives the sound directly from the source
but also reflects sounds, which reach him at different instants of time. Thus, the
sound intensity level increases until the listener is immersed in sound, coming from
different directions at equilibrium level. Just as sound builds up to an equilibrium
level, it decays from an equilibrium level. The sound level trails off exponentially, as
the reflected waves become successively weaker.
Reverberation Time :
Time taken by the sound wave to fall below the minimum audibility level i.e., to fall
to one millionth of its initial intensity, after the source is stopped I = 1X10-6 I0.
If Reverberation Time is too low, sound disappear quickly and become inaudible.
If Reverberation Time is too high: Sound exists for a long period of time - an
overlapping of successive sounds - cannot hear the information clearly.
Sabine's formula
T = 0.16 V / A
Where,
T is the reverberation time, V is the volume of the room and A is the surface area of
absorbing material.
This formula is fairly general and we will talk shortly about how to determine
A in this equation. But, for now let's assume that the walls in our room are completely
absorbing. That is, any sound that hits the wall is absorbed and there is no reflected
sound. We can then exactly derive Sabine's formula.
Let's say we play a steady tone for a long time in our room the sound energy
will build up and we will call the energy density: e. We will assume the energy density
is constant throughout the room
e = sound energy density Joules/m3
The power (Joules/sec) being dissipated in the walls will be the area of the walls times
the intensity (Watts/m2) of the sound hitting the walls.
P=AI
The power lost to the walls must equal the time rate of change of the energy.
d/dt (e V) = - P = - AI
V is constant and the intensity equals the energy density times the speed of sound
divided by 4.
We divide by 4 because sound is going out in all directions, left, right, forward,
backward. We do not divide by 6. Why not? Because 4 gives a better answer (closer
to what is actually measured). The physical reason is that sound is not really
radiating uniformly in all directions so the number must be something less than
6. Sound tends to reflect in a planar surface, which is consistent with using 4 instead
of 6.
de/dt V = - A e/4 v
de/dt = - Av/(4V) e
e = e0 exp ( - Av/(6V) t )
ln (e/e0) = - A v / (6 V) T
T = -ln (10-6) x 4 / 344 V / A
= 13.8 x 4 / 344 V/A = 0.161 V/A
Absorption Coefficients:
In reality, surfaces do not purely absorb or purely reflect.
The absorption coefficient is the amount of power absorbed divided by the amount of
incident power.
The way we estimate the absorbing area, A, in Sabine's formula is by weighting

absorbing areas by their absorption coefficient.
A = C 1 x A1 + C 2 x A2 + C 3 x A3 + …
V = the total volume of the room in cubic meters
Ai = surface area
Ci = absorption coefficients
A is the total "fully-absorbing" surface area of the room. Each surface is weighted by
its absorption coefficient. You add up all surfaces. Each surface contributes its
surface area times its absorption coefficient.
These calculations can become quite involved. You have to take into account
windows, doors, hallways, the audience, empty seating, etc. Every surface has a
different absorption coefficient.
C is the fraction of energy lost each time the sound wave reflects off the surface. The
value of A ranges from 0-1. 0.01 would be highly reflective, 0.3 is fairly absorbing.
Sabine's formula is approximate. However, it works reasonably well if the average

absorption coefficient is less than 0.15. That is,
A / Atotal < 0.15
It also gives a way to compare various options when choosing size, shape and
materials. There are computer programs which do "ray tracing." That is, the computer
simulates the motion of the wave fronts and how they reflect off the surfaces and how
they are absorbed (CATT Acoustic is the program I am familiar with). These programs
also have "diffusion." That is, a way to mimic how sound diffuses by scattering off of
complex objects.
Ray tracing is also used to simulate how light reflects off objects for three-
dimensional visualization and animation. Another common practice is to make a
scale model of the concert hall and test the model with higher frequency sound
sources so that the wavelengths are in proportion to the size of the model.
Question bank
UNIT –II
TWO MARK
1. Define sound waves?
2. State the Laws of transverse vibrations.
3. Define- piezo electric effect?
4. What are the applications of ultrasonic’s? (Apr 2017)
5. What is called reverberation time? (Apr 2017)
FIVE MARK
5. Derive an expression for Laws of transverse vibrations of strings. (Apr 2017)
6. State and verification of laws of transverse vibrations of strings using
Sonometer.
7. Describe production of ultrasounds by piezo electric method. (Apr 2017 )
TEN MARK
8. Derive the Sabine's formula for ultrasonic waves. (Apr 2017)
9. Determination of AC frequency using sonometer.
UNIT-III
HEAT
Two Specific Heats of a Gas
Consider a gas of mass m at a pressure P and volume V. If the gas is
compressed, there is rise in temperature. In this case, no heat has been supplied
to the gas to raise its temperature.
.'. Specific heat, C = H/mθ

But H = 0
C=0
On the other hand, if heat is supplied to the gas and the gas is allowed to expand
such that there is no rise of temperature, then
C = H/mθ
Here
θ= 0
C = H/mx0 =∞
Thus, the specific heat of a gas varies from zero to infinity.
In order to fix the value of the specific heat of a gas, the pressure or volume has
to be kept constant. Consequently, a gas has two specific heats.
Specific heat at constant volume CV
CV It is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one

gram of a .gas through 1°C at constant pressure.
Specific heat at constant pressure CP.
CP It is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one
gram of a gas through 1c at constant volume
.
Cp is greater than CV. When a gas is heated at constant volume, the heat
supplied to the gas is wholly used up to raise its temperature. On the other
hand when a gas is heated at constant pressure, a part of the heat is used to
raise its temperature and a part is used to do external work to keep the
pressure constant.
Cp > Cv
Relation.
Consider one gram of a gas at a pressure P, volume V and temperature T. Heat
is supplied to the gas to raise its temperature through dT. As the pressure has
to remain constant.
Work done, W = V
Where dV is the change in volume
From the gas equation
PV = t T,
Differentiating,
PdV +VdP = r dT
Work done in heat units
= r.dT/J calories
Heat supplied = 1xCpxdT + r dT/J
Cp - Cv = r/J
Where r is the gas constant for one gram of a gas. If CP and Cv represent gram
molecular specific heats, then
Cp - Cv = R/J
Where R is the universal gas constant
Specific Heat of a Gas at Constant Volume—Joly's Differential Steam

Calorimeter
C is a chamber in which steam can be admitted. P 1 and P2 are scale pans

suspended from the. Scale pans S1 and S2 of a balance. A and B are two identical
hollow metal spheres. The two spheres are initially evacuated and by placing
them in the pans Pt and Pt the balance is counterpoised. In one of the spheres, the
gas whose C is be determined it admitted a pressure of about 10 atmospheres and
the balance is counterpoised again. Suppose the gas is filled in B. The balance
will tilt to the left and to extra mass that has to be kept in the pan S, for
counterpoising corresponds to that matt of gas enclosed in B (M grams).
Now steam is admitted into the chamber and passed continuously till a constant
temperature is reached (temperature of steam). Steam condenses and the mass
of stream that has condensed on the pan P is more than that condensed on the
pan P, because in the case of pan Pi the enclosed gas also has so is heated from
the roam temperature to the temperature of steam.
The balance tilts and an extra mass has to be kept in the right hand pan to balance
it again. This extra mass corresponds to the extra mass of steam condensed on
the pan Pt.
The umbrella-shaped vanes U1 and U2 will not allow the steam condensed on
the rest of the chamber to fall on the scale pans P1 and P2. The heating coils H1
and H2 will heat the suspension wires to a temperature higher than the
temperature of steam and therefore, no steam condenses on these wires.
Suppose,
Mass of the gas = M grams
Sp. heat of gas at constant volume = Cv
Initial temperature of the gas = t10C
Temp, of steam = t20C
Extra mass of steam condensed on the scale pan Pi = m grams
Latent heat of vaporisation of water = L cals/g
Heat lost by stream =mL
Heat gained by the gas = M Cv(t2 –t1 )
In the second part of the experiment the gas is enclosed in the sphere of pan P2 and
the sphere of pan P1 is kept empty and Cv is calculated again. The mean of these
two values gives the specific heat of the gas at constant volume
Specific Heat of a gas at Constant pressure—(Regnault’s Method)

