BUILDING TECHNOLOGY MODULE Ill ~ Stee! & Metals in Construction ‘* Metals: strongest building materials presently in common use © Properties of metals: ‘©. Plasticinelting: can be liquefied by heating and will solidify as they cool ‘© Ductile: can be hammered thin or drawn into wires © Conductive: most metals are prone to conduct heat and electricity © Corrosive: most metals corrode by oxidation ‘© Classification of metals: Ferrous Consisting primarily of iron Very easy and economical to refino as iron ore is an abundant material Tora! to be much lecs expensive than non-ferrous metals ‘Strongest, bt most have a tendency to rust Carbon content isa crucial determinant ofthe properties | Too much carbon makes a hard but britle metal (ike cast iron) Toole produces a malleable, weaker material (ike wrought iron) © Non-ferrous = More expensive * Resistant to corrosion = Easy to work and attractive tothe eye ; «Alloys: metals mixed wih other elements or other metals to modify ts properties for a particular purpose ‘©. Example: bronze = copper + small amount of tin Steel Strong and sift Material of slender towers and soaring spans Precise and predictable ‘o._Lightin proportion to its strength Well suited to rapid construction Highly repetive building frames, end architectural datais that saisfy the eye with a clean, precise elegance Uniquely plentiful and inexpensive ‘Tendency to corrode in certain environments and a loss of strength during severe building fires. ‘Any range of alloys of iron that contain less than roughly 2 percent carbon Below 0.25% to 1.50% carbon Mild steel * Ordinary structural steel, contains less than 3/10 of 1 percent carbon, plus traces of beneficial elements such as manganese and silicon, and of detrimental impurities such as phosphorus, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen = Iron whose properties have been optimized for structural purposes by controlling the amounts ‘of catbon and other elements in the metal © Categories: stuctural steel and light gauge steel © Castiron © Contains 2 to 4 peroent carbon and greater quantities of impurities than steal © Wrought iron ‘© Contains even less carbon than most steel alloys, © Does nol exceed 019% cabo oie © History (©. Fit all-metal structure: castro ‘© Cast iron: produced from iron. © Wrought ° ooo °° eooo0e n bridge builtin the late 18" century in England ion that has boon yas urnace; unpredictable bitteness Untthe fne se! ned a Pui by beating it repeatedly wih hammer; relatively high cost eigen ca 24 Bah ate and expensive mati, produed ony in sal bach for © rae rapeni® sl ret became avalon the 1850 wit he ins on ci own into @ vessel of molten iron to bur out the impurities agenteBUILDING TECHNOLOGY Open-hearth method: another economical steelmaking process > Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton, 1851, cast iron © Eiffel Tower by Gustave Eiffel, 1889, wrought iron © Home Insurance Company Building by William LeBaron J = Tee blast furnace, whi ‘© Converting iron ore to steel begins with the smelting of the ore into cast iron in a bla Which is charged with alterating layers of iron ote, coke, and crushed limestone | © The coke is burned by large quantities of ar forced into the bottom of the surface. This produces carbon monoxide, which reacts with the ore, ducing fo elemental iron. The limestone forms a slag containing various impurities that floats on top of the ‘molten metal. But large amounts of carbon and other elements inevitably remain incorporated into the iron as well. The molten iron drawn offal the bottom of the furnace and held in aliquid state for processing into steel * Iron ore: oxides of iron extracted from earth in mineral form = Coke: coal whose volatile constituents have been disilled out leaving only carbon Mini plants: electric furnace, open heerth furnace, basic oxygen furnace Basic oxygen process = Recycled steel scrap New metalic elements may be added to the container at the end of the process to adjust the composition ofthe steel ‘* Manganese: gives resistance to abrasion and impact © Molybdenum: gives strength © Vanadium: imparts strength and toughness + Nickel and chromium: give corrosion resistance, toughness, and stiiness * Contains roughly 25-35% recycled material © Bestrc are furnaces = Mini-mills = Made from virtually 100% scrap stee! ‘¢ Comes from defunct automobiies ‘© Intermediate steel products: ‘©. Ingot: mass of melal cast into convenient shape for storage or transportation before further processing ©. Blank: pieos of metal ready to be drawn, pressed, or