CONTENTS

SL.
NO. DETAILS/UNITS PAGE NUMBER
1 Rise of Nationalism in Europe 4 to 8

2 Nationalism in India 9 to 13

3 Making of a Global World 14 to 17

4 Age of Industrialisation 18 to 21

5 Print Culture and Modern World 22 to 25

6 Resources and Development 26 to 33
7 Forest and Wild Life 34 to 35

8 Water Resources 36 to 38
9 Agriculture 39 to 43

10 Minerals and Energy Resources 44 to 46

11 Manufacturing Industries 47 to 50

12 Lifelines of National Economy 51 to 56

13 Power Sharing 57 to 58

14 Federalism 59 to 61

15 Gender, Religion and Caste 62 to 63

16 Political Parties 64 to 66

17 Outcomes of Democracy 67

18 Development 68 to 73

19 Sectors of Indian Economy 74 to 80

20 Money and Credit 81 to 84

21 Globalisation and Indian Economy 85 to 89

22 Consumer Rights 90 to 92

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Section A- INDIA AND CONTEMPORARY WORLD-II (HISTORY)

Chapter 1- RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation

French Revolution of 1789 was the first clear expression of nationalism.

• Steps taken by French Revolutionaries to create a sense of collective identity amongst the
French people:

→ Ideas of La patrie and Le citoyen

→ New French Flag

→ Estates General was elected and renamed National Assembly

→ New hymns composed and oaths taken

→ Centralized administration system

→ Internal customs duties and dues were abolished

→ Uniform system of weights and measures were introduced

→ French became the common language

Napolean

• Ruled France from 1799 to 1815.

• Gained absolute powers in 1799 by becoming the First Consul.

Civil Code of 1804 / Napoleonic Code

• Equality before the law was established

• Secured the right to property

• Simplified administrative measures

• Abolished feudal system

• Freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues

• Guild restrictions were removed

• Transport and communication systems were improved.

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Napoleon took away political freedom, increased taxes, imposed censorship and forced
people to join French army.

The Making of Nationalism in Europe

No Nation states were in Europe because of not common identity or culture.

• People residing in different areas spoke different languages.

→ Example: Hungary half of the population spoke Magyar other half spoke variety of
dialects and in Galicia people spoke Polish.

The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class

• Aristocracy

→ The land owning class.

→ Spoke French connected by ties of marriages.

→ Numerically a small group.

• Peasantry

→ Majority of population

• Middle class

→ New Social class emerged with the growth of towns and emergence of commercial
classes.

→ Educated class where ideas of nationality gained popularity.

What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for?

• Liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality for all before the law

→ The end of autocracy and clerical privileges

→ A constitution and representative government through parliament.

• In the economic sphere liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and the abolition of
state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.

• Zollverein abolished tariff barriers, reduced the number of currencies to two, and
promoted a network of railways to stimulate mobility.

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A New Conservatism after 1815

• Believed that established institutions of state and society should be preserved, with the
changes initiated by Napoleon.

Treaty of Vienna (1815)

• Bourbon dynasty was restored to power in France

• A series of states created on the French boundary for preventing French expansion in
future.

• German confederation was left untouched.

• Main intentions was to restore the monarchies that had been overthrown by Napoleon.

The Revolutionaries

A commitment to oppose monarchical forms that had been established after the Vienna
Congress, and to fight for liberty and freedom.

Giuseppe Mazzini

• Born in Genoa in 1807

• A member of the secret society of Carbonari

• Founded Young Italy in Marseellies, Young Europe in Berne.

• Believed in the unification of Italy into a republic.

The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848

• In July 1830, Bourbon kings of France were overthrown and a constitutional monarchy
was established.

• Belgium broke away from the United kingdoms of the Netherlands.

• Greece which had been a part of the Ottomon Empire since the fifteenth century,
struggled for independence.
→ Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation.
The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling

• A cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment,

criticized the glorification of reason and science and focused instead on emotions, intuition
and mystical feelings.

• German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder tried to discovered culture among common
6
people, through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances.

Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt

• In most countries there were more seekers of jobs than employment.

• Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums.

• The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in town and
country.

• In 1848, the Population of Paris came out on the roads and Louis Philippe was forced to
flee and National Assembly proclaimed a Republic.

• In 1845, weavers in Silesia led a revolt against contractors.

1848: The Revolution of the Liberals

• The revolution was led by educated middle classes who combined their demands for
constitutionalism with national unification.

Frankfurt Parliament

• On 18 May 1848, members of political association‘s elected 831 representatives who took
their places in the Frankfurt Parliament convened in the Church of St. Paul and drafted a
Constitution for the German nation.

• It was opposed by King of Prussia and also lost its social basis as no rights were given to
workers and women.

• It forced the autocratic monarchs to introduce some changes – serfdom and bonded labour
was abolished

• Hungarians were granted more autonomy.

The Making of Germany and Italy

Germany

• Otto Van Bismarck with the help of Prussian army and bureaucracy took on the
leadership of the movement for national unification.

• Three war over seven years ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of
unification.

• Kaiser William I of Prussia headed the new German Empire.

Italy
• Italy was divided into seven states of which only Sardinia Piedmont was ruled by an
Italian Princely state.
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• Initially a unification programme was initiated by Giuseppe Mazzini, but it failed.

• Chief Miniser Cavour led the movement, with the help of Giuseppe Garibaldi.

• In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy.

The Strange Case of Britain

• In 1688, England established as a nation state.

• English parliament seized power from the monarchy.

• The Act of Union 1707 resulted in the formation of the ‗United Kingdom of Great
Britain‘.

• In 1801, Ireland was forcibly taken by the British after the failed revolution.

• A new ‗British Nation‘ was founded through the propagation of a dominant English
culture.

Visualising the Nation

• Nations were portrayed as female figure (Allegory).

• The female form that was chosen to personify the nation did not stand for any particular
woman in real life, rather it sought to give the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form.

• In France the allegory was christened as Marianne, in Germany – Germania became the
allegory.

Nationalism and Imperialism

• The Balkans comprised modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia,

Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro.

• Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation was under the control of the
Ottomon Empire.

• The idea of Romantic nationalism made this region very explosive.

• The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more
territory at the expense of each other.

• European powers were also looking for the extend their control over the area.

• This led to a series of wars in the region and finally resulted in the First World War.
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Chapter 2- NATIONALISM IN INDIA
Introduction
Nationalism is an internal feeling to betterment of our country in every aspect.
• Modern nationalism was associated with the formation of nation-states.
• In India like many other colonies, the growth of modern nationalism is connected to the
anti-colonial movement.
The First World War, Khilafat and Non-Cooperation

• The First World War (1914-1918) created a new political and economic situation.

• India faced various problems during war period:

→ Increase in defence expenditure.
→ Prices increased through the war years.
→ Forced recruitment in rural areas.

• During 1918-19 and 1920-21, crops failure in many parts of India.

• Hardships did not end after the war was over.

The Idea of Satyagraha

• Satyagraha is a novel way of fighting the colonial rule in India.

→ It is a non-aggressive, peaceful mass agitation against oppression and injustice.

• Satyagraha means insistence on truth.

• It is a moral force, not passive resistance.

• In January 1915, Mahatma Gandhi returned to India.

• Gandhiji organised Satyagraha Movements in Champaran, Bihar (1917), amongst cotton

mill workers in Ahmedabad (1918)and Kheda district of Gujarat (1918) .

The Rowlatt Act (1919)

• This act gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities and allowed
detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.

Jallianwala Bagh massacre

• On 13th April 1919, a huge crowd gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwalla Bagh.

• Dyer entered the area, blocked the exit points, and opened fire on the crowd, killing
hundreds.

• As the news spread, strikes, clashes with the police and attacks on government buildings
started.

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• The government responded with brutal repression.

• Gandhi called off the Rowlatt satyagraha as the violence spread.

Khilafat Movement

• Khilafat Movement was led by two brothers Shaukat Ali and Muhammad Ali.

• Khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay in March 1919 to defend the Khalifa‘s
temporal powers.

• Gandhiji convinced the Congress to join hands with the Khilafat Movement and start a
Non-Cooperation Campaign for Swaraj.

• At the Congress session at Nagpur in December 1920, the Non-Cooperation programme

was adopted.

Differing strands within the movement

• The Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement began in January 1921.

The Movement in the Towns

• It started with middle class participation in cities.

• Students, teachers, lawyers gave up studies, jobs, legal practices and joined movements.

• Council elections were boycotted.

• Foreign goods were boycotted.

• Liquor shops were picketed.

Movement in the countryside

• Peasants and tribals took over the struggle which turned violent gradually.

Peasant Movement in Awadh

• The peasants were led by Baba Ramchandra in Awadh against landlords and talukdars.

• In 1920, the Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, Baba
Ramchandra and a few others.

Movement of Tribals in Andhra Pradesh

• Alluri Sitaram Raju led the guerrilla warfare in the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh.

• The rebels attacked police stations.

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• Raju was captured and executed in 1924.

Swaraj in the Plantations

• For the plantation workers, Swaraj means moving freely.

• They protested against the Inland Emigration Act (1859) which prevented them from
leaving the plantation without permission.

• Each group interpreted the term swaraj in their own ways.

Towards Civil Disobedience

• In February 1922, Mahatma Gandhi decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation

Movement.

• Many leaders such as C. R. Das and Motilal Nehru formed the Swaraj Party within the
Congress to argue for a return to council politics.

• Younger leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose pressed for more
radical mass agitation and for full independence.

Factors that shaped Indian politics towards the late 1920s

• The Worldwide Economic Depression

→ Agricultural prices collapsed after 1930 as the demand for agricultural goods fell and
exports declined.

• Simon Commission
→ It was constituted by the Tory government of Britain to look into the demands of the
nationalists and suggest changes in the constitutional structure of India.
→ The Commission arrived in India in 1928.
→ The Congress protested against this commission.

• In December, 1929, under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Lahore session of
Congress formalized the demand of ―Purna Swaraj‖.

The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement

• Gandhiji chose salt as the medium that could unite the nation as it is consumed by all the
sections of the society.

Salt March

• Salt or Dandi March began on March 12, 1930.

→ On 6th April 1930, Gandhiji reached Dandi, a village in Gujarat and broke the Salt Law
by boiling water and manufacturing salt.
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→ Thus, it began the Civil Disobedience Movement.

• It was different from Non-Cooperation Movement as people were now asked not only to
refuse cooperation but also to break colonial laws.

• Boycott of foreign goods, non-payment of taxes, breaking forest laws were its main
features.

• The British Government followed a policy of brutal repression.

• British government arrested all the leaders including Gandhiji and Nehru.

• Mahatma Gandhi called off the movement.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact (Delhi Pact)

• On 5 March, 1931, Lord Irwin, the Viceroy, signed a pact with Gandhi.

• • In December, 1931, Gandhiji went to London for the Second Round Table Conference
but returned disappointed.

• Gandhi relaunched the Civil Disobedience Movement but by 1934 it lost its momentum.

How Participants saw the Movement

Rich peasants

• Rich peasant communities expected the revenue tax to be reduced, when the British
refused to do so, they did join the movement.
→ They did not rejoin the movement as the movement was called without revising the
revenue rates.

Poor Peasants

• The poor peasants wanted rents of lands to be remitted.

→ The Congress was unwilling to support the ―no rent‖ campaigns due to the fear of
upsetting the rich peasants and landlords.

Business Classes

• After the war, their huge profits were reduced, wanted protection against import of
foreign goods.
→ The spread of militant activities, worries of prolonged business disruptions, growing
influences of socialism amongst the young Congress forced them not to join the movement.

Women

• Women also participated in protest marches, manufactured salt, and picketed foreign
cloth and liquor shops.
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→ Congress was reluctant to allow women to hold any position of authority within the
organisation.

Limits of Civil Disobedience

• The Dalits or the Untouchables did not actively participate in the movement, they
demanded reservation of seats, separate electorates.

• Dr B.R. Ambedkar, the leader of the Dalits, formed an association in 1930, called the
Depressed Classes Association.

• He clashed with Gandhiji.

• Poona Pact between the Gandhiji and B.R. Ambedkar (1932) gave reserved seats in
Provincial and Central Councils but were voted by general electorate.

• The leader of the Muslim League M.A. Jinnah wanted reserved seats for Muslims in
Central Assembly.
→ Large sections of Muslims did not participate in the Civil disobedience movement.

The Sense of Collective Belonging

• The sense of collective belonging came partly through the experience of united struggles.

• History and fiction, folklore and songs, popular prints and symbols, all played a part in
the making of nationalism.
. Nation came to been seen in image of BHARAT MATA. Bankim Chandra
Chattopadhyay created the first image of Bharat Mata.
.Bankim Chandra Chatterjee hymns to mother land .Vande Mataram to be sung widely in
Nationalist movements.