The apparatus consists of a reservoir R containing the gas at high pressure and at
a constant temperature. The pressure of the gas in the reservoir is shown by the
pressure gauge. The apparatus is as shown in Fig.
The regulator A allows the gas to flow at a constant pressure through the spiral
tubings immersed in the oil bath B and the calorimeter. The pressure of the gas
flowing through the spiral tubing is shown by the manometer M. Regulator A
helps in keeping the level of the liquid in the manometer limbs constant.
Suppose the initial pressure of the gas at any instant in the reservoir is P, its
temperature is T, and volume is V. The temperature shown by the oil bath is T1 and
the calorimeter is at a temperature T2. Gas is allowed to flow for about half an
hour. The gas after passing through the oil bath gets heated, to temperature T1 and
after passing; through the calorimeter, gets cooled and gives heat to the calorimeter
and its contents. Suppose, the final pressure of the gas in the reservoir is P2,
Volume is V and the temperature of the calorimeter C and its contents is T3
.Calculations
Suppose, mass of the gas flown =M
Mass of water in the calorimeter =m
Water equivalent of the calorimeter =W
Rise of temperature of calorimeter and its contents
=(T3- T2)
Mean fall of temperature of the gas = (T1- (T2+ T3 )/2)
Heat gained = Heat lost
To find the mass of the gas (M), suppose the density of the gas at NTP = p. In the
experiment, V cc of the gas at a pressure (P1 —P2 ) and temperature T K has flown
through the apparatus. Reducing the volume of the gas to NTP
Thus, knowing the value of M, C, can be calculated from equation (i).
Van der Waals Equation of State
While deriving the prefect gas equation PV = RT on the basis of kinetic theory,
it was assumed that
(i) the size of the molecule of the gas is negligible and
(ii) the forces of inter-molecular attraction are absent. but in actual practice, at
high pressure, the side of the molecules of the gas becomes significant and
cannot be neglected in comparison with the volume of the gas. also, at high
pressure, the molecules come closer and the forces of intermolecular attraction
are appreciable Therefore, correction should be applied to the gas , equation.
(i) Correction for Pressure.
A molecule in the interior of a gas experiences force of attraction in all directions
and the resultant cohesive force is zero. A molecule near the walls of the
container experiences a resultant force inwards (away from the wall). Due to
this reason the observed pressure of the gas is less than the actual pressure.
The correction for pressure p depends upon
(i) the number of molecules striking unit area of the walls of the container per
second and
(ii) the number of molecules present in a given volume. Both these factors
depend on the density of the gas.
Correction for pressure p ∞ ρ2 ∞ 1/v2
P = a/v2
Here a is a constant and F is the volume of the gas
Hence correct pressure
= (P + p) = (P + a/ v2)
Where P is the observed pressure
(ii) Correction for Volume.
The fact that the molecules have finite size shows that the actual space for the
movement of the molecules is less than the volume of the vessel. The molecules
have the sphere of influence around them and due to this factor; the correction
for volume is b where b is approximately four times the actual volume of the
molecules. Therefore the corrected volume of the gas = (V—b).
Let the radius of one molecule be r.
The volume of the molecule = x = 4/3π r2
The centre of any two molecules can approach each other only by a minimum
distance of 2r i.e., the diameter of each molecule. The volume of the sphere of
influence of each molecule,
S = 4/3 π(2r)3 = 8x
Consider a container of volume V. If the molecules are allowed to enter one by

one,
The volume available for first molecule =V
Volume available for second molecule = V-S
Volume available for third molecule = V-2S
----------
Volume available for nth molecule Average space available for each molecule
As the umber of molecules is very large S/2 can be neglected.

Average space available for each molecule
= V- nS/2
= V-n(8x)/2
= V-4(nx)
= V- b
b = 4(nx)= four times the actual volume of the molecules .
Thus the Vander Waal’s equation of state for a gas is
Where a and are Vander Waal’s constants.

From The Vander Waal’s equation of state for a gas is
Graphs between pressure and volume at various temperatures are drawn using
equation (i). The graphs are as shown in Fig In the graph, the horizontal portion
is absent. But in its place, the curve ABCDE is obtained. This does not agree with
the experimental isothermals for C02 as obtained by Andrews. However, the portion
AB has been explained as due to super cooling of the vapors and the portion ED due
to super-heating of the liquid. But the portion BCD cannot be explained because
it shows decrease in volume with decrease in pressure. It is not possible in
actual practice. The states AB and ED, though unstable, can be realized in
practice by careful experimentation. At higher temperatures, the theoretical
and experimental isothermals are similar.
Until now at many as 56 different equations of state have been suggested.

But no single equation satisfies all the observed facts.
Dicterice (1901) has suggested an equation
Berthelot has suggested an equation
Critical Constants
The critical temperature and the corresponding values of pressure and volume at
the critical point are called the critical constants. At the critical point, the rate
of change of pressure with volume. (dp/dv) is zero. This point is called the point
of inflexion.
According to Vander Waal’s equation
-------- (1)
------------- (2)
Differentiating P with respect to V
-------------- (3)
At the critical point dp/dv = 0
T = Tc
V =Vc
--------------- (4)
Differentiating equation(3)
At the critical point d2t/dv2 = 0

T = Tc
V =Vc
------------ (5)
Dividing (4)by (5)

Vc/3 = (Vc-b)/2
2 Vc = 3 Vc -3b
Vc = 3b
Substituting the value of Vc = 3b in equation (4)
2a/27b3 = RTc/4b2
Substituting these value of Vc and Tc in equation (2)
Lee's Method for Bad Conductors
This method is used to determine the thermal conductivity of poor conductors

viz., rubber, glass, ebonite, wood, cork etc. The specimen is taken in the form
of two thin discs D1 and D2 about 10 cm in diameter and 2 to 3 mm thick. The
disc D1 is pressed between two copper plates C1 and C2 and D2 is pressed
between the copper plates C3 and C4. Discs
C1 and C3 ensure normal flow of heat through the experimental plates D 1 and
D2. H is a
heater coil and T1, T2, T3 and T4 are four thermocouples used to measure
temperatures. The surfaces of D1 and D2 are coated with glycerin so that these
surfaces make good thermal contact with the copper plates.
A steady current I is passed through the heater coil H. The potential difference
across the heater coil is E After the steady state is reached the temperatures of
the thermometers T1 T2, T3 and T4 are noted. Let the temperatures be θ1, θ2, θ3
and θ4 respectively. In the steady state, heat generated in the heater coil is lost
from the surface of C1 , and C2, and heat lost from the rims of C1 C2, D1 and D2,
is negligible due to the small thickness of the plates. ,
Let d1 be the thickness of the disc D1 and d2 the thickness of the disc D2
Heat produced by heater coil in one second
= EI/4.2 calories -------- (1)
Heat passing through D1 and D2 in one second
--------- (2)
Equating (1) and (2)
---------- (3)
The value of K is calculated from equation (3)
Lee and Charlton's Method Bad conductors
The apparatus consists of a cylindrical stream chamber A, the specimen e
whole apparatus is suspended from the stand.T1,T2 are the thermo, meters
used to determine the temperature after the steady state is reached.
Steam is passed through the chamber and the readings of the thermometers T1 and
T2 are noted after the steady state is reached. The heat passing through D in one
second is equal to the heat radiated by the exposed surface of C in one second.
Here
(A +S)/(2A +S)
is the fraction of the total area exposed to the surroundings.