machined into a finished object ©. Bloom: bar of steel reduced from an ingot to dimensions suitable for further roling © Billet: a narrow, generally square, bar of steel, forged or hot-rolled from an ingot or bloom © Stee! alloys © Mild structural steel: ASTM A36_ High-strength, low alloy-steels: ASTM AQ92 or ASTM A572 Preferred steel type for standard wide-flange structural shapes is ASTM A992 Higher strength is needed: ASTM A36 Spectied for angles, channels, plates, and bars: ASTM A572 Weathering steel: steel without any protective finish will remain exposed to exterior conditions in the ‘completed construction: ASTM A588 for structural shapes, A606 for thin sheet = Oxide coating: protects against corrosion and eliminates the need for paint or another protective coating * Used mostly for highway and bridge . © Stainless stee!: addition of nickel and chromium (ASTM A240 and A276); forms a self-protecting oxide Coating that makes ithighly resistant to corrosion; harder to form and machine than mild steel and is more costly © Protection from oxidation: - = Galvanizing: application of a zinc coating; protection from corrosion = Electroplating: coat melals such as chromium and cadmium onto steel i Anodizing: electrolytic process that forms a permanent protective oxide coating on aluminum, with or without added color © Thermo-mechanical processes * Quenching: rapid cooling °° lenney, 1893, steel oo 20000BUILDING TECHNOLOGY = Tempering: partial reheat : a rocrystal © Hotwering wena aan emperor igh anauth PT an beng ino shape = Forging involves healing a reco of mote ntl baeama® °° : come ids to produce © Casting process of pouring molten metal into shaped mold; ten weaker rete Han moat the orn proe=sce © Rolling. squeezing it between sees of shap Colt working working of meal bok the temperatura lization somewhat ch etton ooo 20 OM tornperature and slowly ature below that of ass by heating to a temper a or ad ota, espacialy to make the material (caled a die) to produce a linear presong cr sara + averting + SSigeng tonaten or ughen am cooing fe mae mnening romore tora tooyaaeaton a hon Saison 19. a material through @ shaped orifice «= Faracn ayn a ail a 1 te yo stal rod through @ seri + Drawing: produces wites BY onfoesn hardened sto ples ur Rolling: roll a metal at a temperat increase i ia strength or improve its surface finish . © Nobile’ ee ms and meroury that resists oxidation when heated in air and solution by inorganic acids © Galvan action + Carbon sieo! co Mild steel o Medium steel o Hard steel ‘o Spring steel e Produotion of structural shapes. © Beam blank > rollers > hot saw > cooling bed > roller straightener © Other alloys ‘o Teme metal: alloy of lead and typically 40 to 15% tin, used to coat steel sheet in order to produce a strong, corrosion-resistant product Brass: copper and zinc plus small amount of other metals. Bronze: reddish-gold metal that consists of 90% copper and 10% tin Muntz meta: brass with about 60% copper and 40% zine. Red brass/gun metal: type of bronze with about 88% copper, 8-10% tin, and 2-4% zine. Originally used ciety for making guns, largely been replaced by steel ai ‘Structural Stee! Products and Systems ‘© Structural Steel: plate; Light I © | Produds ight Gauge Steel: sheet ‘American standard beam /| beam (S): less effi i ient structurally than wide flanges Wide flange (W): superseded the older Channel (C) beam shapes ‘American Standard Channel Angle (L) © Unequal logs * Equal legs "Structural Tee (WT) "Solid bar * Solid plate . |: ” * heen Ve hoa: above 1 pata Square, Rectangular, or Eliptical: hollow structural section eta by roheating at alower | stress from mel dually cooling #9ILDING TECHNOLOGY = HSS Round i * “Lally aki trademark for a brand of steel pipe column, usually filed with concrete © Labels; = Nominal depth x weight sous ane = Length ofeach leq folowed by thicknoss (angle) cee teeth ant wna olowed by wal hcknos® (ss Square, Rectangular, oF Eliptical) }SS Round) rong the edge of a structural shape in Nominal diameter followed by wall thickness nq ala right angie from between two broader, parallel parts, Flange: broad ridae or pair of ridges project order to strengthen or shan i Web: an integral part of a beam that forms a fa, rigid connection as the flanges of a structural shape Cast steel * Pouring molten steel into molds and allowing the steel to cool = Well suited for production of custom-shaped connections Cold.worked steel “Soe! can be cold:worked or cold-formed (rolled or ben!) in a cold state (at oom temperature) Cold working causes steel gain