UNIT 1 DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES

Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Erick Erickson Theory of Psychosocial Development
1.2.1 Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust
1.2.2 Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
1.2.3 Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt
1.2.4 Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority
1.2.5 Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion
1.2.6 Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation
1.2.7 Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation
1.2.8 Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair

1.3 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

1.3.1 Stage I: The Sensori-motor Stage (birth to 2years)
1.3.2 Stage II: The Pre-operational Stage (2-7years)
1.3.3 Stage III: The Concrete Operational Stage (7-11years)
1.3.4 Stage IV: The Formal Operational Stage (11 onwards)

1.4 Assimilation and Accommodation

1.5 Let Us Sum Up
1.6 Unit End Questions
1.7 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
1.8 References

1.0 INTRODUCTION
As reflected from the title, this block will deal with the influence of family
environment and culture on the mental health of the individuals. The present
unit will focus on the developmental theories which deal with the development
of an individual in all aspects since child hood. It is interesting to know that
human beings change with varied experiences of their life. Developmental
theories attempts to understand; explain and predict behaviour that occurs
throughout a person’s life span. Erikson’s and Piaget theories are two such
theories.

1.1 OBJECTIVES
With the help of this unit, you will be able to:
 understand the stages of Psycho Social Development as propounded by
Erik Erikson; and
 describe the stages of Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development.

5
Family, Culture and
Mental Health 1.2 ERIK ERIKSON’S THEORY OF
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Erik Erikson has a significant contribution in the theories of personality
development. The theory of psychosocial development is a well-known theory
of Erikson which tries to explain the development of personality which takes
place through a series of stages since childhood. The theory of Psycho social
development describes the impact of social experience across the whole
lifespan. In the process of social interaction, a person develops a sense of
identity of oneself. Ego identity is one of the important concepts of Erikson’s
theory. This is term given to the conscious sense of self that one develops
through social interaction. According to Erikson, this sense of self changes, as
one goes through the various stages of personality development. In every
stage of life there is new information and experience that are present in one’s
life. These are the challenges one faces to the sense of self or ego identity.
The experience of facing these challenges determines one’s ego identity and
shapes one’s perception of life. There are challenges which one faces in daily
interactions in society and how one deals with it forms part of one’s personality.
In addition to ego identity, Erikson also believed that a sense of competence
motivates behaviors and actions. Each stage in Erikson’s theory is concerned
with becoming competent in an area of life. If the stage is handled well, the
person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes referred to as ego
strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge
with a sense of inadequacy.
In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a
turning point in development. In Erikson’s view, these conflicts are centered
on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality.
During these times, the potential for personal growth is high, but so is the
potential for failure. The stages of psychosocial development have been
discussed accordingly in the sub sections below:

1.2.1 Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust

(Approx. 0-2 yrs.)
This is the first stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. This
stage occurs in between birth to two years of age of a child. It is a significant
stage because at this phase of life, an infant is totally dependent on quality of
care given. If the proper care is given a child will develop trust. This is
considered important as this basic trust in the caregiver will make a child feel
safe and secure in most of its future interactions. If care-giving is inconsistent,
not dependable and rejecting in nature, the child develops a sense of mistrust
which is carried over in future interactions.
Thus, when the child develops basic trust in the care-giver, a sense of hope
and confidence in the world is developed. This would result in the child having
an optimistic view of the world. The opposite is true for those children who
fail to develop trust. Their sense of mistrust leads them to experience
depression and they could be withdrawn from people and may even develop
paranoia at a later point of time.

6
1.2.2 Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Developmental Theories
Doubt (Approx. 2-4 yrs.)
The second stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development occurs
during early childhood. At this stage, children are focused on developing a
greater sense of personal control. Erikson believed that toilet training was a
vital part of this process. He believed that learning to control one’s bodily
functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence. Likewise
developing control over the choice of food, toys or clothing is important in
personality development. If a child is able to have a sense of personal control,
he/she will feel secure and confident and if they do not succeed, then it might
lead to a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.
Thus, autonomy develops if a child is guided positively through praise, firmness,
encouragement and gentleness to become independent. This will result in the
child having a sense of will and good self esteem. If parents are too permissive,
harsh, or demanding, the child can feel defeated, and experience extreme shame
and doubt. This might result in maladaptive ways of gaining a feeling of
control, power, or competence. For instance, following strict rules and
regulations might give a false sense of competency. This could result in a form
of obsessive behaviour. If the child is given no limits or guidance, the child can
fail to gain any shame or doubt and be impulsive in its behaviour.