Here A is the area of cross-section of D and C. S is the area of the curved surface
of C, is the rate of cooling at temperature θ2 m is the mass and s is the specific
heat of C.
To find (dθ/dt), the disc is removed and C makes contact with the steam chamber.
C is removed when its temperature is about 10°C higher than θ2 It is placed over
two knife edges and its temperature is observed after equal intervals of time (say
one minute). A graph is drawn between temperature and time. From the graph, the
value of dθ/dt at temperature θ2 a found. From equation (1), K can be calculated.
Joule-Kelvin effect:
Joule and Kelvin, however, showed coolling due to the work done by a gas in
over coming the inter-molecular attraction when it was passed from the high
pressure to the low pressure side.
Porous Plug Experiment
The apparatus consists of a porous plug having two perforated brass discs D,
D. The space between them is packed with cotton wool or silk fibers. The
porous plug is fitted in a cylindrical box wood tube which is surrounded by a
vessel containing cotton wool (Fig), This is done to avoid loss or gain of beat
from the surroundings.
T1 and T2 are two sensitive platinum resistance spiral tube immersed in a water
oath maintained at a constant temperature. If there is any heating of the gas due
to compression, this heat is .taken, by the circulating water in the water bath.
The compressed gas. Is passed through the porous plug. The gas gets throttled (wire
drawn) due to cotton wool. Work is done by the gas in overcoming inter-
molecular attraction. The temperature of the out going gas is measured with
me help of a platinum resistance thermometer Tt. The pressure of the incoming,
gas is measured with the help of a pressure gauge and the pressure of the
outgoing gas is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
The behaviour of a large number of gases was studied at various inlet
temperatures of die gas and the results obtained are as follows:
(i) At sufficiently low temperatures all gases show a cooling effect.
(ii) At ordinary temperatures all gases except hydrogen and helium show cooling
effect. Hydrogen shows hosting instead of cooling at room temperature.
(iii) The fall m temperature is directly proportional to the difference in pressure on
the two sides of the porous plug.
(iv) The fall in temperature per atmosphere difference of pressure decreases as the
initial temperature of the gas is raised. It becomes zero at a particular
temperature and at a temperature higher than this temperature, instead of cooling,
heating is observed. This particular temperature at which the Joule-Thomson
effect changes sign is called the temperature of inversion.
In the case of hydrogen heating was observed at room temperature because it
was at a temperature far higher than its temperature of inversion. The temperature
of inversion for hydrogen is 800 C and for helium it is —258°C. If helium is passed
through the porous plug at a temperature lower than —258°C it will also show
cooling effect. It means any gas below the temperature of inversion shows a cooling
effect when it is passed through the porous plug or a throttle valve.
Theory of Porous Plug Experiment:

The simple arrangement of the porous plug experiment is shown in Fig. The gas
is allowed to pass through the porous plug from the high pressure side to the low
pressure aide. The velocity of the gas as it emerges from die porous plug is very
high and there is increase in die kinetic energy of the molecules. Consider one gram
molecule of a gas to die left and to the right of die porous plug. Let P1 V1 and P2,
V2 represent die pressure and volume on die two sides of the porous plug. When
the piston A is moved through a certain distance dx, the piston B also moves
through the
Same distance dx. The work done on the gas by the piston A = P1A1 dx = P1V1
The work done by the gas on the piston B is P2A2dx = P2V2 . thus, the net external
work done by the gas is P2V2 - P1V1 .
If w is the work done by the gas is separating the molecules against their Inter-
molecular attractions, the total amount of work done by the gas is
( P2V2 - P1V1 ) + w
No heat is gained or lost to the surroundings. There are three possible cases t
(i)Below the Boyle temperature,

and P2V2 - P1V1 is +ve. to must be either positive or zero. Thus a net +ve work
is done by the gas and there must be cooling when the gas passes through the
porous plug.
(ii)At the Boyle temperature if P1 is not very high
P2V2 = P1V1 .
P2V2 - P1V1 = 0
The total work done by the gas in this case is w. Therefore cooling effect at this
temperature is only due to the work done by the gas in overcoming inter-
molecular attractions.
(iii) Above the Boyle temperature

P2V2 > P1V1 .
P2V2 - P1V1 . is -ve
Thus, the observed effect will depend upon whether (P2V2 - P1V1 ) is greater or
less than w.
If w > (P2V2 - P1V1 ), cooling will be observed.
If w < (P2V2 - P1V1 ) heating will be observed.
Thus, the cooling or heating of a gas due to free expansion through a porous plug
from a high pressure to a low pressure side will depend on (i) the deviation, from
Boyle's law and (ii) work done in overcoming intermolecular attractions.
Joule-Kelvin Effect—Temperature of Inversion
Assuming that the Vander Waal’s equation is obeyed, the attractive forces
between the molecules are equivalent to an internal
Pressure a/V2
When the gas expands from V1 to V2, the work done in overcoming inter-
molecular attractions
If V1 and V2 represent the gram molecular volumes on the high and the low
pressure sides respectively, the external work done by the gas is
( P2V2 - P1V1 )
Hence the total work done by the gas
Vander Waal’s equation of state for a gas is
But V1 = RT/P1 V2 = RT/P2
Suppose the fall in temperature is T
Where M is the gram-molecular weight of the gas
(i) Since P1 - P2 is +ve

T will be +ve if ( 2a/RT -b ) is +ve
( 2a/RT ) >b, T<( 2a/RT )
Therefore, cooling will take place if the temperature of the gas is less than
2a/RT
(ii) For T to be zero, from equation (ii),
( 2a/RT -b ) =0
This temperature is called the temperature of inversion and is represented by
Ti
Ti = 2a/RT
(iii) T will be negative, if

( 2a/RT -b ) is –ve
b> 2a/RT
T > 2a/Rb
T> Ti
Therefore, heating will take place if the temperature of the gas is more than the
temperature of inversion.
Results
(i) If the gas is at the temperature of inversion,/then no cooling or heating is

observed when it is passed through the porous plug.
(ii) If the gas is at a temperature lower than the temperature of inversion,

cooling will take place when it is passed through the porous plug. This is called
regenerative cooling or Joule-Kelvin cooling. This principle has been used in the
liquefaction of the so-called permanent gases like nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen
and helium.
(iii) If the gas is at a temperature higher than the temperature of inversion,

instead of cooling, heating is observed when the gas is passed through the
porous plug.
Relation between Boyle Temperature, Temperature of Inversion and

Critical Temperature
Temperature of inversion,
Ti = 2a/Rb -------------- (1)
Boyle temperature,
TB = a/Rb -------------- (2)
Critical temperature,
Tc = 8a/27Rb -------------- (3)
From (i)and (ii)
Ti = 2TB
From (i)and (iii)

Ti/Tc =( 2a/Rb )* (27RB/8a)
=27/4 = 6.75
The experimental value of Ti/Tc for actual gases is just less than 6.
It means that the temperature of inversion is very much higher than the critical
temperature. For hydrogen Ti = 190 K and Te — 33 K. As Ti >Tc, the methods
employing regenerative cooling (Joule-Kelvin cooling) are preferred to those
employing the initial cooling of the gas below the critical temperature.
Liquefaction of Hydrogen:
Hydrogen cannot be liquefied by Cascade process because its critical

temperature is -2400C.Lindes ordinary" apparatus used for the liquefaction of air
cannot be used for hydrogen because the temperature of inversion for hydrogen is
—83°C. The gas must initially be cooled to a temperature lower than the
temperature of inversion for the cooling to take place due to Joule-Kelvin effect.
The original apparatus designed by Dewar (1898) was improved later by Travers,
Olszewski, Nerast and others (Fig). To have complete insolation the whole
apparatus is enclosed in an outer Dewar flask L.
Hydrogen, under a pressure, of 200 atmospheres is passed through, a coil
immersed in solid CO2 and alcohol. It enters the coil m the chamber 4 where it
is further cooled by the outgoing hydrogen. The chamber contains liquid air and
cools hydrogen in the coil E. In the chamber C liquid aw is allowed to boil under
reduced pressure (10 cm of Hg) and hydrogen in the coil I is cooled to a
temperature of 2000 C. This cooled hydrogen passes through the regenerative coil
G and the nozzle N. Hydrogen is cooled further due to Joule-Kelvin effect. The
cooled hydrogen coming from the nozzle N is allowed to circulate back to the
pump as shown in Fig. The process of regenerative cooling continues and after
some time hydrogen gets liquefied and is collected in the Dewar flask D.
Liquefaction of Helium—K. Onnes Method
K. Onnes liquefied helium in 1908. The temperature of inversion of helium is