• By 1921, Gandhiji had designed the Swaraj flag. It was again a tricolour (red, green and
white) and had a spinning wheel in the centre.

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Chapter 3- THE MAKING OF A GLOBAL WORLD
Introduction
• Globalisation is an economic system associated with the free movement of goods,
technology, ideas and people across the globe.

Section I: Pre Modern World

Silk Routes

• There are several silk routes, over land and by sea, knitting together vast regions of Asia,
and linking Asia with Europe and northern Africa.
→ Famous Chinese silk cargoes used to travel through these routes.

Food Travels: Spaghetti and Potato

• Noodles travelled west from China to become spaghetti.

• Common foods such as potatoes, soya, groundnuts, maize, tomatoes, chillies, sweet
potatoes were only introduced in Europe and Asia after Christopher Columbus discovered
Americas.

Conquest, Disease and Trade

• Precious metals from mines of Peru and Mexico enhanced European trade with Asia.

• The Spanish conquerors used the germs of smallpox in the conquest of America.

• Until well into the eighteenth century, China and India were among the world‘s richest
countries.

• Until the nineteenth century, poverty and hunger were common in Europe.

Section II: The Nineteenth Century (1815-1914)

• In the late eighteenth century, growth in the population increased the demand for food
grains in Britain.

• The imported food into Britain more cheaply than it could be produced within the
country.

• Industrial growth took place in Britain which led to higher incomes meaning more food
imports.

• It was transported by railway and by ships.

• Food is only an example. Products such as cotton, rubber, coal also had same fate.

Role of Technology
14
• The railways, steamships, the telegraph were important inventions that transformed
nineteenth-century world.

• After the introduction of new technology, namely, refrigerated ships animals were
slaughtered for food at the starting point and then transported to Europe as frozen meat.

Late nineteenth-century Colonialism

• European conquests of Asia and Africa as colonies.

• Belgium and Germany became new colonial powers.

• The US became a colonial power in the late 1890s by taking over some colonies earlier
held by Spain.

Rinderpest, or the Cattle Plague

• Rinderpest is a fast spreading cattle plague which hit Africa in the late 1880s.

• It was carried by infected cattle imported from British Asia and destroyed 90 percent of
the livestock.

• The colonial governments now strengthen their power and to force Africans into the
labour market.

Indentured Labour Migration from India

• Indentured Labour was a bonded labourer under contract to work for an employer.

• In the nineteenth century, thousands of Indian and Chinese labourers went to work on
plantations, in mines, and in road and railway construction projects around the world.

• Recruitment was done by agents by providing false information about the work and
location.

• On arrival at the plantations, labourers found living and working conditions harsh.

• It was abolished in 1921.

Indian Entrepreneurs Abroad

• Indian entrepreneurs, some bankers like Nattukottai and Chettiars financed export of
agriculture to Central and South-East Asia.
→ They even followed the Europeans to Africa.
• Industrial Revolution in England changed the balance of trade between England and
India.

• Indian handicraft and agriculture were destroyed and Britain enjoyed a trade surplus with
15
India.
→ Their exports increased and imports decreased.

Section III: The Inter-war Economy

• The First World war was the first modern industrial war.

• During the war, industries were restructured to produce war-related goods.

• The war transformed the US from being an international debtor to an international

creditor.
Post-war Recovery

• After the war was over, the production reduced and unemployment increased.

Rise of Mass Production and Consumption

• In the US, war recovery was quicker.

• ‗Assembly line‘ method introduced by Henry Ford soon spread to the US and were also
widely copied in Europe in the 1920s.

• Mass production lowered the costs and prices of engineered goods.

• There was a housing and consumer boom in the 1920s, which ultimately led to the Great
Depression of 1929.

• Markets crashed in 1929 and led to the failure of banks and the crisis affected other
countries.
→ By 1933, over 4000 banks closed and between 1929-32 about 110,000 companies
collapsed.

India and the Great Depression

• India was also affected by the Great Depression.

• Indian exports and imports declined extensively, prices fell.

• Bengal jute growers suffered the most.

• Large scale migration took place from villages to towns and cities.

Section IV: Rebuilding a World Economy: The Post-war Era

• The Second World War broke out a mere two decades after the end of the First World
War and once again, it led to destruction.

• After the USA and the USSR emerged as superpowers.

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Post-war Settlement and the Bretton Woods Institutions

• To ensure a stable economy a framework was agreed upon at the United Nations
Monetary and Financial Conference held at Bretton Woods in New Hampshire, USA.

• It established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank.

• The International Monetary Fund (IMF) to deal with external surpluses and deficits of its
member nations.

• The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (popularly known as the
World Bank) was set up to finance post-war reconstruction.

• The IMF and the World Bank commenced financial operations in 1947.

• Bretton Woods System was based on a fixed exchange rate.

• National currencies were pegged to the American dollar at a fixed rate.

• Decision-making in these institutions is controlled by the Western industrial powers

largely by the US.

Decolonisation and Independence

• Many countries in Asia and Africa became independent nations, supported by UNO and
NAM.(Non –Aligned –Movement)
• Group of 77 or G-77 was organised by developing countries to demand a new
international economic order (NIEO) which would give these countries real control over
their national resources, raw materials, manufactured goods in their markets.
• MNCs or multinational companies were established in the 1950s and 1960s and operated
in several countries.

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Chapter 4- THE AGE OF INDUSTRIALISATION

Before the Industrial Revolution

• Proto-industrialisation was a phase when there was large-scale industrial production for
an international market which was not based on factories.

• Proto-industrial system was part of a network of commercial exchanges.

The Coming Up of the Factory

• By the 1730s, the earliest factories in England came up.

• The first symbol of the new era was cotton.

→ A series of inventions in the eighteenth century increased the efficacy of each step of the
production process.

• Richard Arkwright created the cotton mill.

The Pace of Industrial Change

How rapid was the process of industrialisation?

• The most dynamic industries in Britain were clearly cotton and metals.

• The new industries could not easily displace traditional industries.

• Technological changes occurred slowly because:

→ The New technology was expensive.
→ The machines often broke down and repair was costly.
→ They were not as effective as their inventors and manufacturers claimed.

Hand Labour and Steam Power

• In Victorian Britain, there was no shortage of human labour.

• Therefore, industrialists did not want to introduce machines which required large capital
investment.

• Many seasonal industries were also there who usually preferred hand labour.

• Handmade goods came to symbolize refinement and class

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Life of the Workers

• Labours were available in abundance in the market which affected the lives of workers.

• After the busy season was over, workers became jobless.

• In the early nineteenth century, wages increased but the prices of goods also increased.

Industrialisation in the Colonies

The Age of Indian Textiles

• Before the age of machine industries, silk and cotton goods from India dominated the
international market in textiles.

• A vibrant sea trade operated through the main pre-colonial ports.

What Happened to Weavers?

• After the East India Company established political power, they tried to eliminate the
existing traders and brokers and establish a more direct control over the weaver.

• It appointed a paid servant called the gomastha to supervise weavers, collect supplies, and
examine the quality of cloth.
→ Loans were provided for purchasing raw material for production.
→ The produced cloth was to be handed over to the gomastha.

• In many weaving villages there were reports of clashes between weavers and gomasthas
because:
→ The new gomasthas were outsiders, with no long-term social link with the village.
→ The price weavers received from the Company was miserably low.

Manchester Comes to India

• As cotton industries developed in England, industrial groups pressurised the government

to impose import duties on cotton textiles so that Manchester goods could sell in Britain
without competition.

• Also, they persuaded the East India Company to sell British manufactures in Indian
markets as well.

• Thus, cotton weavers in India faced two problems at the same time:
→ Their export market collapsed as market overloaded with Manchester imports.
→ Availability of lower cost cotton goods produced by machines.

• By the end of the nineteenth century, factories in India began production, flooding the
market with machine-made goods which created a problem of weavers.
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Factories Come Up

• In 1854, the first cotton mill in Bombay came up.

• In 1855, first jute mill in Bengal came up.

• By 1862, four cotton mills came up.

• In 1862, another jute mill came up.

• In the 1860s, the Elgin mill was started in Kanpur

• In 1861, the first cotton mill of Ahmadabad was set up.

• In 1874, the first spinning and weaving mill of Madras began production.

The Early Entrepreneurs

• In Bengal, Dwarkanath Tagore made his fortune in the China trade.

• In Bombay, Parsis like Dinshaw Petit and Jamsetjee Nusserwanjee Tata who built huge
industrial empires in India.

• After colonial power came in power, Indian businessmen were barred from trading with
Europe in manufactured goods.

Where Did the Workers Come From?

• In most industrial regions workers came from the districts around.

• Industrialists usually employed a jobber to get new recruits.

→ He got people from his village, ensured them jobs, helped them settle in the city.

The Peculiarities of Industrial Growth

• European Managing Agencies established tea and coffee plantations, acquiring land at
cheap rates from the colonial government.

• By the first decade of the twentieth century, the swadeshi movement promoted Indian
industries.

• From 1906, moreover, the export of Indian yarn to China declined since produce from
Chinese and Japanese mills flooded the Chinese market.

• During the First World War, British mills busy with war production to meet the needs of
20
the army, Manchester imports into India declined.

• After the war, Manchester could never recapture its old position in the Indian market.

Small-scale Industries Predominate

• Large industries formed only a small segment of the economy and most of them were
located in Bengal and Bombay.

• In the twentieth century, handicrafts production and handloom actually expanded.

• By the second decade of the 20th century, weavers used looms with a fly shuttle.

Market for Goods

• New consumers are created is through advertisements.

• Advertisements appear in newspapers, magazines, hoardings, street walls, television

screens.

• Advertisements became a vehicle of the nationalist message of Swadeshi.

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Chapter 5- PRINT CULTURE AND MODERN WORLD
The First Printed Books

Print in China
• The earliest print technology was developed in China, Japan and Korea.
• By the seventeenth century, as urban culture bloomed in China, the uses of print
diversified.
• In the late nineteenth century, western printing techniques and mechanical presses were
imported as Western powers established their outposts in China.
• Shanghai became the hub of the new print culture.
Print in Japan
• Around AD 768-770, Buddhist missionaries from China introduced hand-printing
technology into Japan.

• The Buddhist Diamond Sutra was the oldest Japanese book which was printed in AD 868.

Print Comes to Europe

• In the 11th century, Chinese paper reached Europe via the silk route.

• In 1295, Marco Polo, a great explorer, returned to Italy from China and brought printing
knowledge back with him.

• Italians began producing books with woodblocks, and soon the technology spread to other
parts of Europe.
→ As the demand for books increased, booksellers all over Europe began exporting books
to many different countries.

• But the production of handwritten manuscripts could not satisfy the ever-increasing
demand for books because:
→ Copying was an expensive, laborious and time-consuming business.
→ Manuscripts were fragile, awkward to handle.

• In the 1430s, Johann Gutenberg invented new printing technology by developing first-
known printing press at Strasbourg, Germany.

Gutenberg and the Printing Press

• Gutenberg learned the art of polishing stones, became a master goldsmith, and also
acquired the expertise to create lead moulds used for making trinkets.

• Based on this knowledge, Gutenberg adapted existing technology to design his

innovation.

• By 1448, Gutenberg perfected the system.

→ The first book he printed was the Bible.

22
• Between 1450 and 1550, printing presses were set up in most countries of Europe.

The Print Revolution and Its Impact

A New Reading Public

• Access to books created a new culture of reading.

• However, the rates of literacy in most European countries were very low till the twentieth
century which was a major hurdle in spreading of this culture.

• So printers began publishing popular ballads and folk tales, and such books would be
profusely illustrated with pictures.

Religious Debates and the Fear of Print

• People believed can lead to the fear of the spread of rebellious and irreligious thoughts.

• In 1517, the religious reformer Martin Luther wrote ‗Ninety Five Theses‘ criticising many
of the practices and rituals of the Roman Catholic Church.
→ This led to a division within the Church and to the beginning of the Protestant
Reformation.

The Reading Mania

• By the end of the eighteenth century, in some parts of Europe literacy rates were as high
as 60 to 80 percent.

• In England, Penny chapbooks were carried by petty pedlars known as chapmen and sold
for a penny.

• In France were the ‗Biliotheque Bleue‘ - low priced small books printed on poor quality
paper and bound in cheap blue covers.

• Newspapers and journals carried information about wars and trade, as well as news of
developments in other places.
Print Culture and the French Revolution

• Print culture created the conditions within which French Revolution occurred.

• Print popularized the ideas of the Enlightenment thinkers.