1.2.3 Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt

(Approx. 3-5 yrs.)
The third stage occurs during the preschool years, when a child starts asserting
his/her power and is able to get a control over the world (his/her surroundings)
through directing play and other social interactions. Children who are successful
at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire
these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.
Hence, if parents are understanding and supportive of a child’s efforts to
show initiative, the child develops purpose, and sets goals and acts in ways
to reach them whereas if children are punished for attempts to show initiative,
they are likely to develop a sense of guilt, which in excess can lead
to inhibition.

1.2.4 Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority

(Approx. 5-12 yrs.)
This stage covers the early school years and is a latency stage. At this stage
of lifespan, a child starts developing a sense of pride in their accomplishments
and abilities with the help social interactions. And if the child is encouraged
and praised by parents and teachers then he/she develops a feeling of
competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no
encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be
successful. If caretakers do not support the child, feelings of inferiority are
likely to develop and this might lead the child to become underachiever.
Encouraging the child to feel over competent might make a child a shallow
person not being able to reflect on personal deficits.

7
Family, Culture and 1.2.5 Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion
Mental Health
(Approx. 13-19 yrs.)
The fifth stage of development occurs at the stage of adolescence. At this
stage, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self.
Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal
exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a
feeling of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs
and desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future.
When an adolescent resolves this crisis, then a sense of fidelity would develop.
This is described as a sense of identity regarding who they are and what is
the objective of their life. If they are unable to resolve they develop identity
diffusion. These adolescents may have an unstable sense of self and may
need to belong to some group in order to develop a sense of identity. If this
becomes a serious issue for the adolescent then might have oppositional views
and may join hate cults etc.

1.2.6 Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation

(Approx. 20-24yrs. / 24-39 yrs.)
This stage covers the period of early adulthood. This is a stage in which
people start exploring personal relationships. Erikson believed it was vital that
people develop close, committed relationships with other people and have an
ability to experience intimacy. Those who are successful at this stage will form
relationships that are committed and secure. This will also depend on previous
stages of development, such as developing a strong sense of personal identity.
Persons with poor sense of self are observed to have a tendency to have less
committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional
isolation, loneliness, and depression.

1.2.7 Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs.

Stagnation (Approx.25-64/40-64 yrs.)
During middle adulthood, people continue to build their lives through various
ways such as building a career and bringing up or caring for a family. Those
who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the
world by being active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain
this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world. If a person has
experienced a sense of creativity and success, then the person develop a
sense of generativity. People who do not feel this develop a sense
of stagnation. They become self absorbed, do not connect easily to others
and do not offer much to society.

1.2.8 Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair

(65 yrs. till death)
This is a phase that occurs during late adult hood or old age and is focused
on reflecting back on life. Those who face conflicts at this stage will feel that
their life has been wasted and will experience many regrets. The individual will
be left with feelings of bitterness and despair. Those who feel proud of their
accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this
phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction.
8 These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death.
This entails facing the ending of life, and accepting successes and failures, Developmental Theories
ageing, and loss. People develop ego integrity and accept their lives if they
succeed, and develop a sense of wisdom and those who do not, feel a sense
of despair and dread their death.
Table: Psycho social Stages of Development by Erik Erikson
Stage Psycho-social Approximate Important Criteria
crisis age relations dominating
at the the develop-
stage ment at
the stage
1 Trust vs. 0-2 years Mother Hope
Mistrust
2 Autonomy vs. 2-4 years Parents Will
Shame and Doubt
3 Initiative vs. Guilt 3-5 years Family Purpose
4 Industry vs. Inferiority 5-12 years Neighbour, Competence
school
5 Identity vs. Confusion 13-19 years Role model Fidelity
6 Intimacy vs. 20-24 years / Life partners, Love
Isolation 24-39 years friends
7 Generativity vs. 25-64 years/ Workmates Care
Stagnation 40-64 years
8 Integrity vs. 65 years till Humanity, Wisdom
Despair death mankind

Self Assessment Questions 1

State Whether the following statements are ‘True’ or ‘False’:
1) Fidelity is described as a sense of identity regarding who they are
and what is the objective of their life ............................... .
2) Autonomy develops if a child is guided negatively through blames,
punishments and curse become independent ........................
3) If the proper care is given a child will develop mistrust towards the
caretakes.................... .
4) Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed
relationships with other people and have an ability to experience
intimacy............................ .