—240°C. Kapitza has liquefied helium by pre-cooling it and passing it through
a coil surrounded by a bath containing liquid hydrogen boiling under reduced
pressure. In this v/ay helium was cooled to —258°C.
The apparatus used for liquefaction of helium is shown in Fig. Helium gas at a
pressure of 40 atmospheres enters the spiral tube at A.
It k divided into two portions. Helium passing through the spiral in S is cooled
because it is -surrounded by hydrogen boiling under reduced pressure. The
other portion of helium gas passing through the spiral in F is cooled due to
outgoing cooled helium gas. Similar processes take place in the spirals S3 and
S4. The process is repeated and when the temperature of helium is sufficiently
low, it gets liquefied after passing through the nozzle N. At N cooling takes place
due to
Joule-Kelvin effect. This outgoing helium is compressed again by P and fed
back to the spirals S1 and S2. Liquefied helium is collected in the Dewar flask.
The whole apparatus is surrounded by Dewar flasks to provide perfect heat

insulation. Simon has been able to liquefy helium by using activated charcoal.
When helium is adsorbed by charcoal, heat is evolved and when it is desorbed
(removed) the temperature of the gas falls. Helium is adsorbed in large
quantities by activated charcoal immersed in liquid hydrogen. The apparatus
is enclosed in an evacuating vessel to minimize heat exchanges with the
surroundings. On pumping off helium, its temperature falls considerably and
it gets liquefied.
Helium I and Helium II

K.Onnes observed no sign of solidification when liquid helium was cooled at
ordinary pressures. It was found that at a temperature
of 2-19 K, the liquid which was contracting when cooled, suddenly began to
expand (Fig).
The specific heat of liquid helium increases up to 2.19 K and at this

temperature there is a sudden and abnormal increase in the specific heat.
Beyond 2.19 K, the specific heat first decreases and then increases
The specific heat temperature graph resembles A and hence this temperature
at which the specific heat changes abruptly (2.19 K) is called the A-point. Liquid
helium above 2.19 K is called helium I because it behaves in a normal way and
below 2.19 K it is called helium II because of its abnormal properties.
Viscosity of liquid helium I decreases with decrease in temperature and this

property is contrary to the property of a liquid but it resembles that of a gas.
The viscosity of helium II is practically zero and it can flow rapidly through
narrow capillary tubes.
The thermal conductivity of helium II has an abnormally high value and it is
many times more than that of copper and silver. Helium II forms a thin film on
all solid surfaces this film is called the Rolling film. It is through this film that
helium II flows from one vessel to another. This behaviour of helium II is very
peculiar. It
Can creep into a vessel when the vessel is lowered into the liquid [Fig.]. On the
other hand when the vessel containing helium II is taken out of the liquid, it
creeps out of the vessel and continues to flow until the level outside and inside
is the same. [Fig]. Even when the vessel is completely out of the liquid, helium
II creeps out and flows down the outer surface of the vessel [Fig.]. It continues
to flow until the vessel is empty.
Helium II has a higher heat of vaporization and smaller surface tension. The large
specific heat anomaly of liquid helium at 2.19 K is due to rapid decrease of its entropy
with decreasing temperatures. This is a complicated phenomenon and statistical
mechanics cannot be applied. However, Bose-Einstein statistics can be applied in
this case.
Question bank
Two mark
1. Define CV. ( Nov 2014 ) ( Nov 2013 ) and (Apr 2017)

2. Give the expression for Boyle temperature. ( Nov 2014 )
3. Define thermal conductivity.( Nov 2015 ) ( Nov 2013 ) and (Apr 2017)
4. State inversion temperature.( Nov 2014 )
5. State Joule- Thomson effect.( April 2015 )
6. Define specific heat at constant pressure (CP) ( April 2014) and Apr 2017)
FIVE MARK
1. Derive an expression for the van der Waal’s equation. ( April 2014 ) (April
2015) and (Apr 2017)
2. Derive the expression for critical constant. ( April 2015 ) and (Apr 2017)
3. Explain how CP is experimentally determined.( Nov 2013 )
4. Briefly porous plug experiment. ( April 2015 )
5. Explain briefly the determination of thermal conductivity of a bad conductor
by Lee’s Disk mehod. ( April 2015 ) and (Apr 2017)
TEN MARK
1. Describe the porous plug experiment to explain the Joule-Thomson effect. (
Nov 2014 )
2. Brief Lee’s disc method ( Nov 2014 ) ( April 2014 ) ( April 2015 ) and (Apr
2017)
UNIT-IV
OPTICS
Formation of two thin prisms to produce Deviation without dispersion.
When a beam of white light is passed through a prism, then both deviation and While
Light dispersion are produced. A prism that produces deviation without dispersion is
called an achromatic prism. Consider two prisms, one of crown glass and other of flint
glass with angles Ax and A2 respectively and nlv, n2r, n2 be the refractive indices of the
two materials for violet, red and the mean yellow rays of light.
Then, angular dispersion produced by crown prism angular dispersion produced by

flint prism A2. The condition for deviation without dispersion is
The negative sign shows that the refracting angles of the two prisms are in opposite
directions. The rays of different colours emerging from such a
combination are found parallel to each other and hence combine to form white light.
Let ω1 and ω2be the dispersive powers of crown and flint glass prisms respectively and
δ1 and δ2 their mean deviations. Eqs. Can be written as
The deviation produced by the combination for the mean ray is
Substituting for A2from Eq.
Since n1v>n1rand ω2>ω1,δ has a positive vlue.
Dispersion without Deviation
When white light passes through a prism, it suffers deviation and dispersion. Two
prisms of different material may be combined so that the resultant deviation is zero. But
there will be still dispersion. Let A1 and A2 be the angles of two prisms (Fig). Let n1v, n1r,
n, and
n2v, n2r, n2 be the refractive indices of the two materials for the violet, red and mean
rays respectively. The deviation produced by the two prisms for the mean ray is,
The negative sign shows that there refracting angles of the two prisms are in
opposite directions. Fig. The total dispersion produced by the two prisms is
Here, ω1 and ω 2 are dispersive powers of the materials of the two prisms.Since ω1≠ ω2,
there will be a resultant dispersion. The final dispersed beam is parallel to the
incident beam. This principle is applied in the direct vision spectroscope.
Direct vision spectroscope

It consists of three crown glass prisms and two flint glass prisms arranged alternately.
They are arranged with their refracting angle in opposite directions. The refracting
angles of the prisms are such that the total deviation produced for the mean rays is
zero. The faces of the prisms are cemented together by Canada balsam to reduce loss
of intensity of light by reflection at the interfaces of the prisms. The combination is
then placed in a metal tube. The tube has a slit and a collimating lens at one end and
a telescope at the other end [Fig].
A narrow beam of white light passing through the slit is rendered parallel by the
collimating lens. If then traverses the combination of the prisms, where it is
dispersed. The dispersed beam is almost parallel to the incident beam. The paths of
the red and violet rays are shown in the figure. The tube is turned directly towards a
source of light and its spectrum is observed through the telescope. It cannot be used
to make any measurements on the spectra. But it can be used to make a survey on
the characteristic features of the spectra. Collimator
Constant deviation prism
A constant deviation prism is shown in Fig. This single prism ABCD is equivalent to
two 30° refracting prisms combined with a 45° total E reflection prism. The light beam
(EFGHK) undergoes two refractions which compensate each other. So the deviation
of the beam is the 90° change in direction produced by the total reflection. Since there
are two refractions, the ray is dispersed and the final image is coloured.
Constant deviation Spectroscope
A spectroscope is an instrument used to produce a spectrum. In a spectroscope,

The spectra are observed visually. In a spectrograph, the spectra are photographed.
In constant deviation spectroscope, the telescope (T) and the Collimator (C) are fixed
at right angles to one another [Fig]. A constant Deviation prism (P) is mounted on the
prism table. The prism table can be rotated By means of a micrometer screw carrying
a drum (D) at one end. The drum is calibrated in terms of wavelengths. When the
table is rotated, the lines in the spectrum of source of light appear one by one on the
intersection of the cross wires of the telescope. The wavelength of any one line can
then be read off from the drum. This instrument is called the Hilger wavelength prism
spectrometer. For taking photograph of the lines, the eyepiece in the telescope is
replaced by a camera. In order to set the instrument for work, the slit is illuminated
with light of known wavelength. The drum is set so that the correct wavelength is
indicated on the drum. The prism is placed on the prism table and its position is
adjusted till the line is on the intersection of the crosswires. The prism is clamped
tight to the table in this position. Any other wavelength can be determined by rotating
the drum till the spectral line is on the crosswire and taking the reading of the drum.
Air wedge method of determination of diameter of wire