considerable strength through realignment of its crystalline structure Light gauge steel shee! is formed into C-shaped sections used to frame partitions and exterior walls of larger buildings and floor structures of smaller buildings Heavier stoel sheet stock is rolled into corugated configurations utilized as floor and roof decking in steel-ftamed structures = Hollow structural sections (HSSs) /structural tubing Heavier sheet or plate stock cold-formed into square, rectangular, round, and elliptical hrolow shapes that are then welded along the longitudinal seam Used for colurms and for members of welded steel trusses and space trusses Their hollow shape makes them especially suitable for members that are subjected to torsional (twisting) stresses or fo buckling associated with compressive loads Cold ring is used fo produce small-section steel rods and steel components for open-web joists ‘Steel is cold-drawn through dies to produce the very-high strength wires used in wire ropes, bridge cables, and concrete prestressing strands © Open-web sted joists (OWS)) + Mass produced truss used in clasely spaced arrays to support floor/root decks + ets pane po (1) andangein dep ton 80 (200-7) + LH. series: designated as Longspan, span as far as 968 (28m), 48in (460-1220mm) (Bom). copie range fem 16 + DLH Deep Longspan: for roofs only, span up tp 144 72 pied ¥, span up ip 144 f (44m), §2-72in deep (1320- ‘ic Lean aed compos for corstctan * Joist girders: prefabricated stel trusses designed to carry heavy loads, particu 7 steel joists, ran peaeat ee «sing ste 988 e8n eth om 20 (50-1800) °. Rives © Bolts Guick and easy fr field connection that need only resist shearing forces; can be accomplished init cantons of adverse woalher ox diel phystal acooes thal woud make ting * Carbon steel bolls (ASTM A307)/Unfinished or Com : He strength bolts (ASTM Aaoe and A490) montols Leston ‘and collar fastener or swedge bolt: alternative to high strength bolt; a bottJike steel pin 7 annular rings that relies on a steel colar in lieu of a convention nut to hold the pin under ui Feed cold forming the collar around its end to complete the connection lethod of determining the amount of tension in a bot:BUILDING TECHNOLOGY © Tum-of nut method © Each boltis tightened snug, then tumed a speci turn, range from 1/3 of a turn to a full turn * Load indicator washer / direct tension indicator (DT!) (© Placed under the head or nut of the bolt . As the boltis tightened, protrusions on the washer are progressively fattened in proportion to the tension in the bolt © Fooler gauge © Tiny dye capsules * Calibrated wrench method 2 Special torque control wrench is used fo ighton the bolts ¢ Tension control bolt or ave preruding splined ends that extend beyond the threaded portion ofthe body of the bolt . | «3 Thenul is ightaned by a special power-driven shear wrench that gripe both thet and the splined end simultaneously, turning one against the other * Bearing-type connection are ite nood only be installed to a snuglight condition; stressed in shear Amount of tension in the bolts is not eitical = Slip-critical (or friction-type) connection | during installation) to such an extent that friction «Bolts are preloaded (tightened a between the adjoining faces ofthe steel members (the faying surfaces) resists movement between the member; stressed in tension «Bolts must be tightened reliably to at least 70 percent of their ultimate tensile strength = Bolts are inserted into holes 1/16in (2mm) larger than the diameter of the bolt Hardened steel washers may be inserted under one or both ends of the fastener; washers are required wit slotted oF oversized holes to ensure thatthe bolt head and nut have adequate contact with the surfaces of the joined members Bolts are lightened using @ pneumatic or electric impact wrench ified additional fraction of a o Welding * Join the members of a steel frame as ifthey were a monolithic whole Welded connections, if properly designed and executed, are stronger than the members they join = Types of welding ‘© Fusion welding * Pressure welding * Blctric arc welding: an electrical potential is established between steel pieces to be joined and a metal electrode held either by a machine or by a person ‘= Welding with seamless look ‘© *TIG: tungsten inert gas * GTAW: gas tungsten are welding © Plasma Arc * GMAW: gas metal are welding * Typical welds: * Non-Destructive Testing (NDT): magnetic particle, dye penetrant, ultrasonie, oF radiographic testing ‘Slot/plug or puddle weld: non-structural Faced rion-stuctural; inside