1.3 PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE

DEVELOPMENT
After knowing the theory of Erikson, it is important for you to know the
significant contribution of Piaget. Piaget also tried to explain the development
that takes place at different stages of development of child but from a
9
Family, Culture and perspective of cognitive development. The Piaget’s theory of cognitive
Mental Health development focuses on the child thoughts, perception and acquisition of
knowledge at each stage. The stages of cognitive development propounded
by Piaget have been explained in the following sub sections:
1.3.1 Stage I: The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years)
This stage of cognitive development takes place since birth to about two
years of age. At this stage the child tries to make sense of the world through
its senses and motor ability. Some abilities are innate behaviour which greatly
assists the infant. Sucking, looking, grasping, crying and listening are such
innate behaviours that enhance learning. In the beginning the infant uses only
reflexes and innate behaviour. As they become mobile, their cognitive ability
increases slowly. Towards the end of this stage, the child uses a range of
complex sensori-motor skills.
According to Piaget there are two mental representations a child must develop.
One is the concept of Object Permanence. This is an important
accomplishment for an infant in this stage, as their memory power increases.
This is the ability to understand that objects continue to exist even if they
cannot be seen or heard. As the child matures towards the end of this stage,
it develops the ability to mentally represent the object in their mind, leading
to exploration for an object even if it is moved. Another concept that Piaget
states is important to achieve in this stage is Deferred Imitation. This is
simply the imitation of behaviour a child has seen before. As child can mentally
represent behaviour they have seen, they are able to enact it through playing
and in other situations. So a child might ‘talk’ into a toy telephone or ‘steer’
a toy car around the room.
1.3.2 Stage II: The Pre-operational Stage (2-7 years)
The pre operational stage occurs in between the age of two to seven years.
During the age range of toddler hood to early child hood, there is a smooth
transition from the previous stage. The major accomplishment during stage is
language ability, memory and imagination power. A child is also able to
symbolically use one object for representing another. For example, a child
swinging their arms in a circular motion might represent the wheels on a train.
This shows the relationships children can form between language, actions and
objects at this stage.
A major characteristic of this stage is egocentrism. This is the ability to
perceive the world only in relation to oneself and how the child perceives
things. They find it difficult to see it from another person’s perspective. Another
feature of this stage is conservation. Children struggle to understand the
difference in quantity and measurements in different situations. For example,
if a liquid in one container that is broad based is poured into taller and
narrower container, the child is unable to see that the quantity of liquid is the
same. They see the taller glass as containing more liquid.
1.3.3 Stage III: The Concrete Operational Stage
(7-11 years)
This stage sees another shift in children’s cognitive thinking. It is aptly
10 named “concrete” because children struggle to apply concepts to anything
which cannot physically be manipulated or seen. Children have difficulty in Developmental Theories
understanding hypothetical and abstract concepts. However, they now begin
to understand that other people have different perspectives from them. For
example, simple Maths, such as addition/subtraction becomes much easier
but they struggle to apply any prior knowledge to abstract situations.
1.3.4 Stage IV: The Formal Operational Stage
(11 onwards)
Children at this stage acquire the ability to think hypothetically and think
about abstract concepts. For example, children begin to have the ability to
think about consequences and outcomes before taking an action. Verbal
information becomes adequate for them to come to a decision or conclusion.
They do not require “concrete” physical objects to do take a decision or
act on something. When a problem is presented to them, they can think
logically and consistently and solve the problem or come to a conclusion.
Their thinking becomes more like an adult.