Consider a wedge-shaped film of refractive index n enclosed by two plane surfaces OP
and OQ inclined at n angle θ.
The thickness of the film increases from O to B. When the film is illuminated by a
parallel beam of monochromatic light, interference occurs between the rays reflected at the
upper and lower surfaces of the film. So equidistant alternate dark and bright fringes are
observed. The fringes are parallel to the line of intersection of the two surfaces. The
interfering rays are AB and DE, both originating from the same incident ray SA.
Expression for the fringe width : The condition for a dark fringe is 2nt cos r = m
λ. Here for air n = 1. For normal incidence cos r = cos 0 = 1. Suppose the mth dark fringe is
formed where the thickness of the air film is tm . Then,
Suppose the (m + 1) th dark fringe is formed where the thickness of the air film is tm+1.
Then, 2tm+1 = (m + 1)λ ...(2)
Subtracting (1) from (2), ...(3)
Let xm+1 and xm be the distances of the (m+1)th and mth dark fringes from O. d =
diameter of the wire; L = distance between O and the wire. Then,
Substituting these values in Eq. (3), we get
d, λ and L are constants. Therefore, fringe width is constant. Similarly, if we consider

two consecutive bright fringes, the fringe width β will be the same.
Experiment to measure the diameter of a thin wire: An air wedge is formed

by inserting the wire between two glass plates. Monochromatic light is reflected
vertically downwards on to the wedge by the inclined glass plate G. A travelling
microscope M with its axis vertical is placed above G. The microscope is focused to get
clear dark and bright fringes. The fringe width (β) is measured. The length (L) of the
wedge also is measured. Knowing λ, the diameter (d) of the wire is calculated using the
formula,
Testing a surface for planeness : A wedge shaped air film is formed between
an optically plane glass plate OP and the surface under test (OQ). The fringes will
be straight if the surface under test is perfectly plane. If the surface OQ is not perfectly
plane, the fringes will be irregular in shape. In practice, perfectly plane surfaces are
produced by polishing the surfaces and testing them from time to time until the fringes
are straight. In testing for planeness, an extended source of light should be used.
Polarisation
Experiments involving interference and diffraction show the wave nature of light.
Experiments involving polarization show the transverse nature of light waves. Light is
an electromagnetic wave, in which electric and magnetic field vectors are varying in time
and space at right angles to the direction of propagation of the wave. The electric vector
E functions as the light vector. In a beam of ordinary light, the vibrations are equally
probable in all directions at right angles to the direction of propagation. There is thus
perfect symmetry around the direction of propagation. Such light waves are called un-
polarised waves.
Polarisation of Light. Suppose ordinary light is incident normally on a pair of

parallel tourmaline crystal plates Pl and P2 cut parallel to their crystallographic axis.
Then, the emergent light shows a variation in intensity as P2 is rotated.
The intensity is a maximum when the axis of P2 is parallel to that of P1 and
minimum when at right angles. This shows that the light emerging from P1 is not
symmetrical about the direction of propagation of light, but its vibrations are confined
only to a single line in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Such light
is called polarised light. Plane polarised light is the light in which the light vector
vibrates along a fixed straight line in a plane perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.
In a plane polarised beam of light, the vibrations are along a single straight
line. If the vibrations are parallel to the plane of the paper, they are represented by
arrows. If they are along a straight line perpendicular to the plane of the paper, they
are represented by dots.
A beam of ordinary light can be considered as consisting of two sets of

vibrations - one set vibrating in one plane and the other perpendicular to it. Hence
Figure (a) can be taken to represent an ordinary beam of light.
The plane in which the vibrations take place (i.e. the plane containing the
direction of vibration and the direction of propagation) is called the plane of vibration.
The plane ABCD is the plane of vibration. A plane perpendicular to the plane of
vibration is called the plane of polarization. Thus plane of polarization is the plane
passing through the direction of propagation and containing no vibrations. The plane
EFGH is the plane of polarization.
Polarisation by Reflection
If un-polarised light falls on a transparent surface of refractive index n at
certain angle ip, called polarising angle, then reflected light is completely plane
polarised. The refracted light is only partially polarised.
Specific Rotation
(i) For crystals, the specific rotation is defined as the rotation in degrees produced
by a plate of the crystal, 1 mm thick. θ = αl
Here, θ is the rotation measured in degrees, l is the path length measured in
millimetres. The unit of α is deg mnr1.
(ii) In the case of a pure liquid, θ = αlρ
Here, the path-length l is measured in decimetres and ρ is the density in
gm/cc.
(iii) The specific rotation of a solution, at a given temperature and for a given
wavelength of light is defined as the rotation (in degrees) produced by 1 decimetre length
of the solution when its concentration is 1 gm/cc.
Unit: deg. dm-1 (gm/cc)-1. θ = αCl
Here θ is the rotation produced in degrees, l is the length of the solution in
decimetre (10 cm) and C is the concentration in gm/cc.
Molecular rotation. The product of specific rotation and the molecular,
weight of the substance is called the molecular rotation.
Laurent's Half- shade Polarimeter
Construction: Its optical parts are shown in Figure. Light from a
monochromatic source S is rendered parallel by a convex lens L and falls on the
polarising Nicol P which converts it into plane polarised light. This light passes
through a half-shade device H and then through the tube T containing the solution.
The transmitted light passes through the analyser
A. The light emerging from the analyser is observed through a telescope G . The
analysing Nicol A can be rotated about the axis of the tube and its position can be read
on a circular scale S.
Working of the half-shade device.

It consists of a semicircular glass plate XBY cemented to a semi-circular quartz
plate XDY. The quartz plate is cut with its optic axis parallel to the line of separation
XCY. The thickness of the quartz plate is such that it introduces a phase difference of
n between the O and E vibrations, i.e., it is a half wave plate. The thickness of the glass
plate is such that it absorbs the same amount of light as the quartz plate.
The light from the polariser (P) is plane polarised and falls normally on the half-
shade plate. Let CP be the direction of vibrations in the plane polarised light. CP is
inclined at an angle δ to the optic axis XY of the quartz half. On passing through the
glass half, the vibrations will remain along CP. But on passing through the quartz half,
the vibrations will be split up into E and O components. The vibrations of the O
component are along CB and those of E component along CX.. O component travels
faster than the E component within quartz. Hence, on emergence, the O component
gains a phase of π over the E component. Thus, on emergence from the quartz plate, O
component has vibrations along CD . The E component has vibrations still along CX.
Thus the light emerging from the quartz plate has resultant vibration along CQ such
that angle PCX = angle QCX = θ. Thus the effect of quartz plate is to rotate the plane
of polarization by an angle 2θ.
Thus there are two plane polarised beams. One emerges from the glass plate with
vibrations in the plane CP, while the other emerges from the quartz plate with vibrations
in the plane CQ.
Let the principal plane of the analysing Nicol be parallel to QCQ'. Then light from
the quartz plate will pass through the analyser. But the light from the glass plate will
be partly stopped by the analyser. Hence quartz half will be brighter than the glass half.
Let the principal plane of the analyser be parallel to PCP'. Then the light from
the glass plate will pass through the analyser. But the light from the quartz plate will
be partly stopped. Therefore, glass half will be brighter than the quartz half.
When the principal plane of the analyser is parallel to XCY , it is equally inclined
the two plane polarised beams. Hence the two halves of the field appear equally
illuminated.
Determination of Specific Rotation of Sugar solution
The tube is first filled with water. The analyser A is adjusted to obtain the
condition of equal brightness of the two halves of the field of view. The position of the
analyser is read on the circular scale (Ro).
The tube is filled with the sugar solution of known concentration. Now the
analyser is rotated to obtain equally illuminated position of the field of view again. The
position of the analyser is again read on the scale (R1). Now R1 - Ro = θ = angle of
rotation. The direction of rotation of the analyser gives the sense of rotation of the plane
of polarization by the active susbtance.
In actual experiment, the angle of rotation is determined for various
concentrations of the sugar solution. A graph between concentration C of the sugar
solution and the angle of rotation θ is plotted. The graph is a straight line. From the
graph, the ratio θ/C is determined. The specific rotation of sugar is calculated from
the relation,
Here, l is the length of the tube in decimetre, θ is the rotation in degrees and C is
the concentration of the solution in gm/cc.
Determination of refractive index of the material of small angled prism:

Principle:
When a ray is incident normally on one face of the prism,
i1=0, r1=0
Deviation:
Here d is the angle of deviation at normal incidence. A is angle of the prism.
Procedure:
The preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer are made. The slit of the
spectrometer
Is illuminated by sodium vapour lamp. The telescope is brought in a line with
the Collimator and the direct reading are taken. The telescope is rotated through
Exactly 90° and clamped. The small angled prism is mounted centrally on the
Prism table. The prism table is then carefully rotated so that the image reflected from
one of the faces (say AB) coincides with the vertical cross-wire (Fig). The reading is
taken (R1). Then the prism table is rotated until the image reflected from the other
face AC
coincides with the vertical cross-wire (Fig).Now the reading is taken (R2). The
difference
between the two readings gives θ, the angle through which the prism has been
rotated. From Fig, it is easily seen that the angle of the prism A = (180 -θ).
To find the angle of deviation corresponding to normal incidence, the prism is set for
normal incidence (Fig). The telescope is adjusted to view the refracted image (Fig). The
telescope is adjusted so that the refracted image of the slit coincides with the vertical
cross-wire. The reading of the vernier is taken. The prism is removed and the direct
reading is taken. The difference between the two readings gives the angle of deviation
(d) corresponding to normal incidence. Knowing A and d, n is calculated using the
formula
Jamin's Interferometer:
Construction:
The essential optical parts are shown in Fig. A and B are two identical optically plane,
thick glass plates. The back surfaces of the plates are silvered. The plates are arranged
with their faces slightly inclined to each other. S is an extended source of
monochromatic light, placed at the focal plane of the lens L. A parallel beam of light
is incident on the plated. It gives rise to two beams: (i) Rl reflected from the front
surface and (ii) Rv reflected from the back surface. Both these reflected beams pass
through two identical glass tubes T and Tr Then the two beams fall on the plate B.
The beam R2 is reflected by the front surface. The beam Rl is reflected from the back
surface. The emergent beams have been obtained from the same beam by the division
of amplitude. Hence the emergent beams interfere. The straight interference fringes
are viewed by a telescope T. These are called Brewster's fringes.
Measurement of refractive index :

This arrangement is used to measure the refractive index of a gas at different
pressures. The two tubes T and T2 are first evacuated. The centre of the cross-wires
of the telescope is set on the centre of a bright fringe. Then the gas is allowed to slowly
enter one of the tubes. The number of fringes crossing the centre of the field of view
is counted.
Let it be m.
Let n = Refractive index of the gas at final pressure
l = length of each tube.
The path difference between the two beams = (n - 1)1
.: (n - 1) l = mλ.
Knowing l,λ and m, n is calculated from the relation n = 1 + (m λ/l)
The experiment is repeated with the gas at different pressures. Let p be the density of
the gas. It is found that (n - 1) ∞ρ or (n - 1)/P is a constant.
This is Gladstone and Dale's law. Since P∞ρ, the pressure of the gas, ( n - l ) P.
Jamin's compensator:
To overcome the difficulty in counting the number of fringes which quickly cross the
field of view, a compensator is used. It consists of two glass plates Cy and, C2 of equal
thickness and inclined at a small angle. The plates can be rotated about a common
horizontal axis by a calibrated circular disc D. When the/disc D is rotated, the
interfering beams passing through C, and C2 are affected such that in one case the
path increases and in the other case it decreases. The circular disc is calibrated by
counting fringes directly with a monochromatic light and is marked in terms of the
refractive index and the number of wavelengths.
The tubes T1 and T2 are evacuated. Using white light the compensator is adjusted so
that the central bright fringe is brought on the cross-wires of the telescope. Then the
gas is introduced in one of the tubes at a given pressure and temperature. The fringes
will shift. The compensator is then rotated to bring the central white fringe the again
on cross-wire. The reading on the calibrated disc directly gives the refractive index of
the gas.
Rayleigh's Refractometer:
Monochromatic light from a linear source S is made parallel by a lens Lx and split
into two beams by a double slit S1, S2 (Fig). After passing through two exactly similar
tubes (T1,T2) and the compensating plates (CVC2), the two beams pass through the lens
L1 The two beams interfere in the focal plane of lens L 2. Interference fringes are
observed through the eyepiece E.
This instrument is mainly used (i) to find the absolute value of ref. index of a gas and
(ii) to find the variation of ref index of a gas with pressure and temperature.
Initially both the tubes T1 , and T2 are evacuated. The central white fringe is observed
in the field of view of the eyepiece using white light. Now the gas at the given
temperature and pressure is introduced in one of the tubes. This brings about a
change in the optical path of one interfering beam. So the central white fringe shifts
from the field of view. By rotating the circular disc D1 and thus the plates C1 , and C2
the central white fringe is brought back to the centre of the field of view. The circular
disc D is previously calibrated in terms of ref. index. The reading on the calibrated disc
D gives the value of ref. index directly.
compensator :
To overcome the difficulty in counting the number of fringes which quickly cross the
field of view, a compensator is used. It consists of two glass plates C1 and, C2 of equal
thickness and inclined at a small angle. The plates can be rotated about a common
horizontal axis by a calibrated circular disc D. When the/disc D is rotated, the
interfering beams passing through C, and C2 are affected such that in one case the
path increases and in the other case it decreases. The circular disc is calibrated by
counting fringes directly with a monochromatic light and is marked in terms of the
refractive index and the number of wavelengths.
The tubes T1 and T2 are evacuated. Using white light the compensator is adjusted so
that the central bright fringe is brought on the cross-wires of the telescope. Then the
gas is introduced in one of the tubes at a given pressure and temperature. The fringes
will shift. The compensator is then rotated to bring the central white fringe the again
on cross-wire. The reading on the calibrated disc directly gives the refractive index of
the gas.
QUESTION BANK
UNIT –IV
TWO MARK
1. What is achromatic prism? ( Nov 2014 ) and (Apr 2017)
2. Define dispersive power. ( Nov 2014 ) ( April 2015 ) and (Apr 2017)
3. Define interference of light.( Nov 2014 ) ( April 2015 )
4. What is an air wedge? ( Nov 2014 ) and (Apr 2017)
FIVE MARK
1. Explain the working of Jamin’s interferometer. ( April 2014 ) ( April 2015 )
and (Apr 2017)
2. Explain the principle of constant deviation spectroscope. ( April 2015 ) ( April
2014 ) and (Apr 2017)
3. Write a note on dispersion without deviation. ( Nov 2014 )
4. Brief Rayleigh’s interferometer.( Nov 2013 ) and (Apr 2017)
TEN MARK
1. Explain how thickness of a wire is measured with air wedge. ( Nov 2014 ) (
April 2014 ) and (Apr 2017)
2. Define specific rotary power. Describe an experimental to determine specific
rotary power of a solution. ( Nov 2013 )
3. Describe how two narrow angled prisms can be combined to produce
dispersion without deviation. Derive an expression for the resultant
dispersion produced.( April 2014 )
UNIT-V
ELECTRICITY
Carey Foster Bridge