• Print created a new culture of dialogue and debate.

• By the 1780s, literature mocked the royalty and criticized their morality were large in
number.

23
The Nineteenth Century

Children, Women and Workers

• In 1857, in France, a children‘s press, devoted to literature for children alone was set up.
• Women became important as readers as well as writers.

• Penny Magazines were especially meant for women, manuals teaching proper behaviors
and housekeeping.

• In the nineteenth century, lending libraries in England became a medium for educating
white-collar workers, artisans and lower-middle-class people.

Further Innovations

• By mid-19th Century, Richard M. Hoe perfected the power driven cylindrical press.

• In the late 19th century, offset press was developed that can print up to six colours at a
time.

• By the 20th century, electrically operated presses accelerated printing operations.

India and the World of Print

Manuscripts Before the Age of Print

• In India, manuscripts were copied on palm leaves or on handmade paper.

Print Comes to India

• In the mid-sixteenth century, the printing press first came to Goa with Portuguese
missionaries.

• By 1674: About 50 books had been printed in Konkani and in Karana languages.

• Cochin, 1579, Catholic priests printed the first Tamil book

• In 1713, Catholic priests printed the first Malayalam book

• By 1710, Dutch Protestant missionaries had printed 32 Tamil texts

• From 1780: James Augustus Hickey began editing the Bengal Gazette, a weekly
magazine.

Religious Reform and Public Debates

• From the early nineteenth century, there were intense debates around religious issues.

• Different groups offered a variety of new interpretations of the beliefs of different

24
religions.

• In 1821, Rammohun Roy published the Sambad Kaumudi.

• In 1810, the first printed edition of the Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas, a 16th century text
published in Calcutta.

New Forms of Publication

• The novel, a literary firm which had developed in Europe soon acquired distinctively
Indian forms and styles.

• Other new literary forms such as lyrics, short stories, essays about social and political
matters also entered the world of reading.

• Painters like Raja Ravi Varma produced visual images for mass circulation.

Women and Print

• Liberal husbands and fathers began educating their womenfolk at home.

• Conservative Hindus believed that a literate girl would be widowed.

• Muslims feared that educated women would be corrupted by reading Urdu romances.

Print and the Poor People

• In the 19th century, very cheap and small books were brought to markets.
• From the late nineteenth century, issues of caste discrimination began to be written about
in many printed tracts and essays.
Print and Censorship
• Before 1798, the colonial state under the East India Company was not much concerned
about censorship.
• By 1820s, the Calcutta Supreme Court passed certain regulations to control press
freedom.
• After the revolt of 1857, the attitude to freedom of the press changed.
In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was passed which provided the government with
extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press. Despite repressive
measures, nationalist newspapers grew in numbers in all parts of India.

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25
Section B- CONTEMPORARY INDIA-II ( GEOGRAPHY)

Chapter 1- RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT

Resources
Everything in our environment which can be used to satisfy our needs and is
technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally acceptable is termed as
‗Resource‘. Human beings themselves are essential components of resources. They
transform material available in the environment into resources and use them.

Classification of Resources
Resources can be classified in the following ways:
(a) On the basis of origin – biotic and abiotic
(b) On the basis of exhaustibility – renewable and non-renewable
(c) On the basis of ownership – individual, community, national and international
(d) On the basis of the status of development – potential, developed stock and reserves

On the Basis of Origin – Biotic and Abiotic

Biotic Resources are obtained from the biosphere and have life.
Eg: Human beings, flora and fauna, fisheries, livestock etc.

Abiotic Resources: All those things which are composed of non-living things are called
abiotic resources. Eg: rocks and metals.

(b) On the Basis of Exhaustibility – Renewable and Non-Renewable

The resources which can be renewed or reproduced by physical, chemical or mechanical
processes are known as Renewable or Replenishable Resources.
The renewable resource may further be divided into continuous or flow.
Eg: Solar and wind energy, water, forests and wildlife, etc.

26
Non-Renewable Resources occur over a very long geological time. These resources take
millions of years in their formation. Some of the resources like metals are recyclable and
some like fossil fuels cannot be recycled and get exhausted with their use.
Eg: Minerals and fossil fuels.( Coal, petroleum etc)
(c) On the Basis of Ownership – Individual, Community, National and International
Individual Resources are owned privately by individuals. In villages people own lands
whereas in urban areas people own plots, houses and other properties.
Eg: Plantation, pasture lands, ponds, water in wells etc.

Community Owned Resources are accessible to all the members of the

community.Eg: Grazing grounds, burial grounds, public parks, picnic spots,
playgrounds etc.

National Resources are owned by a nation or country. All the minerals, water resources,
forests, wildlife, land within the political boundaries and oceanic area up to 12 nautical
miles (22.2 km) from the coast termed as territorial water and resources therein belong to
the nation.
Eg: Roads, canals, railways etc.
International Resources are regulated by international institutions. The oceanic
resources beyond 200 nautical miles of the Exclusive Economic Zone belong to open
ocean and no individual country can utilise these without the concurrence of
international institutions.
(d) On the Basis of the Status of Development – Potential, Developed Stock and Reserves.

Potential Resources are the resources which are found in a region but have not been
utilised.
Eg: Rajasthan and Gujarat have enormous potential for the development of wind and solar
energy, but so far these have not been developed properly.

Developed Resources- Resources, which are surveyed and their quality and quantity
have been determined for utilisation. The development of resources depends on
technology andlevel of their feasibility.
Stock.Materials in the environment which have the potential to satisfy human needs but
human beings do not have the appropriate technology to access these, are called Stock.
Eg: Hydrogen can be used as a rich source of energy. But we do not have advanced
technology to use it.
Reserves are the subset of the stock, which can be put into use with the help of existing
technical ‗know-how‘ but their use has not been started. These can be used for meeting
future requirements.
Eg: Water in the dams, forests etc. is a reserve which can be used in the future.

Development of Resources
Resources have been used by human beings indiscriminately and this has led to the
following major problems.
Depletion of resources for satisfying the greed of a few individuals.
Accumulation of resources in a few hands, which, in turn, divided the society into two
segments i.e rich and poor.
It has led to global ecological crises such as global warming, ozone layer depletion,
environmental pollution and land degradation.
Resource planning is essential for the sustainable existence of all forms of life.
Sustainable Economic Development means ―development should take place without
27
damaging the environment, and development in the present should not compromise with
the needs of future generations.‖
Resource Planning
In India, there are some regions which can be considered self-sufficient in terms of the
availability of resources and there are some regions which have acute shortage of some
vital resources. This calls for balanced resource planning at the national, state, regional and
local levels.
Resource Planning in India
Resource planning is a complex process which involves:
(i) Identification and inventory of resources across the regions of the country. This involves
surveying, mapping and qualitative and quantitative estimation and measurement of the
resources.
(ii) Evolving a planning structure endowed with appropriate technology, skill and
institutional set up for implementing resource development plans.
(iii) Matching the resource development plans with overall national development plans.
Resources can contribute to development only when they are accompanied by appropriate
technological development and institutional changes. India has made concerted efforts
towards achieving the goals of resource planning, right from the First Five Year Plan
launched after Independence.
To overcome irrational consumption and over-utilisation of resources, resource
conservation at various levels is important.
Land Resources
Land is a natural resource of utmost importance. It supports natural vegetation, wildlife,
human life, economic activities, transport and communication systems. India has land
under a variety of relief features, namely; mountains, plateaus, plains and islands as shown
below:

Land Utilisation
Land resources are used for the following purposes:
Forests
Land not available for cultivation
a) Barren and wasteland
28
b) Land put to non-agricultural uses
4. Fallow lands
5. Other uncultivated lands (excluding fallow land)
6. Net sown area
Land Use Pattern in India
The use of land is determined
Physical factors: such as topography, climate, soil types
Human factors: such as population density, technological capability and culture and
traditions etc.

The data below represents the land use pattern in India.

Waste land is the land put to other non-agricultural uses which include rocky, arid and
desert areas, roads, railways, industry etc. Continuous use of land over a long period of
time without taking appropriate measures to conserve and manage it, has resulted in land
degradation.
Land Degradation and Conservation Measures
Human activities such as deforestation, overgrazing, mining and quarrying have
contributed significantly to land degradation. Mining sites leave deep scars and traces of
over-burdening the land. In recent years, industrial effluents as waste have become a major
source of land and water pollution in many parts of the country.
Some of the ways through which we can solve the problems of land degradation are:
Afforestation and proper management of grazing.
Planting of shelter belts of plants.
Stabilisation of sand dunes by growing thorny bushes.
Proper management of waste lands.
Control of mining activities.
29
Proper discharge and disposal of industrial effluents and wastes after treatment.
Soil as a Resource
Soil is the most important renewable natural resource. It is the medium of plant growth and
supports different types of living organisms on the earth.
It takes millions of years to form soil upto a few cms in depth. Various forces of nature
such as change in temperature, actions of running water, wind and glaciers, activities of
decomposers etc contribute to the formation of soil.
Parent rock or bedrock, climate, vegetation and other forms of life and time are important
factors in the formation of soil.
Chemical and organic changes which take place in the soil play an important role.
Soil also consists of organic (humus) and inorganic materials.
Classification of Soils
On the basis of the factors responsible for soil formation, colour, thickness, texture, age,
chemical and physical properties, the soils of India are classified in different types as
mentioned below.
Alluvial Soils
The entire northern plains are made of alluvial soil.
The Alluvial Soil is deposited by 3 important Himalayan river systems – the Indus, the
Ganga and the Brahmaputra.
It is also found in Rajasthan, Gujarat and eastern coastal plains particularly in the deltas of
the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri rivers.
The alluvial soil consists of various proportions of sand, silt and clay. As we move inlands
towards the river valleys, soil particles appear to be bigger in size whereas in the upper side
of the river valley, the soils are coarse.
Based on age, Alluvial soils can be classified as:
Old Alluvial (Bangar): The Bangar soil has a higher concentration of kanker nodules
thanthe Khadar.
New Alluvial (Khadar): It has more fine particles and is more fertile than the Bangar.
Alluvial soils are very fertile. These soils contain an adequate proportion of potash,
phosphoric acid and lime, which are ideal for the growth of sugarcane, paddy, wheat and
other cereal and pulse crops.

Black Soil
This soil is black in colour and is also known as regur soil. Climatic conditions along with
the parent rock material are the important factors for the formation of black soil.
The soil is ideal for growing cotton and is also known as black cotton soil.
This type of soil is typical of the Deccan trap (Basalt) region spread over northwest Deccan
plateau and is made up of lava flows.
The soil covers the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and
Chhattisgarh and extends in the south-east direction along the Godavari and the Krishna
valleys.
The black soils are made up of extremely fine i.e. clayey material and well-known for their
30
capacity to hold moisture.
Black soil is nutrients rich and contains calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime.
The soil is sticky when wet and difficult to work on unless tilled immediately after the first
shower or during the pre-monsoon period.

Red and Yellow Soils

This type of soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern
and southern parts of the Deccan plateau.
These soils develop a reddish colour due to diffusion of iron in crystalline and
metamorphic rocks. It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.
Found in parts of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the middle Ganga plain and along
the piedmont zone of the Western Ghats.

Laterite Soil
The laterite soil develops under tropical and subtropical climate with the alternate wet and
dry season.
This soil is the result of intense leaching due to heavy rain.
Lateritic soils are acidic (pH<6.0) in nature and generally deficient in plant nutrients. This
type of soil is found mostly in Southern states, Western Ghats region of Maharashtra,
Odisha, some parts of West Bengal and North-east regions.
The soil supports deciduous and evergreen forests but humus poor.
This soil is very useful for growing tea and coffee.

31
Arid Soils
Arid soils range from red to brown in colour.
This soil is generally sandy in texture and saline in nature. In some areas, the salt content is
very high and common salt is obtained by evaporating the water.
Arid soil lacks humus and moisture.
The lower horizons of the soil are occupied by Kankar because of the increasing calcium
content downwards. The Kankar layer formations in the bottom horizons restrict the
infiltration of water.

Forest Soils
These soils are found in the hilly and mountainous areas.
The soil texture is loamy and silty in valley sides and coarse grained in the upper slopes.
In the snow covered areas of Himalayas, these soils experience denudation and are acidic
with low humus content. The soil is fertile on the river terraces and alluvial fans.
The map below shows the different types of soils found in India.