intersection of two metal surfaces that meet at ight angi . See ial sacle) © Square, V, bevel, U, J, flare V, flare bevel * Welding processes: ‘* Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW): most commonie BUILDING TECH! 0G) shielded + Fluccored ars welding (FAW): can be gas or sl = Submerged arc welding (SAW) * Gas metal aro woling (GMAW) . a igh 5: Damanna bie win url connoctine that may be cubjected to very ri stresses during a seismic event © Often welding and boing are combined to tke advantage of © Field connections vs shop connections ‘© Welding vs bolting ; = Welding has a much larger range of applicability than batng * Welded connections oliminate the need of bolts and conne: amount to a substantial saving of steel . Weng cals ennai between te connected mabers Welding requires a much greater level Welding should preferably be carried out under controlled conditions ‘of a shop Members to be welded must be dry and free from dirl and grease Boling is rapid, involves lese-kiled labor, and can be accomplished without any surface eani . Baling mote suited to field connections because ofthe relative lite effect of weather conditions to it 1e unique qualilies of each ion gusset plates, which can Sirvotural Stee! Framing Syst Beam-io-column flange Beam-to-column-web Wolded/bolted end plate beam-column Coped beam-girder Bolted column-column Most sieel frame connections use angles, plates, or tees as transitional elements between the members being connected ‘Shear connection © Type of connection which joins only the web of the beam but not the flanges to the column © Capable of transmiting vertical forces (shear) ftom a beam fo a column ‘o However, because it does not connect the beam flanges to the column, itis of no value in transmitting bending forces (bending moment) from one to the other ©. The size of the angles and the number and size ofthe bolls are determined by the magnitude of the toad Moment connection © Toproduce a moment connection, one capable of transmitting bending forces between a beam and Calum, itis necessary to connect the beam flanges strongly across the joint, most commonly by means of fullpenetration groove wel © Ifthe column flanges are insufficiently strong to accept the forces transmitted from the beam flanges, slffener plates must be installed inside the flanges of the column lo better distribute these forces into the body of the column ‘© Though much less common, itis also possible to design moment-ransmitting connections that rely sdely on bolting “s "9 AISC (American institute of Stee! Construction) Types of Connection © Type 1: Moment Connection * Suficionlly rigid that the geometric angles between members will ramain virtually unchanged ‘under normal loading + Rigid © Fully-restrained ** Welded moment connection: backup bars, clearance hole, stiffener plates, dog-bone welded Configuration (fo create a zone of the beam thatis slightly weaker in bending than the connection itself) * Welded beam-to-column-web moment connection___ BUILDING TECHNOLOGY * A vertical shear tab, welded fo the web of the column atts conterline, Serves to ke bolts that cin tho column to tho beam wab and hold the beam in plane during clding '* The horizontal stiffener plates that are welded inside the column flar than the beam flanges and extend out beyond the column flanges to reduce concentrations of stress at the welds © Type 2: Shear/simple Connection * Capable of unrestrained rotation und moment-resisting capacity. Buildings frame diagonal bracing or shear walls for lateral stability ‘© Nontigid © Unvstrained © Shear tab * Bolted beam-to-column-flange connection ted toh chin . beam are not rigidly connected to = Framed cerersipe of peer comecton in which the beam is connected to the column by angles, plates, or tees fastened to the web of the beam = Single-tab shear (AISC simple frame) connection ‘¢ An economical alternative when the load + A ssingle connector plate is welded to the column in the shop, iton the construction site = Welding connection ‘¢ Angles are welded to the beam in the shop ‘© Bolts through the angles hold the beam in place while it is welded to the column © Angles are not welded to the column along their top and bottom edges. This permits the angles to flex slightly to allow the beam to rotate away from the column as it bends ‘Seated beam-column-web connection: ‘© Beam fianges connected to the column by a seat angie below and a stabilizing angle above ‘© Used fo connect a column web because there is usually insufficient space between the column flanges to