Description. The Carey Foster bridge is a form of Wheatstone's bridge. It consists of
a uniform wire AB of length 1 metre stretched on a wooden board (Fig.).
Two equal resistances P and Q are connected in gaps 2 and 3. The unknown
resistance R is connected in gap 1. A standard resistance 5, of the same order of
resistance as R, is connected in gap 4. A Leclanche cell is connected across MN. A
galvanometer G is connected between the terminal C and a sliding contact maker D.
Theory. The contact maker is moved until the bridge is balanced. Let lx be the
balancing length as measured from end A. Let a and p be the end resistances at A
and B. Let p be the resistance per unit length of the wire. From the principle of
Wheatstone's bridge,
•••(I)
The resistances R and S are interchanged and the bridge is again balanced. The
balancing length l2 is determined from the same end A.
Then,
Figs represent the equivalent Wheatstone's bridge circuit in the two cases.
From Eqns. (1) and (2),
... (5)
To find p. A standard resistance of 0.1 Q is connected in gap 1. A thick copper strip

is connected in gap 4 i.e., R = 0.1 Q. and S - 0. The balancing length /, is determined.
The standard resistance and the thick
copper strip are interchanged. The balancing length / 2' is determined.
From Eq. (5), 0.1 = S + p (/2' - //)
Thus by knowing 5 and p, the unknown resistance R is calculate
Determination of the temperature coefficient of resistance: Let RQ and Rt be the

resistances of a wire at temperatures 0°C and t°C Then,
where a is the temperature coefficient of resistance of the material. The increase of resistance
per unit original resistance per degree rise of temperature is called temperature coefficient of
resistance.
The given wire is wound non-inductively in the form of a double spiral on a glass tube. It is
immersed in a beaker containing ice
at 0°C. The resistance of the wire is determined as above. The resistance of the wire is
determined at 10°, 20°, 30°,...100oC. A graph is drawn with temperature along the X-axis
and resistance along the Y-axis (Fig.). A straight line is obtained.
Potentiometer:
Principle:
A potentiometer is a device for measuring or potential differences. A potentiometer can be
used to measure any electrical quantity which can be converted into a proportionate D.C.
potential difference.
78
It consists of a uniform wire AB of length 10 m stretched on a wooden board (Fig). A steady
current is passed through the wire AB with the help of a cell of EMF E.
Let
ρ = resistance per unit length of A potentiometer wire, and
I = steady current passing through the wire.
Let C be a variable point.
Let AB = L and AC = l.
PD across AB = Lρl, and
PD across AC = lρI
PD across AB = Lρl /lρI = L/I

PD across AC
PD across AC = l/L X PD across AB
i.e., for a steady current passing through the potentiometer wire AB, the PD across any length
is proportional to the length of the wire.
If a D.C. voltmeter is connected between A and the variable point C, it will be noted that the
voltmeter registers greater values of PD's as the point C slides from A to B.
Comparison of EMFs of two cells
A lead accumulator of emf E is connected across the potentiometer wire AB (Fig). G is a

galvanometer. E1 and E2 are the two emf s to be compared. The emf of E 1 is balanced across
a length l1 of the potentiometer. Similarly, the emf of E2 is balanced across a length l2 of the
potentiometer. Then,
79
E1 l1 and E2 l2
E1 / E2 = l1/ l2
If one of the cells, say E1 is a standard cadmium cell, the emf of the other can be determined.
Determination of the Internal Resistance of a Cell

AB is the potentiometer wire (Fig). A steady current is passed through the wire with the help
of a battery. E is the cell whose internal resistance is to be measured. A resistance box R is
connected across the cell through a key K2.
Closing key K1 a balancing point is obtained on the potentiometer wire with K2 open.
The balancing length /, (= AC) now is a measure of the EMF E of the cell.
Then
E l1
The key K2 is closed. A resistance R is introduced in the box. Without disturbing rheostat Rh,
the balancing length l2 (= AD) is measured. This is a measure of the PD V of the cell. Then
V l2
From Eqns. (1) and (2)

E/V = l1 / l2
Let E be the EMF of the cell and r the internal resistance. Let V be the PD across the cell
when supplying a current / through the external resistance R.
80
Then,
V = IR
E = I(R+r)
E/V = R+r/R = 1+r/R
Comparing eqn (3) and (6),
Hence r is calculated.
Calibration of Ammeter
Connect the ends of the potentiometer wire to the terminals of a storage cell through a key
K1 (Fig). S is a standard cell. Connect the ammeter (A) to be calibrated in series with a battery,
key K2, a rheostat and a standard resistance R. When a current I passes through the standard
resistance R, the PD across R is IR. This potential drop is measured with the help of
potentiometer.
Connect 1 and 3 and balance the EMF of the standard cell against the Potentiometer.
Find the balancing length from A. The PD per cm of the potentiometer = E/l.
Connect 2 and 3. Adjust the rheostat so that the ammeter reads a value Av Balance the PD
across against the potentiometer and find the balancing length l1
PD across = R = E l1/l
Current through R = E l1/lR
81
Correction to ammeter reading = (El1 /lR) –A1
Similarly, the corrections for other ammeter readings are determined. A calibration curve
is plotted for ammeter, taking ammeter readings on X-axis and corrections on Y- axis.
Calibration of voltmeter (Low range)
The connections are made as shown in Fig. The voltmeter is connected parallel to R. Let l be
the balancing length for the standard cell. The PD across R is balanced against the
potentiometer. Let l1 be the balancing length when the voltmeter reads V1.
PD across R = El1 /l
Correction to voltmeter = (El1 /l) –V1
The experiment is repeated for various readings of the voltmeter and a calibration graph is
drawn.
Calibration of voltmeter (High Range)
Connections are made as shown in Fig. Take suitable high resistances in P and Q such that
the PD across P does not exceed the PD across the potentiometer. The balancing length l for
the standard cell is determined first. Then the PD across P is balanced against the
potentiometer and the balancing length l1 is determined.
82
PD across P = El1 /l
The experiment is repeated for various readings of the voltmeter. A calibration curve is plotted
for voltmeter, taking voltmeter readings on X-axis and corrections on Y-axis.
Moving Coil Ballistic Galvanometer
Principle.
When a current is passed through a coil, suspended freely in a magnetic field, it experiences a
force in a direction given by Fleming's left hand rule.
Construction.
83
It consists of a rectangular coil of thin copper wire wound on a non-metallic frame of ivory
(Fig.). It is suspended by means of a phosphor bronze wire between the poles of a powerful
horse-shoe magnet. A small circular mirror is attached to the suspension wire. Lower end of
the coil is
connected to a hair-spring. The upper end of the suspension wire and the lower end of the
spring are connected to terminals T1and T2. A cylindrical soft iron core (C) is placed
symmetrically inside the coil between the magnetic poles which are also made cylindrical in
shape. This iron core concentrates the magnetic field and helps in producing radial field.
The B.G. is used to measure electric charge. The charge has to pass through the coil as quickly
as possible and before the coil starts moving. The coil thus gets an impulse and a throw is
registered. To achieve this result, a coil of high moment of inertia is used so that the period
of oscillation of the coil is fairly large. The oscillations of the coil are practically undamped.
Theory.
84
(i) Consider a rectangular coil of N turns placed in a uniform magnetic field of magnetic
induction B (Fig). Let l e the length of the coil and b its breadth.
Area of the coil = A = lb.
When a current i passes through the coil
Torque on the coil = T = NiBA.
If the current passes for a short interval dt, the angular impulse produced in the coil is
If the current passes for t seconds, the total angular impulse given to the coil is
total charge passing through the galvanometer coil
Let I be the moment of inertia of the coil about the axis of suspension and ω its angular
velocity.
Then,change in angular momentum of the coil = Iω ... (4)
Iω = NBAq. ... (5)
85
(ii) The kinetic energy of the moving system 1/2 Iω2 is used in twisting the
suspension wire through
an angle 0. Let c be the restoring torque per unit twist of the suspension wire. Then,
work done in twisting the suspension wire by an angle θ = 1/2 c θ 2
1/2 Iω2 = 1/2 c θ2
Iω2 = c θ2---------------(6)
(iii)The period of oscillation of the coil is
----------(7)
Multiplying eqs (6)and (7),
86
This gives the relation between the charge flowing and the ballistic throw θ of the
galvanometer
Q∞θ
Correction for Damping in Ballistic Galvanometer

We have assumed that the whole of the kinetic energy imparted to the coil is used in twisting
the suspension of the coil. In actual practice, the motion of the coil is damped by air
resistance and the induced current produced in the coil. The first throw of the galvanometer
is, therefore, smaller than it would have been in the absence of damping. The correct value
of first throw is however obtained by applying damping correction.
Let θ1, θ2 , θ3 , ……be the successive maximum deflections from zero position to the right and
left (Fig). Then it is found that
The constant d is called the decrement per half vibration.
Let d = eλ so that = λ loged

Here λ is called the logarithmic decrement.
For a complete vibration,
Letθ be the true first throw in the absence of damping .θ >θ1.
The first throw θ1, is observed after the coil completes a quarter of vibration.
87
In this case, the value of the decrement would be eλ/2
We can calculate X by observing the first throw θ1 and the eleventh throw θ11
Dead-beat and Ballistic galvanometers