32
Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation
The denudation of the soil cover and subsequent washing down is described as soil erosion.
The soil erosion is caused due to human activities like deforestation, over-grazing,
construction and mining etc. Also, there are some natural forces like wind, glacier and
water which lead to soil erosion. Soil erosion is also caused due to defective methods of
farming.
The running water cuts through the clayey soils and makes deep channels as gullies. The
land becomes unfit for cultivation and is known as bad land. When water flows as a sheet
over large areas down a slope and the topsoil is washed away, it is known as sheet erosion.
Wind blows loose soil off flat or sloping land known as wind erosion.
Different Ways for Soil Conservation.
Ploughing along the contour lines decelerate the flow of water down the slopes. This is
called Contour Ploughing.
Terrace cultivation restricts erosion. This type of agriculture practice is done in Western
and Central Himalayas.
When a large field is divided into strips and strips of grass are left to grow between the
crops. Then, this breaks up the force of the wind. This method is known as Strip Cropping.
Planting lines of trees to create shelter helps in the stabilisation of sand dunes and in
stabilising the desert in western India. Rows of such trees are called Shelter Belts.

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33
Chapter 2- FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES

GIST OF THE LESSON / MIND MAP

Biodiversity is extremely diverse on earth and works interdependently. It is a system of
closely knit networks that sustains the ecosystem. India has world's largest biodiversity
thriving on its land and 10 per cent of the recorded wild flora and 20 per cent of its
mammals are on the threatened list.
As the list generated by International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (1UCN), the species can classified as following
Normal species: They have population levels normal for survival. Example: pine, rodents,
etc.
Endangered Species: They are in danger of extinction and would eventually decline if the
present conditions continue. Example: crocodile, rhino, lion tale macaque etc.
Vulnerable species: These species are vulnerable to fall into the endangered category in
near future. Example: Asiatic elephant, dolphin, blue sheep etc
Rare species: They have a small population which can move to endangered or vulnerable
category in near future if the present conditions for their survival sustain itself. Example:
Asiatic buffalo, hornbill etc
Endemic species: These species are only found in limited geographical area. Example:
Andaman teal. Nicobar pigeon, Andaman wild pig. mithun in Arunachal Pradesh.
Extinct species: These species are not found in the areas they were likely to be found.
Example: Asiatic cheetah, pink head duck.

CAUSES OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

Between 1951 and 1980, according to the Forest Survey of India, over 26,200 sq. km. of
forest area was converted into agricultural land all over India and substantial parts of the
tribal belts, especially in the northeastern and central India were deforested to practice
shifting cultivation Gum), a type of "slash and burn agriculture Around 5,000 sq km of
forest lands have been cleared to progress river valley projects since 1951. For example
About 40,000 hectares of forests were cleared for the Narmada Sagar Project in Madhya
Pradesh.

KEY WORDS OF THE LESSON

Natural Resources: These are the gifts produced by nature such as air, water, soil etc.
Ecology: The science which deals with the inter relation between various organisms and
physical environment.
Endangered species: Plants and animals which are extinct or in the danger of getting
extinct. 4. Wild life sanctuary: A reserved area for preserving natural beauty. e.g.
Ranthambhor wild life sanctuary.
4.Biosphere: Part of the earth which is covered by living organisms both plants and
animals.
Soil: The upper layer of the ground containing weathered rock and humus.
Coniferous forest: Evergreen trees that bear needle like leaves. 8. Deciduous forest: Type
of trees that lose their leaves every year.
7. Ecosystem: An integrated unit consisting of the community of living organisms and the
physical environment.
8. Flora: Plants of a particular region or period are referred to as flora.

34
CLICK HERE

35
Chapter 3- WATER RESOURCES
Three-fourth of the earth‘s surface is covered with water but only a small proportion of it
accounts for freshwater, that can be put to use. Water is a renewable resource.
Water Scarcity and the Need for Water Conservation and Management
The availability of water resources varies over space and time.
Water scarcity is caused by over-exploitation, excessive use and unequal access to water
among different social groups.
Water resources are being over-exploited to expand irrigated areas for dry-season
agriculture.
In some areas, water is sufficiently available to meet the needs of the people. But, those
areas still suffer from water scarcity due to bad quality of water.
The need of the hour is to conserve and manage our water resources:
To safeguard ourselves from health hazards.
To ensure food security, continuation of our livelihoods and productive activities.
To prevent degradation of our natural ecosystems.

Multi-Purpose River Projects and Integrated Water Resources Management

In ancient times, we used to conserve water by constructing sophisticated hydraulic
structures like dams built of stone rubble, reservoirs or lakes, embankments and canals for
irrigation. We have continued this tradition in modern India by building dams in most of
our river basins.
Dams
A dam is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs, directs or retards the flow, often
creating a reservoir, lake or impoundment. ―Dam‖ refers to the reservoir rather than the
structure.
Uses of Dam:
Dams are built:
To impound rivers and rainwater that can be used later to irrigate agricultural fields.
For electricity generation.
Water supply for domestic and industrial uses.
Flood control.
Recreation, inland navigation and fish breeding.
Side effects of Creating Dams
Regulating and damming of rivers affect their natural flow.
Poorer the habitats for the rivers‘ aquatic life.
Fragment rivers make it difficult for aquatic fauna to migrate.
Dams created on the floodplains submerge the existing vegetation and soil leading to its
decomposition over a period of time.
Creating of large dams has been the cause of many new environmental movements like the
‗Narmada Bachao Andolan‘ and the ‗Tehri Dam Andolan‘ etc.
Many times local people had to give up their land, livelihood and their control over
resources for the construction of the dam.
Most of the objections to the projects arose due to their failure to achieve the purposes for
which they were built. Most of the dams were constructed to control floods but, these dams
have triggered floods. Dams have also caused extensive soil erosion. Excessive use of
water has resulted in earthquakes, caused water-borne diseases and pests and pollution.
36
ave a look at the India Major Rivers and Dams in the map below:

Rain Water Harvesting

Rainwater harvesting is a simple method by which rainfall is collected for future usage.
The collected rainwater may be stored, utilised in different ways or directly used for
recharge purposes.
Different methods have been adopted in different areas for Rain Water Harvesting.
In hill and mountainous regions, people have built diversion channels like the ‗guls‘ or
‗kuls‘ of the Western Himalayas for agriculture.
―Rooftop rainwater harvesting‖ is commonly practised to store drinking water,
particularly in Rajasthan.
In the flood plains of Bengal, people developed inundation channels to irrigate their fields.
In arid and semi-arid regions, agricultural fields were converted into rain-fed storage
37
structures that allowed the water to stand and moisten the soil such as ‗khadins‘ in
Jaisalmer and ‗Johads‘ in other parts of Rajasthan.
The tankas are part of the well-developed rooftop rainwater harvesting system and are
built inside the main house or the courtyard. This is mainly practised in Rajasthan,
particularly in Bikaner, Phalodi and Barmer areas for saving the rainwater. Many houses
have constructed underground rooms adjoining the ‗tanka‘ to beat the summer heat as it
would keep the room cool.
Tamil Nadu is the first state in India which has made rooftop rainwater harvesting structure
compulsory to all the houses across the state. There are legal provisions to punish the
defaulters.

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Video Water Resource.mp4

38
Chapter 4- AGRICULTURE
Types of Farming
The cultivation methods depend upon the characteristics of the physical environment,
technological know-how and socio-cultural practices. Farming varies from subsistence to
commercial type. In different parts of India, the following farming systems are practised.
Primitive Subsistence Farming
It is a ‗slash and burn‘ agriculture. Farmers clear a patch of land and produce cereals and
other food crops. When the soil fertility decreases, the farmers shift and clear a fresh patch
of land for cultivation. It is known by different names in different parts of the country. It is
known as jhumming in north-eastern states.
Land productivity is low in this type of agriculture.
This type of farming depends on monsoon.
This farming is practised in a few parts of India.
Intensive Subsistence Farming
This type of farming is practised in areas of high population pressure on land.
It is labour-intensive farming, where high doses of biochemical inputs and irrigation are
used for higher production.
Commercial Farming
This type of farming uses higher doses of modern inputs such as high yielding variety
(HYV) seeds, chemical fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides to obtain higher productivity.
Plantation is a type of commercial farming in which a single crop is grown on a large area.
Plantations cover large tracts of land, using capital intensive inputs, with the help of
migrant labourers. All the produce is used as a raw material in industries.
Eg: Tea, Coffee, Rubber, Sugarcane, Banana.
For More Information On Agriculture, Watch The Below Video:
5,645
Cropping Pattern
India has three cropping seasons:
Rabi
Kharif
Zaid

Rabi Kharif Zaid

Sowing Winter from Beginning of the In between the Rabi and the Kharif
Season October to rainy season seasons, there is a short season
December between April and during the summer months known
May as the Zaid season (in the months of
March to July)

Harvesting Summer from September-

Season April to June October

39
Important Wheat, Barley, Paddy, Maize, Watermelon, Muskmelon,
Crops Peas, Gram Jowar, Bajra, Tur Cucumber,
and Mustard. (Arhar), Vegetables and Fodder crops
Moong, Urad,
Cotton, Jute,
Groundnut and
Soyabean.

To Know About Types Of Agriculture, Watch The Video Below:

14,057
Major Crops in India
A variety of food and non-food crops are grown in different parts of India, depending upon
the variations in soil, climate and cultivation practices. Major crops grown in India are:
Rice
Wheat
Millets
Pulses
Tea
Coffee
Sugarcane
oil seeds
Cotton
Jute
We will discuss all of these one by one, in detail.
Rice
It is a kharif crop.
It requires high temperature and high humidity with annual rainfall above 100 cm.
India is the second largest producer of rice in the world after China.
It is grown in the plains of north and north-eastern India, coastal areas and the deltaic
regions.
Wheat
This is a rabi crop.
It requires a cool growing season and bright sunshine at the time of ripening.
It requires 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall evenly distributed over the growing season.
The Ganga-Satluj plains in the north-west and black soil region of the Deccan are two main
wheat-growing zones in India.
It is the second most important cereal crop and main food crop, in the north and north-
western part of India.
Millets
Jowar, Bajra and Ragi are the important millets grown in India.
These are known as coarse grains and have very high nutritional value.
Jowar Bajra Ragi

3rd most important food Grows well on sandy soils It is a crop of dry regions.
crop with respect to area and shallow black soil.
and production.

40
It is a rain-fed crop Grows well on red, black, sandy,
mostly grown in the loamy and shallow black soils.
moist areas.

Mainly produced in Major producing states Major producing states are

Maharashtra, Karnataka, are Rajasthan, Uttar Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh and Pradesh, Maharashtra, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
Madhya Pradesh. Gujarat and Haryana. Sikkim, Jharkhand and
Arunachal Pradesh.
Maize
It is a Kharif crop.
It requires temperature between 21°C to 27°C and grows well in old alluvial soil.
It is used both as food and fodder.
Major maize-producing states are Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
Pulses
India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world.
Pulses are the major source of protein in a vegetarian diet.
Major pulses grown in India are Tur (Arhar), Urad, Moong, Masur, Peas and Gram.
Pulses are mostly grown in rotation with other crops so that the soil restores fertility.
Major pulse producing states are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh
and Karnataka.
Food Crops other than Grains
Sugarcane
It is a tropical as well as a subtropical crop.
It grows well in hot and humid climates with a temperature of 21°C to 27°C and annual
rainfall between 75cm to 100cm.
It can be grown on a variety of soils.
Needs manual labour from sowing to harvesting.
India is the second largest producer of sugarcane only after Brazil.
Sugarcane is the main source of Sugar, Gur (Jaggery), Khansari and molasses.
The major sugarcane-producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana.
Oil Seeds
Different oil seeds are grown covering approximately 12% of the total cropped area of
India. Main oil-seeds produced in India are:
Groundnut: is a Kharif crop and accounts for half of the major oilseeds produced in India.
Gujarat is the largest producer of groundnuts.
Mustard: is a rabi crop.
Sesamum (til): is a Kharif crop in the north and rabi crop in south India.
Castor seeds: It is grown as both Rabi and Kharif crop.
Linseed: is a rabi crop.
Coconut
Soyabean
Cotton seeds
Sunflower
Tea
It is also an important beverage crop introduced by the British in India.
41
The tea plant grows well in tropical and sub-tropical climates with deep and fertile well-
drained soil, rich in humus and organic matter.
Tea bushes require warm and moist frost-free climate all through the year.
Tea is a labour-intensive industry.
Major tea producing states are Assam, hills of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts, West
Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Rubber Fibre Cotton Jute

It is an equatorial Cotton, Jute, It is a Kharif crop. It is known as the

crop. Hemp and golden fibre.
Natural Silk are
the four major
fibre crops.

It requires a moist Cotton, Jute and It requires high It grows well on

and humid climate Hemp are grown temperature, light well-drained fertile
with rainfall of more in the soil. rainfall, 210 frost- soils in the flood
than 200cm and free days and bright plains. High
temperature above sunshine for its temperature is
25°C. growth. required for its
growth.