insert a power wrench to tighten all the bolts in a framed connection Coped beam-girder shear: © Girder: beam that supports other beams ‘* May be made with single tabs (of the load is not too great) and angles ‘* Top flanges of the beams are cut away (coped) so that the tops of the beams and the girder are all level with one another, ready to receive the floor or roof decking 0 Type 3: Semi-rigid Connection + Notas rigid as FR connections, but nonetheless possess a dependable and pretiolable ‘moment-esisting capacity that can be used to stabilize a bulding frame © Partially restrained = Welded/bolted end plate beam-column connection: * Te pls woted tote end ofthe beamnin the chop and baled oh etn on the ilding site © Bolted column-column connection for columns that are the same size * Te als ar baled tthe ower section ofthe clu inthe shop an to th upper section on le * Allcolumn connections are made at waist height above the foor Column sizes diminish as the building rises, requiring frequent use of shim plates at ‘Connections fo make up for differences in flange thicknesses © Welded column connections: * The connector plate is welded tothe lower column section in the fabricator’ shop. The hole in the connector plate is used to attach a lifting line during erection. The bolts hold the column sections in alignment, while the flanges are connected inthe field with partial penetration welds, nges are thicker ble + normal loading conditions and to have negli “famed solely with this connection must depend on on the connection is relatively light and the beam is bolted toBUILDING TECHNOLOGY an the ther prior in bevel grooves. parpipenethon ‘welding allows one column torest welding size of wide * Wolded but plale connection the shop, flange to another. The thick bull transfers the load from one section of colar base ofthe upper catumn is made on the site ‘© Stabilizing the Building Frame © Three types of stabilizing olaments are used = Braced frames F Tice diagonal bracing to create stable triangular configurations within the uns! rectiinear goomelty ofthe frame ‘= Behave like pins oF hinges (shear connections) fron one nominal solumn section in enelral used where a column change plat, whichis wolded to tho lowe! & tothe olher. The, table © Eccentrcally braved frame ar nde of diagonal braces aro offet some distance fom each other where thoy connect fo horizontal members the building sorting capacity or resilience into Introduce greater energy-at to severe earthquake stresses frame, important for resistance © Shear connections ‘© Cross bracing, chevron bracing (inverted V) © Shear walls ‘© Very stif walls made of steel, conerete, of reinforced concrete masonry © Actin much the same way as diagonal bracing within a braced frame structure + Moment resisting frames ‘© Have neither diagonal bracing nor shear walls ‘Rely on stronger and stiffer ‘moment connections between bé provide lateral stability ©. Bracing arrangements for tall buildings = Rigid core * Rigid perimeter/tube structures ‘Diagonal bracing, shear wals, or (less frequently) bean-to-colurmn moment ‘connections are incorporated into the outer walls of the building frame and the entre interior structure is assembled with simpler shear connections | © Can be more efficient that rigid core structures since the stabilizing elements are spread further apart and act over a great area in plan ‘+ Rigid frame vs Braced frame: ‘©. Atigid frame does not require bracing for lateral stabilly, providing unobstructed © Braced frames are generally less expensive and allow faster ‘orerton oe © Braved frame is much ster; the term rigid is a misnomer Sua teat creenkns between beams and columns ar suficient o transmit vertical loads through the ing frame, but they are not, on their own, capable of providing adequate resistance to lateral forces. Lateral ‘1 retanae may be provided by he ineuction of diagonal bracing, shear walls, beam-to-column moment necioscr ane cana of thse elements hohe Fae raced frames and shear walls tend to be, ve neha —. moment frames and aro usualy the preferred choices for stabllzing structures 3 ee coer suet igh wind or earthquake forces © Structural engineer © Specifier © Steel detailer ‘© Fabricator = Fabrication Erector shop : Where the fabricator’ job ends, the erector’s job begins Beep scanbig inane on ba leg ta Sel cargos iby yeams and columns to °LD NOLOGY Workers are called ironworkers. Plate connection © Leveling plate © Levelling nuts * Field weld * Tower crane and mobile crane: '* Huffing-boom: used in congested situatic ‘© Hammerhead boom: jb (module of riangul = Racing gang * Topping out: last beam in a steel frame '* Diaphragm action: sufficient stiffness © Floor and root deck wo Form deck: add reinforcements; 1 402 Yn depth (13-84) © Composite deck = Metal deck and concrete ‘en = 1 %and 3in depth (38 and it = Acts as steel Me ora be concrete topping installed over a se sl and the steel beam * Shear studs: creale a ae bl ‘connection between the cor wetted ° 1 ¥6to Tin depth (38-178mm) fal, are ° ‘Colds desing for Spann and roof decks; two sheets, one eet int babar cstetance together and can be made sufficiently slif to support normal floor loads ‘fom the concrete fil that is poured over it to produce @ level floor Soewske © “Acoustical deck: webs are perforated and fiberglass is placed between the ‘Structural Steel Fireproofing & Lona-span Structures '« Fireproofing of slee! framing (columns) Encasement in reinforced concrete Enclosure in metal lath and plaster Enclosure in multiple layers of gypsum board 7 Spray-on freproofing: most common; economical Loose insulating fil inside a sheet metal enclosure Water filed box column of wide flange shape wih added steel plates ‘¢ Fireproofing of steal framing (beams/girders) Encasement in reinforced concrete Enclosure in metal lath and plaster Rigid slab freprooiing Spray-on fireproofing: most common; eeonomical ‘Suspended plaster ceiling . Flame-shiolded exterior spandrel girder with spray-on ‘© Spray-appliad fre-recistive materiale (SFRM) ° emo of ether a fber and a binder or a cementitious mixture ° sive and Hi lumns. © Athletic buildings, certain types of industial build buildings, transportation terminals; longer spans ‘+ Castellated beams: steel beam f caterer hoe Dene by dividing the web of a wide-f Jjbisindined eres Lega slays horizontal 000000 ° 20000 ings, aircraft hangars, aucitoriums, theaters, religio a , , , faligious ‘are required than can be accomplished with vide-tange er aha pate te 2 Wi fange section with a engthwise zigzag = thus inereasi aa nails depth without increasing its weight © Trusses © Staggered truss systom: lee femone sing, ooh: 9 Fang system in which ra storey-high . a etena ester decks on both top an bot ria —_ Vierendee! Panels and rigid joints but no diagcnal mntoreiagonal web and di BUILDING TECHNOLOGY embers in tension © Howe tru: pertaining toa or plched russ having vertal web ™ + decmeennnent, oe 1 that spans with woway ac © Tensile structures *° Fabric structures Light Gauge Sieo! Framing C Light gauge steel construction sition sruch the samo way 28 ° © Products: . ‘© Stud oF joist sectons/C- sections: fr wall, foor, and roof framing © Noncombustble equivalent of wood ight frame const ang rafter 9 wired, ering may be sheathed. insulated, ‘Steel members are used in framing as closely sé from which the members wood ight frame members are used, and aight tee tame BILE ing and finish nei and out in tho ame manner a8 3 oD? WT cheat The term “light gauge" refers to the relative thinness (gau0°) ate made : Cc i ith zine or aluminum-zine Sie! ond is manufactured to ASTM standard A1003 and is: rmetallic-coated with 2i alloy to protect against corrosion yembers can nest into Track eectione: top and bottom plates; sigh oversized 50 that stud or joist m them Channel sections and furing channel: fr lightor bracing and framing tasks ‘© Standard nomenclature: © Example: 6008162-54 member ooo ° = 6.00in deep ("600") stud or joist section (s') = 1.625in wide (162") = Made from 54-mi-thick sheet metal 54") *S" for stud or joist “T" for track *U' for channel "F for furing ¢ Thickness | ‘0 Lower gauge members correspond to greater metal thickness. ° Gauge 20 and below: load bearing member ‘© Standard accessories: ° ooo ooo ° End clips: used to join members that meet at right angles Foundation cps: attach the ground floor platform to anchor bolts embedded in the foundation “Joist hangers: connec osts to headers and trimmers around opening |Web sttfenor: two piece assembly thats inserid incide a joist and screwed to its vertical web to help transmit wall loads verically through the joist V-bracing Flat strap bracing "Nested “Truss stud “Structural steel framing: hot workedihol rolled “Light gauge steel framing: cold worked/cold formed ASTM Intemational standards designations: ° ° 200000 A= Iron and Stoel Materials ~ evlarous Metal Materials = Ceramic, Conerete, and Masonry O = Miscellaneous Materials oe = Misolancous SubjectsBUILDING TECHNOLOGY © Density of materials: Titanium: 4 50g/em? Chromium: 7.18giom? ‘Steel: 8.05¢/em? Lead: 10.68g/em® ° ° ° °