Galvanometers are classified as (i) dead-beat or aperiodic and (ii) ballistic galvanometers.
A moving coil galvanometer in which the coil is wound on a metallic conducting frame is
known as a dead-beat galvanometer. It is called "dead-beat" because it gives a steady
deflection without producing any oscillation, when a steady current is passed through the
coil.
Conditions for a moving coil galvanometer to be dead beat: (i) Moment of inertia of the
system should be small.
(ii) Coil should be mounted on a conducting frame.
(iii) Suspension fibre should be comparatively thicker.
Conditions for a moving coil galvanometer to be ballistic: (i) The moment of inertia of
moving system should be large.
(ii) Suspension fibre should be very fine.
(iii) Air resistance should be small.
(iv) The damping should be small i.e., the coil should be wound on a non-conducting frame.
88
Current and Voltage Sensitivities of a moving-coil galvanometer.
The figure of merit or current sensitivity (S c) of a moving coil mirror galvanometer is the
current that is required to produce a deflection of 1 mm on a scale kept at a distance of 1
metre from the mirror.
It is expressed in mm.
The voltage sensitivity (Sv) is the p.d. that should be applied to the galvanometer to produce
a deflection of 1 mm on a scale at a distance of 1 metre.
To determine the current and voltage sensitivities of a galvanometer, the circuit shown in Fig
is used. Two resistance boxes P and Q and a key K are connected in series with a lead ac-
cumulator of emf E. Between the ends of P, a resistance box R and the M.G., through a
commutator, are connected.
A low resistance (say 1 Q. ) is introduced in P and a high resistance (say 9999 Q.) in Q. With
no resistance in R, the deflection 9 of the galvanometer is found.
Voltage sensitivity, Sv =
The resistance in R is adjusted such that the deflection becomes 0/2. The resistance in R is
equal to the galvanometer resistance R .
Current sensitivity S =
89
The experiment is repeated for various values of P keeping P + Q constant.
Measurement of charge sensitiveness (Figure of merit of a B.G.)

The charge passing through a B.G., is given by
Here AT is charge sensitiveness or figure of merit of the galvanometer. It is also known as the
'ballistic reduction factor' of the galvanometer.
The charge that should circulate through the coil to produce an undamped throw of 1 mm in
the spot of light on a scale placed at a distance of 1 metre from the mirror is called the charge
sensitiveness K of the ballistic galvanometer.
Two resistance boxes P and Q and a key K are connected in series with an accumulator of
emf E (Fig. 10.23). A capacitor of known capacitance C is connected to P through the vibrator
V and charging terminal Ch of the charge-discharge key. The capacitor is charged with the
p.d. across-P. The charge on the capacitor can be discharged through the B.G. included in
the circuit through the vibrator and discharge terminal of the charge-discharge key. A
commutator Cr is included in the circuit to reverse the charge in the B.G.
90
1000 Q in P and 9000 Q in Q are included. The capacitor is charged and immediately
discharged through the B.G. The first throw 8, is noted. The experiment is repeated with P =
2000 Q, 3000 Q. etc., keeping P + Q = 10,000 Q. Mean value of /70, is calculated.
Charge required to produce unit deflection = K
The value of λ is obtained by observing the first throw θ 1 and then the eleventh throw θ11
and using the relation
Comparison of two Capacitances using B.G.

Connections are made as shown in Fig. Let C 1 and C2 be the capacitances of the two given
capacitors. These capacitors are connected to the end terminals of the DPDT key. A resistance
of 1000 Ω is introduced in P and 9000 Ω. in Q.
91
The capacitor C1 is charged to the p.d. across P. The charge on C 1 is then discharged through
the B.G. The throws in the B.G. are noted before and after reversing the commutator. The
mean throw θl is found out.
With the same resistances in P and Q, the handle of the DPDT key is thrown on the side of
C2. C2 is charged to the same potential across P.
The charge on C2 is then discharged through the B.G. The mean throw θ 2 is found out.
Let V be the p.d. across the terminals of P. Then,
The experiment is repeated for different values of P keeping (P + Q) constant.
92
QUESTION BANK
UNIT –V
TWO MARK
93
1. Write the principle of potentiometer. ( Nov 2014 ) ( April 2015 ) and (Apr 2017)
2. What is the principle of moving coil ballistic galvanometer? ( Nov 2014 )
3. List the applications of ballistic galvanometer.( Nov 2014 ) and (Apr 2017)
4. Give any two applications of potentiometer.( Nov 2014 ) ( April 2015 )
5. Define current sensitivity. ( April 2014 ) and (Apr 2017)
FIVE MARK
1. Explain the construction of moving coil galvanometer. ( Nov 2014 ) ( April 2015 ) and
(Apr 2017)
2. Describe how potentiometer is used to calibrate an ammeter. ( Nov 2013 )
3. Give the theory of carey foster’s bridge. ( April 2014 ) and (Apr 2017)
4. Explain how capacities are compared. ( April 2015 )
5. Describe how potentiometer is used to calibrate an ammeter. ( Nov 2013 )
TEN MARK
1. Describe potentiometer and explain how it can be used :
(a) Measure an unknown potential and
(b) Calibrate a voltmeter. ( Nov 2015 ) ( April 2015 ) and (Apr 2017)
2. Describe ammeter calibration with potentiometer. ( April 2014 )
3. Explain the theory of Carrey- Foster’s bridge with necessary circuit to measure the
unknown resistance. ( Nov 2014 )
94

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SYLLABUS

Internal Marks: 25 Marks External Marks : 75 Marks

UNIT I PROPERTIES OF MATTER

EXPRESSION FOR BENDING MOMENT

Moment of this force about the neutral axis ef

forces acting on all the filaments  R

Load Readings of the scale as seen in the telescope Depression

2. Young’s modulus - Uniform bending:

Load in Readings of the scale as seen in the Shift in reading for

Fig. 1.4 (1) Fig. 1.4(2)

Torque per unit twist = c = G(b4-a4)/(2L)

Determination of rigidity modulus of a wire by torsional pendulum with mass

4 2 .2m. ( d 2 2 − d12 ) T0 2 2m. ( d 2 2 − d12 ) T0 2

Fig.1.6 (a) Fig. 1.6(b)

Definition- surface tension:

50) are collected.

Excess pressure (p) inside the drop over  

Introduction about Interfacial Tension:

Experiment to determine the interfacial tension between water and kerosene

Mass of beaker + Mass of beaker Mass of 50

Laws of transverse vibrations of strings

(i). The law of length

For a given wire (m is constant), when T is constant, the fundamental frequency

(ii). Law of tension:

For constant l and m, the fundamental frequency is directly proportional to

(iii) The law of mass:

For constant l and T, the fundamental frequency varies inversely as the

Sonometer – verification of laws of transverse vibrations of strings:

We can verify the three laws of vibration as follows:

Law of length (f ∝ 1/L):

Law of tension (f ∝ √T):

The resonance of different tuning forks of different frequencies was observed

Laws of mass (f ∝ 1√μ):

The resonance is observed by taking different tuning forks of different

Determination of AC frequency using sonometer:

A sonometer is an apparatus used to study the transverse vibrations of

A sonometer is used to determine the frequency of alternating current. A step down

When an alternating current of definite frequency passes through the wire

Production by piezo electric method:

Applications for the Piezoelectric Effect

High Voltage and Power Sources

Regarding piezoelectric motors, the piezoelectric element receives an electrical

The characteristics of piezoelectric materials provided the perfect technology

Acoustics is the interdisciplinary science that deals with the study of

An auditorium is a part of a building in which large number of people may be

e = sound energy density Joules/m3

T = -ln (10-6) x 4 / 344 V / A

= 13.8 x 4 / 344 V/A = 0.161 V/A

In reality, surfaces do not purely absorb or purely reflect.

The way we estimate the absorbing area, A, in Sabine's formula is by weighting

V = the total volume of the room in cubic meters

Sabine's formula is approximate. However, it works reasonably well if the average

A / Atotal < 0.15

.'. Specific heat, C = H/mθ

CV It is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one

Heat supplied = 1xCpxdT + r dT/J

Specific Heat of a Gas at Constant Volume—Joly's Differential Steam

C is a chamber in which steam can be admitted. P 1 and P2 are scale pans

Specific Heat of a gas at Constant pressure—(Regnault’s Method)