It is an important Natural Silk is Cotton grows It is used in making

industrial raw obtained from well in black cotton gunny bags, mats,
material cocoons of the soil of the Deccan ropes, yarn, carpets
silkworms fed on plateau. and other artefacts.
green leaves

Mainly grown in Rearing of Major cotton- Major jute

Kerala, Tamil Nadu, silkworms for the producing states are producing states are
Karnataka and production of silk Maharashtra, Gujarat, West Bengal, Bihar,
Andaman and fibre is known as Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Odisha and
Nicobar islands and Sericulture. Karnataka, Andhra Meghalaya.
Garo hills of Pradesh,
Meghalaya. Telangana, Tamil
Nadu, Punjab,
Haryana and
Uttar Pradesh.

Coffee
Yemen coffee is produced in India and this variety of coffee is in great demand all over the
world. Its cultivation was introduced on the Baba Budan Hills and is confined to the Nilgiri
in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Horticulture Crops
India is a producer of tropical as well as temperate fruits. Major crops produced are pea,
cauliflower, onion, cabbage, tomato, brinjal and potato. Some of the famous horticulture
crops grown in India are:
Mangoes of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh and West
42
Bengal Oranges of Nagpur and Cherrapunjee (Meghalaya), bananas of Kerala, Mizoram,
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
Lichi and Guava of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar
Pineapples of Meghalaya
Grapes of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra
Apples, pears, apricots and walnuts of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.

Non-Food Crops: The 3 important Non-food crops of India are Rubber, Jute, and Cotton.

Technological and Institutional Reforms

Agriculture provides a livelihood for more than 60% of its population, so this sector needs
some serious technical and institutional reforms. The Green Revolution and the White
Revolution were some of the reforms initiated by people to improve agriculture.
Some Initiatives taken by the Government are:
Schemes introduced by Government such as Kissan Credit Card (KCC), Personal Accident
Insurance Scheme (PAIS).
Special weather bulletins and agricultural programmes for farmers on the radio and
television were introduced.
The government also announces minimum support price, remunerative and procurement
prices for important crops to check the exploitation of farmers by speculators and
middlemen.
Contribution of Agriculture to the National Economy, Employment and Output
In 2010-11 about 52% of the total workforce was employed by the farm sector.
The share of agriculture in the GDP is declining.
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), agricultural universities, veterinary
services and animal breeding centres, horticulture development, research and development
in the field of meteorology and weather forecast, etc. are a few of the initiatives introduced
by the government to improve Indian agriculture.

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43
Chapter 5- MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES
KEY WORDS
What is Mineral
Mineral is defined as a ―homogenous, naturally occurring substance with a definable
internal structure.‖ Minerals are found in varied forms in nature, ranging from the hardest
diamond to the softest talc. Rocks are combinations of homogeneous substances called
minerals.
Mode of Occurrence of Minerals
Minerals are usually found in ―ores‖. The term ore is used to describe an accumulation of
any mineral mixed with other elements. Minerals generally occur in the following forms:
In igneous and metamorphic rocks, minerals may occur in the cracks, crevices, faults or
joints.
In sedimentary rocks, a number of minerals occur in beds or layers.
The decomposition of surface rocks and the removal of soluble constituents also forms the
minerals.
Minerals also occur as alluvial deposits in sands of valley floors and the base of hills.
The ocean waters contain vast quantities of minerals.
Classification of Minerals

Ferrous Minerals
Ferrous minerals account for about three-fourths of the total value of the production of
metallic minerals.
Iron Ore
India is endowed with fairly abundant resources of iron ore.
Magnetite is the finest iron ore with a very high content of iron, up to 70%. It has excellent
magnetic qualities.
Hematite ore is the most important industrial iron ore. It contains 50 to 60% iron.
The major iron ore belts in India are:
Odisha-Jharkhand belt
Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt
Ballari-Chitradurga-Chikkamagaluru-Tumakuru belt
Maharashtra-Goa belt
Manganese
It is mainly used in the manufacturing of steel and ferro-manganese alloy.
Nearly 10 kg of manganese is required to manufacture 1 tonne of steel.
It is also used in manufacturing bleaching powder, insecticides and paints.
Non-Ferrous Minerals
Non-ferrous minerals include copper, bauxite, lead, zinc and gold. These minerals play a
vital role in a number of metallurgical, engineering and electrical industries.

44
Copper
Malleable, ductile and good conductor of heat and electricity.
Mainly used in electrical cables, electronics and chemical industries.
The Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh, Khetri mines in Rajasthan and Singhbhum district
of Jharkhand are leading producers of copper.
Bauxite
Bauxite deposits are formed by the decomposition of a wide variety of rocks rich in
aluminium silicates.
Aluminium is obtained from bauxite. Aluminium has good conductivity and great
malleability.
Deposits are mainly found in the Amarkantak plateau, Maikal hills and the plateau region
of Bilaspur-Katni.
Non-Metallic Minerals
Mica is a mineral made up of a series of plates or leaves. It can be clear, black, green, red,
yellow or brown.
Mica is the most indispensable minerals used in electric and electronic industries.
It has excellent di-electric strength, low power loss factor, insulating properties and
resistance to high voltage.
Mica deposits are found in the northern edge of the Chota Nagpur plateau.
Rock Minerals
Limestone is found in rocks composed of calcium carbonates or calcium and magnesium
carbonates.
It is the basic raw material for the cement industry and essential for smelting iron ore in the
blast furnace.
Conservation of Minerals
Minerals are a non-renewable resource. It takes thousands of years for the formation and
concentration of minerals. Continued extraction of ores leads to the depletion of minerals.
So, it‘s important to take the necessary steps so that mineral resources can be used in a
planned and sustainable manner.
Energy Resources
Energy resources can be classified as
Conventional Sources: It includes firewood, cattle dung cake, coal, petroleum, natural gas
and electricity.
Non-Conventional Sources: It includes solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biogas and atomic
energy
Let us discuss each of them in detail.
Conventional Sources of Energy
Coal:
It is the most abundantly available fossil fuel.It is used for power generation, to supply
energy to the industry as well as for domestic needs.
Lignite is a low grade brown coal, which is soft with high moisture content.
Coal that has been buried deep and subjected to increased temperatures is bituminous coal.
Anthracite is the highest quality of hard coal.
Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro are important coalfields.
Petroleum
It provides fuel for heat and lighting, lubricants for machinery and raw materials for a
number of manufacturing industries.
Petroleum refineries act as a ―nodal industry‖ for synthetic textile, fertiliser and numerous
chemical industries.
45
Mumbai High, Gujarat and Assam are major petroleum production areas in India.
Natural Gas
Natural gas is an important clean energy resource. It is considered an environment-friendly
fuel.The power and fertilizer industries are the key users of natural gas.
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG ) is used in vehicles to replace liquid fuels.
Large reserves of natural gas have been discovered in the Krishna-Godavari basin
Electricity
Electricity is generated mainly in 2 ways:
By running water which drives hydro turbines to generate Hydro Electricity. It is a
renewable resource of energy. India has a number of multi-purpose projects like the Bhakra
Nangal, Damodar Valley Corporation, the Kopili Hydel Project.
By burning other fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas to drive turbines to
produce Thermal Power. It uses non-renewable fossil fuels for generating electricity.
Non-Conventional Sources of Energy
The renewable energy sources like solar energy, wind, tide, biomass and energy from waste
material are called Non-Conventional Energy Sources. Let‘s discuss them one by one.
Nuclear or Atomic Energy
Nuclear Energy is obtained by altering the structure of atoms. Uranium and Thorium are
used for generating atomic or nuclear power.
Solar Energy
Solar energy is produced by the Sun‘s light. Photovoltaic technology converts sunlight
directly into electricity.
Wind Power
Wind Energy or Power is the use of wind to generate electricity. Wind turbines are used for
this purpose. The largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil Nadu from Nagarcoil to
Madurai.
Biogas
Biogas is a type of biofuel that is naturally produced from the decomposition of organic
waste. Biogas is the most efficient use of cattle dung. It improves the quality of manure.
Tidal Energy
Tidal energy is the form of hydropower that converts the energy obtained from tides into
useful forms of power, mainly electricity. In India, the Gulf of Khambhat, the Gulf of
Kachchh in Gujarat on the western coast and Gangetic delta in Sunderban regions of West
Bengal provide ideal conditions for utilising tidal energy.
Geo-Thermal Energy
When heat and electricity are produced by using the heat from the interior of the earth, it is
known as Geo-Thermal Energy. In India, geothermal energy is harnessed from Parvati
valley near Manikarn in Himachal Pradesh and from Puga Valley, Ladakh.
Conservation of Energy Resources
Every sector of the national economy – agriculture, industry, transport, commercial and
domestic – needs inputs of energy. There is an urgent need to develop a sustainable path for
energy development. Here are some ways that each one of us can contribute to save energy
resources:
Using public transport systems instead of individual vehicles.Switching off electricity when
not in use.Using power-saving devices.
Using non-conventional sources of energy.

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Chapter 6- MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
Production of goods in large quantities after processing from raw materials is
called manufacturing. Workers employed in steel factories, car, breweries, textile
industries, bakeries etc. fall into secondary activities.
Importance of Manufacturing.

The manufacturing sector is considered the backbone of development due to the following
reasons:
Manufacturing industries help in modernising agriculture as it provides jobs in secondary
and tertiary sectors.
It helps in the eradication of unemployment and poverty.
Export of manufactured goods expands trade and commerce, and brings in much needed
foreign exchange.

It helps in prospering the country by giving a boost to the economy.

Contribution of Industry to National Economy
The trend of growth rate in manufacturing over the last decade has been around 7 per cent
per annum.

Industrial Location
Industrial locations are influenced by the availability of:
Raw material
Labour
Capital
Power
Transport
Market
Government policies

Manufacturing activity tends to locate at the most appropriate place where all the factors of
industrial location are either available or can be arranged at a lower cost. The figure below
shows the industry market linkage.

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Agro-based Industries
Cotton, jute, silk, woollen textiles, sugar and edible oil, etc. industries are based on
agricultural raw materials. Let‘s know about each of them, one by one.

Textile Industry
It is the only industry in India, which is self-reliant and complete in the value chain i.e.,
from raw material to the highest value added products. It contributes to industrial
production, employment generation and foreign exchange earnings.
Cotton Textiles
This industry has close links with agriculture and provides a living to farmers, cotton boll
pluckers and workers engaged in ginning, spinning, weaving, dyeing, designing,
packaging, tailoring and sewing. It supports many other industries, such as, chemicals and
dyes, packaging materials and engineering works.
Jute Textiles
India is the largest producer of raw jute and jute goods. Most of the mills are located in
West Bengal, mainly along the banks of the Hugli river.
Sugar Industry
India stands second as a world producer of sugar but occupies the first place in the
production of Gur and Khandsari. This industry is seasonal in nature.
Mineral-based Industries
Industries that use minerals and metals as raw materials are called mineral-based
industries. Let‘s discuss some industries that fall under this category.
Iron and Steel Industry
Iron and steel is the basic industry as all the other industries – heavy, medium and light,
depend on it for their machinery. lt is considered as a heavy industry because all the raw
48
materials, as well as finished goods, are heavy and bulky entailing heavy transportation
costs.
India is an important iron and steel producing country in the world yet, we are not able to
perform to our full potential largely due to:
High costs and limited availability of coking coal
Lower productivity of labour
Irregular supply of energy
Poor infrastructure.

Aluminium Smelting
Aluminium Smelting is the second most important metallurgical industry in India. It is used
to manufacture aircraft, utensils and wires. Bauxite is the raw material used in the smelters.
Aluminium Smelting has gained popularity as a substitute for steel, copper, zinc and lead in
a number of industries. It exhibits the following properties:
Light in weight
Resistant to corrosion
A good conductor of heat
Malleable
Becomes strong when it is mixed with other metals

Chemical Industries
The Chemical industry comprises both large and small scale manufacturing units. Rapid
growth has been recorded in both inorganic and organic sectors.

Inorganic chemicals include sulphuric acid nitric acid, alkalies, soda ash and caustic soda.