1.4 ASSIMILATION AND ACCOMMODATION

It is worth to mention that, Piaget basically focussed on two processes-
assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is a process in which with
the help of experiences an individual assimilates or fits new thoughts and
information in to an existing old thought or idea. It is a process of integrating
external elements into definite structures through experience. It is process
with the help of which an individual adapts new information. It leads to
fitting of new information into pre-existing cognitive schemas. It gradually
occurs when an individual faces new or unfamiliar information and then the
individual refers to previously learned information in order to make sense of
it. Accommodation is totally opposite of assimilation. In the process of
accommodation, an individual takes new information in one’s environment
and alters the pre-existing schemas in order to fit in the new information.
That is, when the previously existing information or cognitive schema does
not work then the individual needs to change the existing information in
order to deal with the newer object, information or experience. Amongst the
two, accommodation is more significant because with the help of
accommodation only people will continue to interpret new concepts, schemas
and frameworks. Although, he proposed that both the processes- assimilation
and accommodation work together and go in hand by hand. In order to
assimilate an object into an existing mental schema, one first needs to take
into account or accommodate to the particularities of this object to a certain
extent. For example, in order to recognize (assimilate) a car as a car, an
individual first needs to focus (accommodate) on the boundaries of this
object. To do this, one needs to roughly recognize the size of the object.
Development increases the balance, or equilibration, between these two
functions. When both assimilation and accommodation are well balanced
then mental schemas of the operative intelligence takes place. When one
process dominates over the other, they generate representations which belong
to figurative intelligence.

11
Family, Culture and
Mental Health Self Assessment Questions 2
Fill in the blanks:
1) Assimilation is a process in which with the help of .............................
an individual assimilates of fits new ................................... in to an
existing old thought or idea.
2) The pre operational stage occurs in between the age of .............
.................... years.
3) Children at ............................................................... stage acquire
the ability to think hypothetically and think about abstract concepts.
4) In the process of ............................................................ , an
individual takes new information in one’s environment and alters the
pre-existing schemas in order to fit in the new information. ..........

1.5 LET US SUM UP

In this section we have discussed about two of the major theories of
development - Erik Erikson’s theory of Psychosocial Development and Piaget’s
theory of Cognitive Development. Erikson’s stages of psychosocial
development as articulated by Erik Erikson explain eight stages through which
a healthily developing human should pass from infancy to late adulthood. In
each stage the person confronts, and hopefully masters, new challenges. Each
stage builds on the successful completion of earlier stages. The challenges of
stages not successfully completed may be expected to reappear as problems
in the future.
However, mastery of a stage is not required to advance to the next stage.
Erikson’s stage theory characterizes an individual advancing through the eight
life stages as a function of negotiating his or her biological forces and
sociocultural forces. Each stage is characterized by a psycho social crisis of
these two conflicting forces (as shown in the table below). If an individual
does indeed successfully reconcile these forces (favoring the first mentioned
attribute in the crisis), he or she emerges from the stage with the corresponding
virtue. For example, if an infant enters into the toddler stage (autonomy vs.
shame & doubt) with more trust than mistrust, he or she carries the virtue of
hope into the remaining life stages.
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is a comprehensive theory about the
nature and development of human intelligence. It deals with the nature of
knowledge and how humans come gradually to acquire, construct, and use it.
To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental
processes as a result of biological maturation and environmental experience.
Children construct an understanding of the world around them, then experience
discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in
their environment. Moreover, Piaget claims the idea that cognitive development
is at the center of human organism and language is contingent on cognitive
development.

12
 Developmental Theories
1.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) What could be the consequences of developing a sense of mistrust in an
infant?
2) How does an infant develop a sense of autonomy?
3) How does a sense of guild develop in a child?
4) How does developing a sense of intimacy help in future interactions?
5) What is meant by ego integrity according to this theory?
6) What are the major mental representations that children develop in the
sensorimotor stage?
7) How do the mental representations in stage 1, help in the next stage or
preoperational stage in Piget’s theory of cognitive development?
8) How do young children’s ability to think in abstract terms help in problem
solving tasks given to them?

1.7 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
Self Assessment Questions 1
1) True
2) False
3) False
4) True
Self Assessment Questions 2
1) experiences; thoughts and information
2) two to seven
3) Formal Operational
4) accommodation

1.8 REFERENCES
Papalia, D., Olds S & Feldman R.( 2004). Human Development, 9thedition.
Tata Mcgraw Hill Education Private Limited.
Sadock B, & Sadock V, (2007). Kaplan and Sadock’s synopsis of
psychiatry, Behavioural sciences/clinical psychiatry, 10thedn.Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins, New Delhi.
http://psychology.about.com/od/psychosocialtheories/a/psychosocial.htm
accessed on 4/6/15
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piaget%27s_theory_of_cognitive_development
accessed on 4/6/15 13