Organic chemicals include petrochemicals, which are used for manufacturing synthetic
fibers, synthetic rubber, plastics, dye-stuffs, drugs and pharmaceuticals.
Fertilizer Industry
The fertilizer industries are centred around the production of nitrogenous fertilizers (mainly
urea), phosphatic fertilizers and ammonium phosphate (DAP) and complex fertilizers
which have a combination of nitrogen (N), phosphate (P), and potash (K). Gujarat, Tamil
Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Kerala contribute towards half of the fertilizer production.
Cement Industry
Cement is essential for construction activity such as building houses, factories, bridges,
roads, airports, dams and for other commercial establishments. This industry requires bulky
and heavy raw materials like limestone, silica and gypsum.
Automobile Industry
This industry deals with the manufacturing of trucks, buses, cars, motorcycles, scooters,
three-wheelers and multi-utility vehicles. These industries are located around Delhi,
Gurugram, Mumbai, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow, Indore, Hyderabad, Jamshedpur
and Bengaluru.
Information Technology and Electronics Industry
The electronics industry covers a wide range of products from transistor sets to television,
telephones, cellular telecom, telephone exchange, radars, computers and many other
equipment required by the telecommunication industry. This industry has generated
employment in India. Bengaluru is known as the electronic capital of India.

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Industrial Pollution and Environmental Degradation
Industries are responsible for 4 types of pollution:
Air
Water
Land
Noise

Air pollution is caused by the presence of a high proportion of undesirable gases, such as
sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide. Smoke is emitted by chemical and paper factories,
brick kilns, refineries and smelting plants, and burning of fossil fuels leads to air pollution.
It adversely affects human health, animals, plants, buildings and the atmosphere as a whole.
Water pollution is caused by organic and inorganic industrial wastes and effluents
discharged into rivers. The industries which are mainly responsible for water pollution are
paper, pulp, chemical, textile and dyeing, petroleum refineries, tanneries and electroplating
industries.
Thermal pollution of water occurs when hot water from factories and thermal plants is
drained into rivers and ponds before cooling.
Noise pollution is the propagation of noise with harmful impact on the activity of human
or animal life. It results in irritation, anger, cause hearing impairment, increased heart rate
and blood pressure.
Control of Environmental Degradation
Here are some ways through which industrial pollution can be reduced:
Minimising the use of water by reusing and recycling it.
Harvesting rainwater to meet water requirements.
Treating hot water and effluents before releasing them in rivers and ponds.
Particulate matter in the air can be reduced by fitting smoke stacks to factories with
electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters, scrubbers and inertial separators.
Smoke can be reduced by using oil or gas instead of coal in factories.
Machinery can be redesigned to increase energy efficiency and reduce noise.

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50
Chapter 7- LIFE LINES OF NATIONAL ECONOMY
Transport
Movement of goods and services can be over three important domains of our earth i.e.

land, water and air. Based on these, transport can also be classified into the land, water and

air transport. Let‘s discuss them in detail:

Roadways

India has one of the largest road networks in the world, aggregating to about 54.7 lakh km.

The growing importance of road transport over rail transport is mentioned below:

1. The construction cost of roads is much lower than that of railway lines.

2. Roads can cover more geographically harder locations that cannot be done by the

railways.

3. Roads can negotiate higher gradients of slopes and can be easily built-in traverse

mountains such as the Himalayas.

4. Road transport is economical.

5. It also provides door-to-door service

6. Road transport provides links between railway stations, air and seaports.

In India, roads are classified in the following six classes according to their capacity.

Golden Quadrilateral Super Highways

Golden Quadrilateral is a network of Highways connecting India‘s four top metropolitan

cities, namely Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Mumbai. These highway projects are being

implemented by the National Highway Authority of India (NHAI).

National Highways

The National highways are a network of trunk roads that are laid and maintained by the

Central Public Works Department (CPWD). The historical Sher-Shah Suri Marg is called

National Highway No.1, between Delhi and Amritsar.

State Highways

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Roads linking a state capital with different district headquarters are known as State

Highways. These roads are constructed and maintained by the State Public Works

Department (PWD).

District Roads

These roads connect the district headquarters with other places of the district. These roads

are maintained by the Zila Parishad.

Other Roads

Rural roads, which link rural areas and villages with towns, are classified under this
category.

These roads received special impetus under the Pradhan Mantri Grameen Sadak Yojana.

Border Roads

Border Roads Organisation constructs and maintains roads in the bordering areas of the

country. This organisation was established in 1960 for the development of the roads of

strategic importance in the northern and north-eastern border areas.

Roads can also be classified on the basis of the type of material used for their construction

such as:

are all-weather roads.

o out of use in the rainy season.

Railways

Railways are the principal mode of transportation for carrying huge loads and bulky goods

for long and short distances in India. Railways have become more important in India‘s

economy.

There are three types of railway gauges are there,

They are :-

1. Broad gauge,

2. Meter gauge and

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3. Narrow gauges.

However, rail transport suffers from certain problems as well, which are mentioned below:

1. Construction of bridges is required across rivers‘ wide beds for lying down the

railway lines.

2. In the hilly terrains of the peninsular region, railway tracks are laid through low hills,

gaps or tunnels.

3. The Himalayan mountainous regions are also un-favourable for the construction of

railway lines due to the highest elevation points in the surface, sparse population

and lack of economic opportunities.

4. It is difficult to lay railway lines on sandy plains.

Pipelines

Pipeline network uses pipes, usually underground, to transport and distribute fluids. These

are used to transport water, crude oil, petroleum products and natural gas, fertilizer

factories and big thermal power plants. Solids can also be transported through a pipeline

when converted into slurry.

There are 3 important networks of pipeline transportation in the country.

1. From oil field in upper Assam to Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh)

2. From Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar in Punjab

3. From Hazira in Gujarat to Jagdishpur in Uttar Pradesh

Waterways

Waterways are the cheapest means of transport. They are most suitable for carrying heavy

and bulky goods. It is a fuel-efficient and environment-friendly mode of transport.

The National Waterways in India are:

– The Ganga river between Allahabad and Haldia (1620 km).

– The Brahmaputra river between Sadiya and Dhubri (891 km).

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 – The West-Coast Canal in Kerala (Kottapurma-Kollam, Udyogamandal

and Champakkara canals-205 km).

W. No.4 – Specified stretches of Godavari and Krishna rivers along with Kakinada

Puducherry stretch of canals (1078 km).

– Specified stretches of river Brahmani along with Matai river, delta

channels of Mahanadi and Brahmani rivers and East Coast Canal (588 km).

Inland waterways in India are Mandavi, Zuari and Cumberjua, Sunderbans, Barak and

backwaters of Kerala through which transportation takes place.

Major Sea Ports

India‘s trade with foreign countries is carried from the ports. There are 2 major and 200

notified non-majors (minor/intermediate) ports in India.

Here is the list of major ports in India:

1. Kandla in Kachchh was the first port to be developed after independence. It is also

known as the Deendayal Port.

2. Mumbai is the biggest port with a spacious natural and well-sheltered harbour.

3. Marmagao port (Goa) is the premier iron ore exporting port of India.

4. Mangalore port, located in Karnataka caters to the export of iron ore.

5. Kochchi is the extreme south-western port, located at the entrance of a lagoon.

6. Tuticorin port is situated at the extreme south-east.

7. Chennai is one of the oldest artificial ports of India.

8. Visakhapatnam is the deepest landlocked and well-protected port

9. Paradeep port located in Odisha, specialises in the export of iron ore.

10. Kolkata is an inland riverine port.

11. Haldia port was developed as a subsidiary port, in order to relieve growing pressure

on the Kolkata port.

12. Ennore port recently commissioned in order to reduce the pressure of Chennai port.

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Airways

The airway is the fastest, most comfortable and prestigious mode of transport. Air travel
has

made access easier to the terrain areas like high mountains, dreary deserts, dense forests

and long oceans. The air transport was nationalised in 1953. Air India provides domestic
and international air services.

Pawanhans Helicopters Ltd. provides helicopter services to Oil and Natural Gas
Corporation

in its off-shore operations, to inaccessible areas and difficult terrains. But, air travel is not

within the reach of the common people.

Communication

The major means of communication in India are television, radio, press, films, etc.

The Indian postal network is the largest in the world. It handles parcels as well as personal

written communications.

-class mail is airlifted between stations covering both land and air.

-class mail includes book packets, registered newspapers and periodicals.

They are carried by surface mail, covering land and water transport.

India has one of the largest telecom networks in Asia. The Subscriber Trunk Dialling
(STD)

facilities all over India have been made possible by integrating the development in space

technology with communication technology.

awareness among people

about various national programmes and policies. It includes radio, television,

newspapers, magazines, books and films.

regional and local languages.

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 Doordarshan, the national television channel is one of the largest terrestrial

networks in the world.

International Trade

The exchange of goods among people, states and countries is referred to as trade. Trade

between two countries is called international trade. It is considered as the economic

barometer for a country. Export and import are the components of trade. The balance of

trade of a country is the difference between its export and import.

balance of trade.

balance of trade.

The commodities exported from India to other countries include gems and jewellery,

chemicals and related products, agriculture and allied products, etc.

The commodities imported to India include petroleum crude and products, gems and

jewellery, chemicals and related products, base metals, electronic items, machinery,

agriculture and allied products.

Tourism as a Trade

More than 15 million people are directly engaged in the tourism industry. Tourism in India:

heritage. Foreign tourists visit India for heritage tourism, eco- tourism, adventure

tourism, cultural tourism, medical tourism and business tourism.

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 Section C- DEMOCRATIC POLITICS- II (CIVICS)

Chapter 1- POWER SHARING

• NEED TO READ:
.Story of Belgium
• Story of Sri Lanka
• Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka
• Accommodation in Belgium
• Why power sharing is desirable?
• Forms of power-sharing
STORY OF BELGIUM
• Belgium is a small country in Europe which has a population of a little over one crore.
• The ethnic composition of this small country is very complex.
• Out of the total population of the country, 59 percent lives in the Flemish region and
speaks Dutch Language. Another 40 percent people live in the Wallonia region and speak
French.Remaining one percent of the Belgians speak German.
• In Belgium's capital, Brussels, 80 percent people speak French while 20 percent are Dutch
speaking.
• The minority French-speaking community was relatively rich and powerful.
→ This made Dutch-speaking community angry as they the benefit of economic
development and education much later.
• During the 1950s and 1960s, tensions between the Dutch-speaking and French-speaking
communities created due to these differences.
STORY OF SRI LANKA
• Sri Lanka is an island nation, south of India having diverse population of about two crore
people.
• The major social groups are the Sinhala-speakers (74 percent) and the Tamil-speakers (18
percent).
• Tamils are divided into two groups:
→ Sri Lankan Tamils (13 percent) - Tamil natives of the country
→ Indian Tamils (5 percent) - came from India during colonial period as plantation
workers.
• Most of the Sinhala-speaking people are Buddhists, while most of the Tamils are Hindus
or Muslims.
• There are about 7 percent Christians, who are both Tamil and Sinhala.
MAJORITARIANISM IN SRI LANKA
• The democratically elected government adopted a series of Majoritarian policy measures
to establish Sinhala supremacy. These are:
→ Sinhala as the only official language.
→ The governments followed preferential policies that favoured Sinhala applicants for
university positions and government jobs.

• These decisions gradually increased the feeling of alienation among the Sri Lankan
Tamils.

• The Sri Lankan Tamils launched parties and struggles for the recognition of Tamil as an

57
official language, for regional autonomy and equality of opportunity in securing education
and jobs.
• By 1980s several political organisations were formed demanding an independent Tamil
Eelam (state) in northern and eastern parts of Sri Lanka.

• It soon turned into Civil War.

Accommodation in Belgium

• Between 1970 and 1993, Belgian's constitution amended four times to work out an
arrangement that would make everyone to live together.

• The Elements of the Belgian model:

→ Constitution prescribes that the number of Dutch and French-speaking ministers shall be
equal in the central government.
→ Many powers of the central government have been given to state governments of the
two regions of the country.
→ Brussels has a separate government in which both the communities have equal
representation.
→ There is also provision of 'community government‘ elected by people belonging to one
language
community which has the power regarding cultural, educational and language-related
issues.
Why power sharing is desirable?
• Power sharing is good because it helps to reduce the possibility of conflict between social
groups.
• Power sharing is the very spirit of democracy.
→ A democratic rule involves sharing power with those affected by its exercise, and who
have to live with its effects.

Forms of power-sharing
• In modern democracies, power sharing arrangements can take many forms.
→ Horizontal distribution of power: Power is shared among different organs of
government, such as the legislature, executive and judiciary. Example: India.
→ Federal Government (Vertical distribution of power): Power can be shared among
governments at different levels – a general government for the entire country and
governments at the provincial or regional level. Example: USA.
→ Power may also be shared among different social groups such as the religious and
linguistic groups. Example: ‗Community government‘ in Belgium.
→ Power sharing arrangements can also be seen in the way political parties, pressure
groups and movements control or influence those in power.

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Chapter 2- FEDERALISM

What is Federalism?

Federalism is a system of government in which the power is divided between a central

authority and various constituent units of the country.

Features of Federalism

• There are two or more levels of government.

• Different tiers of government govern the same citizens, but each government have power
independent of the other.

• The fundamental provisions of the constitution cannot be changed by one level of

government.

• The judiciary prevents conflict between centre and regional government in the exercise of
their powers.

• Sources of revenue for each level of government are clearly specified to ensure its
financial autonomy.

Kinds of Federations

• ‗Coming together‘ Federations: The independent States coming together on their own to
form a bigger unit.

• ‗Holding together‘ Federations: A large country decides to divide its power between the
constituent States and the national government.

What makes India a federal country?

• The Constitution originally provided for a two-tier system of government - Central

Government, representing the Union of India and the State governments.

• Later, the third tier of federalism was added in the form of Panchayats and Municipalities.

The Constitution divides powers between the Union Government and the State
Governments within three lists:

• Union List includes subjects of national importance.

• State List contains subjects of State and local importance.

• Concurrent List includes subjects of common interest to both the Union Government as
well as the State Governments, such as education, forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption

59
and succession.

• Residuary subjects: Those subjects which are not mentioned in any of the three lists or
any other matter that arise with passage of time.

Features of Indian Federation

• All states of India do not have equal powers.

• The Parliament cannot on its own change power sharing. These changes need the
approval of both the Houses of Parliament with at least two-thirds majority.

• The judiciary oversee the implementation of constitutional provisions and procedures.

How is federalism practised?

Linguistic states

In 1947, the boundaries of several old States of India were changed in order to create new
States:
• On the basis of language.
• On the basis of culture.

Language policy

• Our Constitution has not made any language the national language of India.

• Hindi was identified as the official language.

• Besides Hindi, there are 21 other languages recognised as Scheduled Languages by the
Constitution.

• States too have their own official languages.

• English along with Hindi used for official purposes.

Centre-State relations

• The sharing of powers between Centre and States by the constitution has also
strengthened federalism in India.

• After 1990, many regional political parties rise in many States of the country
which started an era of ‗coalition governments‘ at the Centre which make it difficult
for theCentral Government to dismiss state governments in non-democratic manner.

Decentralisation in India

• When power is taken away from Central and State governments and given to local
government, it is called decentralisation.
60
• Before 1992, the local bodies were directly under the state governments.
→ Regular elections were not held.
→ The local bodies did not have any resources or powers of their own.

• After 1992, the Constitution was amended to make the third-tier of democracy more
powerful and effective. The steps taken are:
→ Mandatory to hold regular elections to local government bodies.
→ Seats are reserved for the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward
Classes.
→ At least one-third of all positions are reserved for women.
→ An independent institution called the State Election Commission has been created in
each State.
→ The State governments are required to share some powers and revenue with local
government bodies.

Rural Local Government

• Popularly known by the name panchayati raj.

→ Gram Panchayat: It is the decision-making body for the entire village.
→ Panchayat Samiti: A few gram panchayats are grouped together to form what is usually
called a panchayat samiti or block or mandal.
→ Zilla Parishad: All the panchayat samitis or mandals in a district together form the zilla
parishad.

Urban Local Government

• In larger urban areas, there are corporations and in smaller urban areas, there are
municipal corporations
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Chapter 3- GENDER, RELIGION AND CASTE
Gender Division
• Sexual Division of Labour: A system in which all work inside the home is either done by
the women of the family while men are expected to work outside to earn money.
• This belief is not based on biology but on social and expectations and stereotypes.
Feminist movements
• Social movements that aim at establishing equality between men and women are called
feminist movements.
Women‘s Oppression in various ways
→ Literacy Rate: The literacy rate among women is only 65.46% compared with 82.14%
among men.
→ Jobs: There is very low percentage of women in the high paid and high value jobs as
just a few girls are encouraged to take up higher education.
→ Wages: Despite the Equal Wages Act, women in all areas are paid lesser than men, be it
sports, cinema, agriculture or construction works.
→ Sex Ratio: Most parents prefer boy children to girl children. Female infanticide and
feticide are common in our country. This has resulted in unfavourable sex ratio.
→ Social Evil: Society in general and urban centres in particular, is not safe for women.
Dowry harassment, physical abuse, sexual harassment are routine tales.
Women‘s political representation
• Political representation of women in India is very low. It has never crossed 5% in any of
the Vidhana Sabhas and never crossed 12% in Loka Sabha.
Religion, Communalism and Politics
Religion Differences in Politics
• Human rights activists allege that people from minority religious community suffer a lot
whenever there is communal violence.
Communalism
• Extreme and partisan attachment to one‘s own religion is called Communalism.

What is Communal Politics?

• Problem in the society begins when one religion is pitted against the others.
• The problem becomes serious when demands of one religious groups is formed in
opposition to other religions.
• The problem becomes very acute when the Government uses its power to fulfil the
demands of only one religious group.
• This kind of using religion is politics is called Communal Politics.
The Theory of Communal Politics
• Religion is the main basis of formation of the society.
• The followers of a religion must form one community.
• Their fundamental interests are the same.
Why is theory of Communal Politics wrong?
• People of the same religion do not have same interest and aspirations in every context.
• Everyone has different identities in different contexts.
Steps taken to combat communalism
• India is a secular state. There is no official religion or state religion in India.
• Everyone is free to practice, profess and property any religion.

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• The constitution prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion.
Caste and Politics
Caste Inequalities
• Members of the same caste group formed the social community that practiced the same or
similar occupation, married within the caste group, and did not eat with members from
other caste groups.
Why does caste system still persist?
• Most people prefer to marry within their own caste or tribe.
• Untouchability has not ended a completely.
• The caste groups that had access to education have continue to do well.
How Caste Influences Politics

• When parties choose candidates in elections, they keep in mind the caste the composition
of the constituency.
• Political parties and candidates appealing to the caste sentiment of the people.
Caste alone cannot determine Indian Elections
• No parliamentary constituency in the country has a clear majority of one single caste.
• No party wins the votes of all the voters of a caste our community.
• If that caste group has many to choose from, the other caste groups have none, if they
were to vote only on the basis of caste.
• The voter‘s attachment to his party and the party ideology can be stronger than his
attachment to his caste group.
The Outcome of Political Expression of Caste
• It has provided space and opportunity for the disadvantaged groups to demand their share
in power.
• It also has helped them to fight for social justice.
• Caste based politics is certainly not healthy in democracy.
• It can divert attention from other important issues like poverty, development and
corruption.
• It can also lead to tensions, conflicts and violence.

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Chapter 4- POLITICAL PARTIES
Why do we need Political Parties?

Meaning of Political Party

• A political party is a group of people who come together to contest elections and hold
power in the government.
Functions of a Political Party
• Parties contest elections.
• Parties put forward different policies and programmes and the voters choose from them.
A party reduces a vast number of opinions into a few basic positions which it supports.
• Parties play a decisive role in making laws for a country.
• Parties form and run governments.
• Those parties that lose in the elections play the role of opposition to the parties in power.
How many Parties should we have?
• There are three types of party system a country can have.
One Party System
• Only one party is allowed to control and run the government.
Two Party System
• Power usually changes between two main parties.
Multi-Party System
• Several parties compete for power, and more than two parties have a reasonable chance of
coming to power either on their own strength or in alliance with others.
Election Commission
• Every party in India has to register with the Election Commission.
• The Commission treats every party as equal to the others, but it offers special facilities to
large and established parties.
• They are given a unique symbol and are called, ―recognised political parties.
State Parties

• A party that secures at least six percent of the total votes in an election to the Legislative
Assembly of a State and wins at least two seats is recognised as a State party.

National Parties

• A party that secures at least six percent of the total votes in Lok Sabha elections or
Assembly elections in four States and wins at least four seats in the Lok Sabha is
recognised as a national party.

Indian National Congress (INC)

• Popularly known as the Congress Party.

• Founded in 1885.

• Played a dominated role in Indian politics, at the national and state level for several
decades after India‘s Independence.
Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)
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• Founded in 1980 by reviving the erstwhile Bharatiya Jana Sangh.

• Cultural nationalism (or ‗Hindutva‘) is an important element in its origination of Indian

nationhood and politics.

• Wants full territorial and political integration of Jammu and Kashmir with India.

Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP)

• Formed in 1984 under the leadership of Kanshi Ram.

• Seeks to represent and secure power for the bahujan samaj which includes the dalits,
adivasis, OBCs and religious minorities.
Communist Party of India - Marxist (CPI-M)

• Founded in 1964.

• Believes in Marxism- Leninism.

• Supports socialism, secularism and democracy and opposes imperialism and

communalism.

Communist Party of India (CPI)

• Formed in 1925.

• Believes in Marxism-Leninism, secularism and democracy.

Nationalist Congress Party (NCP)

• Formed in 1999 following a split in the Congress party.

• Accepted democracy, Gandhian secularism, equity, social justice and federalism.

State Parties

• Other than these six parties, most of the major parties of the country are classified by the
Election Commission as ‗State parties‘.

Challenges to Political Parties

• Lack of Internal Democracy

• Challenge of Dynastic Succession

• Growing Role of Money and Muscle Power

• Meaningful choice
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How can Parties be reformed?

Recent efforts and suggestions in India

• The Constitution was amended to prevent elected MLAs and MPs from changing parties.

• New law states that if any MLA or MP changes parties, he or she will lose the seat in the
legislature.

• The Supreme Court passed an order to reduce the influence of money and criminals.

• The Election Commission passed an order making it necessary for political parties to hold
their organisational elections and file their income tax returns.

Some suggestions to reform political parties

• A law should be made to regulate the internal affairs of political parties.

• To give a minimum number of tickets, about one-third, to women candidates

• There should be state funding of elections.

• There are two other ways in which political parties can be reformed.

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 Chapter 5- OUTCOMES OF DEMOCRACY
How do we assess democracy‘s outcomes?
• Democracy is a better form of government because:
→ It promotes equality among citizens.
→ It enhances the dignity of the individual.
→ It improves the quality of decision-making.
→ It provides a method to resolve conflicts.
→ It allows room to correct mistakes.
Is the democratic government efficient?
• Non-democratic rulers do not have to bother about deliberation in assemblies or worry
about majorities and public opinion.
• A democratic government will take more time to follow procedures before arriving at a
decision.
→ Because it has followed procedures, its decisions may be both more acceptable to the
people and more effective.
Accountable
• A citizen who wants to know if a decision was taken through the correct procedures can
find this out. This is known as transparency.
Legitimate Government
• In democracy, governments are elected through a regular, free and fair elections.
• Laws are made following proper procedures, after much discussion with the
representatives of the people.
• If people feel that government has done something which goes against the Constitution,
people can challenge it in the Judiciary.
Economic growth and development
• Between 1950 and 2000, dictatorships have slightly higher rate of economic growth.
• Economic growth depends on various factors:
→ Size of the population of a country
→ Global situation
→ Co-operation from other countries
→ Economic policies adopted by the country
• However, the difference in the rates of economic development between less developed
countries with dictatorships and democracies is negligible.
Reduction of inequality and poverty
• Democracies are based on political equality, but we find growing economic inequalities.
Accommodation of social diversity
• Democracy helps its citizens to lead a peaceful and harmonious life by accommodating
various social divisions.
Dignity and freedom of the citizens
• Democracy promotes dignity and freedom of the individual.
Democracy - its examination never gets over
• A democracy is always striving towards a better goal.
• People constantly demand more benefits in a democracy.

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Section D- UNDERSTANDING ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT (ECONOMICS)

Chapter 1- DEVELOPMENT

Economic development, in general, means a long term increase in the real per capita
income or per capita GDP of a country. Along with per capita income, there are certain
other criteria also like the education, health, social security, self-confidence, gender
equality, dignity of the individual etc.
Economic development means long-term and sustainable improvement in Real Per
Capita GDP and standard of living of the people. Economic development is concerned
with the improvement of quality of life of the people and their capabilities,
nourishment, literacy, education, gender equality, health care facilities, housing
facilities etc.

Development or progress has many aspects. Different people have different goals to
achieve.There may be some common goals for all of us. Development for one may not be
development for others. People desire more income.
Only income is not sufficient to make life happy.
Security, respect, equal treatment and freedom are equally important.
People do not have a single goal. There are many goals in life.
National development is the concern of all citizens.
Different persons could have different as well as conflicting notions of a country‘s
development.
Per capita income is the main criterion for comparison of development of nations.
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Total income cannot be considered a useful measure for comparison between
countries.
We use average income/per capita income or per capita GDP for comparison.
Average income (per capita income) of a nation can be obtained by dividing the total
income of the nation by its population.

National Income
PCI=
Population

Per capita GDP means Gross Domestic Product divided by population.

DIFFERENT PEOPLE, DIFFERENT GOALS

SL. NO. CATEGORY OF PERSONS DEVELOPMENTAL

GOALS

1 Landless Rural Labourers More days of work, better

wages , quality education,
social equality etc.

2 Prosperous farmers from Punjab High support price for their

crops, Cheap labourers,
enough water for crops,
sending children abroad.

3 Farmers who depend on rain Sufficient and timely

rainfall, artificial irrigation.

4 A rural woman from a land owning family Better opportunities of

education and employment.

5 Urban unemployed youth Government job and highly

paid employment
opportunities.
6 A boy from a rich urban family Opportunities to study and
work abroad.

7 A girl from a rich urban family Equal freedom as brother,

and decision making power.
Study abroad.

8 An adivasi from Narmada valley Survival at native places,

rights to forest-products.

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 Development means not only high income and more consumption but other
goals or factors also. These are:
(i) Equal treatment in society,
(i) Freedom
(ii) Social Security
(iii) Respect of others
(iv) Working atmosphere
(v) Opportunity to learn
Different persons could have different as well as conflicting notions of a country‘s
development.

How to Compare Different Countries or States?

While ―averages‖ are useful for comparison, they also hide disparities.It does not tell how
the income is distributed among the people.Rise in average income may be due to rise in
prices. There may not be real growth in output.

Average income hides disparities in the distribution of income.

As per the World Development Report (WB) 2017, countries with PCI of US$ 12,056 and
above are called ―rich countries‖, and those with PCI of US$955 or less are called low
income countries.
India‘s PCI was US$ 1820 in 2017. (Low middle income countries).
Other Goals:
Besides average income, we can use other goals such as security, respect for others, equal
treatment, freedom etc, to compare different regions or nations.

TABLE 1.3- STATE P.C.I. OF SELECTED STATES

State PCI for 2015-16 (in Rs.)

Haryana 1,62,034

Kerala 1,40,190

Bihar 31,454

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 TABLE 1.4 DEMOGRAPHIC COMPARATIVE DATA ON HARYANA, KERALA AND
BIHAR

State Infant Mortality Literacy Rate in % , NAR (Per 100 persons- age 14
Rate, per Live Births age 7 years and and 15), 2013-14
(2016) above (2011)

Haryana 33 82 61

Kerala 10 94 83

Bihar 38 62 43

As per Table 1.3, since PCI of Haryana is more than that of Kerala, Haryana is more
developed than Kerala.
However, as per Table 1.4, Kerala has lower IMR. Higher literacy rate and higher Net
Attendance Ratio compared to Haryana. Therefore, Kerala is more developed than
Haryana.
Infant mortality rate is the number of children that die before the age of one year as a
proportion of 1,000 live children born in that particular year.
Literacy rate means literate population of a country in the 7 and above age group.
Net attendance ratio is the total number of children of age group 6-10 attending school as a
percentage of total number of children in the same age group.

Public Facilities:
Income is not a completely adequate indicator of goods and services that citizens are able
to use. People require pollution-free environment, unadulterated medicines, protection from
infectious diseases, security, public education etc. All these can be provided by the
Government for collective use in the form of public facilities.
Kerala has low IMR because it has adequate provision of basic health and educational
facilities.
Health and nutritional status of the people of those states will be high where PDS is
functioning well.

71
 (i𝑛 𝐾𝑔.)
Body Mass Index= W𝑒i𝑔ℎ
(𝐻𝑒i𝑔ℎ𝑡 i𝑛 𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)²

COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES BASED ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX

Human Development Report, published by UNDP, compares countries based on:-

(i) The educational levels of the people (Gross Enrolment Ratio and Mean Years
Schooling),
(ii) Their health status (Life Expectancy, counted at birth- LE) and,
(iii) Per capita income (PCI).

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT DATA OF INDIA AND ITS NEIGHBOURS (Out of 189

Countries)

Country PC GNI (in LE at MYS(Peopl HDI Rank HDI Value

PPP of Birth e aged 25 (2018)
US $)- 2011 (in and above)-
years)- 2017
2017

Norway 68,012 82.3 12.6 01 0.953

US 54,941 79.5 13.4 12 0.924

Sri 11,326 75.5 10.9 76 0.77

Lanka
China 15,270 76.4 7.8 86 0.752

India 6,353 68.3 6.4 130 0.64

SUSTAINABILITY OF DEVELOPMENT
“Sustainable development means the development strategy that meets the needs of the
present generation without compromising the needs of the future generations.”
Development must be sustainable. Even though groundwater is renewable, still nearly
one-third of the country is overusing it.
Non-renewable resources are those which will get exhausted after years of use.
Its alternative and new resources are to be discovered and used.
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Consequences of environmental degradation do not respect national or state boundaries.
Scientists, economists, philosophers and other social scientists are working together on
sustainable development.
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Chapter 2- SECTORS OF INDIAN ECONOMY

Classification of Sectors based on Economic Activities :

1. Primary Sector : Primary activities are those activities which are producing goods
by exploiting the natural resources.. It is also known as agriculture and related sector.
There are many activities that are undertaken by directly using natural resources. For example,
the cultivation of rice. It takes place within a crop season.
When we produce a good by exploiting the natural resources, it is an activity of primary sector.
This is because it forms the base for all other products that we subsequently make.
Since most of the natural products we get are from agriculture, dairy, fishing, forestry, mining and
quarrying.

2. Secondary Sector : Primary sector’s products are changed into others forms
through ways of manufacturing. Also known as Industrial sector.
The secondary sector covers activities in which natural products are changed into other forms
through ways of manufacturing that we associate with industrial activity. For example, natural
rubber is the product of the primary sector, and it is converted into tyre, slippers, door mats etc.
by the industrial sector.
Secondary sector gradually becomes associated with the different kinds of industries that came
up, it is called as industrial sector.
3. Tertiary Sector : The tertiary sector produces services. Also known as service
sector. Eg. Banking, trade and commerce, transport and communication, education,
health services, civil administration and defence etc.

After primary and secondary, there is a third category of activities that fall under tertiary
sector and is different from the above two. These are activities that help in the development
of the primary and the secondary sector.

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GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT(GDP) :
GDP is the sum total of the money value of all final goods and services produced in
the primary , secondary and tertiary sectors of an economy during a financial year.

COMPARING THE THREE SECTORS:

Importance of Sectoral Classification in GDP and Employment

1. Employment is an important factor because it supports a person financially.

2. GDP depicts the contribution of different sectors in National Income

3. High economic growth is not possible with the prevailing unemployment, low per capita
income and low GDP.

Therefore, the importance of Sectoral classification is high in GDP and Employment.

In 2019-20, the sectoral contribution to GDP is as follows:

Primary sector- 13%

Secondary Sector- 30%

Tertiary Sector- 57%

The sum of production in the three sectors gives what is called Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) of the country.
It is the value of all final goods and services produced within a country during a particular
year.

Rising importance of the Tertiary Sector :

(i) First, in any country several services such as hospitals, educational institutions, post and
telegraph services etc. are required. These can be considered as basic services. In a
developing country, the government has to take responsibility for the provision of these
services.

(ii) Second, the development of agriculture and industry leads to the development of
services such as transport, trade, storage and the like, as we have already seen.

(iii) Third, as income levels rise, certain sections of people start demanding many more
services like eating out, tourism, shopping, private hospital, private school.

(iv) Fourth, over the past decade or so, certain new services such as those based on
information and communication technology have become important and essential.

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CONTRIBUTION OF PRIMARY, SECONDARY AND TERTIARY SECTORS IN
PRODUCTION AND EMPLOYMENT IN INDIA:

A remarkable fact about India is that while there has been a change in the share of the three
sectors in GDP, a similar shift has not taken place in employment.

. The primary sector continues to be the largest employer even now.

More than half of the workers in the country are working in the country are working in the
primary sector, mainly in agriculture, producing only a quarter of the GDP.

The secondary and tertiary sectors produce three-fourth of the produce whereas they
employ less than half the people.

It means that there are more people in agriculture than is necessary. So, even if you move a
few people out, production will not be affected. In other words, workers in the agricultural
sector are under-employed.

. The underemployment is hidden in contrast to someone who does not have a job and is
clearly visible as unemployed. Hence, it is also called disguised unemployment.

. We see other people of the service sector on the street pushing a cart or selling something
where they may spend the whole day but earn very little.

They are doing this work because they do not have better opportunities.

Employment- A situation in which all those who are able and willing to work at the
existing wage rate, get work.
• Unemployment- A situation in which people are able and willing to work at the
existing wage rate, but do not get work.
• Disguised Unemployment- A situation in which more people than the required
number are employed. The contribution of the redundant labourers to output is
almost zero.

How to Create More Employment?

Away by which we can tackle this problem is to identify, promote and locate industries and
a large number of people may be employed.
A study conducted by the Planning Commission estimates that nearly 20 lakh jobs can be
created in the education sector alone.
Every state or region has the potential for increasing the income and employment for
people in that area. The same study by the Planning Commission says that if tourism as a
sector is improved, every year we can give additional employment to more than 5 lakh
people.
We must realize that some of the suggestions discussed above would take a long time to
implement.
Recognizing this, the central government in India made a law implementing the Right to
Work.
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Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 (MGNREGA
2005).
Under MGNERGA 2005, all those who are able to, and are in need of, work are guaranteed
100 days of employment in a year by the government.
If the government fails in its duty to provide employment, it will give unemployment
allowances to the people.

Sectoral Share in Employment (2019-20):

Primary Sector- 49%

Secondary Sector- 24%
Tertiary Sector- 27%

Comparative Study of Contribution to GDP and Employment Share by Three Sectors

(2019-20)

Sectors↓ Contribution to Share in

GDP (in %) Employment (%)

Primary 13 49

Secondary 30 24

Tertiary 57 27

TOTAL 100 100

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DIVISION OF SECTORS AS ORGANISED AND UNORGANISED:

SL.NO. ORGANISED UNORGANISED SECTOR

SECTOR

1 Regular Employment Irregular employment

2 High wages Low wages

3 Good working Poor working conditions

conditions

4 Job security No job security

5 Fixed working hours Long working hours

6 Different Leave facility No leave facility

7 Medical and No reimbursement

Educational
reimbursement

8. PF, Paid leave, LTC, No such facilities available

safe working hours etc
are available

The organized sector covers those enterprises or places of work where the terms of
employment are regular and therefore, people have assured work.
It is called organized because it has some formal processes and procedures.
The unorganized sector is characterized by small and scattered units which are largely
outside the control of the government.
Jobs here are low-paid and often not regular. Employment is not secure.
This sector includes a large number of people who are employed on their own doing small
jobs such as selling on the street or doing repair work.

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Organised Sector :
- Terms of employment are regular
- Registered by government
- Follows various rules and regulations
- It has some formal processes and procedures.
Unorganised Sector :
- Small and scattered units which are largely outside the control of the government.
- There are rules and regulations but these are not followed.
- Employment is not secure.

How to Protect Workers in the Unorganized Sector?

The organized sector offers jobs that are the most sought-after.
It is also common to find many organized sector enterprises in the unorganized sector.
Since the 1990s, it is also common to see a large number of workers losing their jobs in the
organized sector.
In the rural areas, the unorganized sector mostly comprises of landless agriculture
labourers, small and marginal farmers, sharecroppers and artisans.
Nearly 80% of rural households in India are in small and marginal farmer category.
In the urban areas, unorganized sector comprises mainly of workers in the small-scale
industry, casual workers in the construction, trade and transport etc., and those who work
as street vendors, head load workers, garment makers, rag pickers etc.

SECTORS IN TERMS OF OWNERSHIP: PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECTORS:

• In the public sector, the Govt. owns most of the assets and provides all the
services. Eg. Indian Railways. The objective here is social welfare.
• In the private sector, ownership of assets and delivery of services is in the
hands of private individuals or companies. Activities in the private sector are
guided by the motive to earn profits.

The purpose of the public sector is not just to earn profits.

Governments raise money through taxes and other ways to meet expenses on the services
rendered by it.There are several things needed by the society as a whole but which the
private sector will not provide at a reasonable cost.
Collecting the money from thousands of people who use these facilities is not easy.
Even if they provide these things they would charge a high rate for their.
Thus, governments have to undertake such heavy spending and ensure that these facilities
are available for everyone.
There are some of the activities, which the government has to support.
The private sector may not continue their production or business unless government
ensures it.
The government has to bear part of the cost.There are a large number of activities which
are the primary responsibility of the government. The government must spend on these.
Providing health and education facilities for all is one example.
The government also needs to pay attention to aspects of human development.It is also the

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duty of the government to take care of the poorest and most ignored regions of the country
through increased spending in such areas.

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