Fundamentals of Literature

Chapter One - The Concept of Literature

What is Literature?
Literature is one of the fine arts like music, dance, painting, sculpture etc. as it is meant to
give aesthetic pleasure rather than serve any utilitarian purpose. It consists of great books
which, whatever may be their subject, are notable for literary form expression. It is the
aesthetic worth alone, or aesthetic worth combined with intellectual excellence, which
entitles a book to be considered as literature. In the realms of poetry, drama and fiction,
the greatest works are selected on the basis of aesthetic excellence or the beauty of
expression. But books dealing with other subjects such as history, biography, religion,
politics, etc also are considered as literature for their intellectual excellence combined
with aesthetic worth in the form of style, composition and general force of presentation.
When we say that a book is not a literature, we generally mean that it has no aesthetic
worth, while when we call a book as literature, we mean that it has got aesthetic value.

Some Other Definitions

 Literature is a criticism of life through perception and fancy. It interprets and
philosophizes life.
 Literature is the most perfect and noblest expression of human thoughts
manifested in words.
 Literature is the mirror of life; it reflects the society of the period when it has
written.
 Literature is the cultural heritage of peoples. It is record of man in a diversity of
forms at various levels of scholarship.
 Literature is a creative work of art which expresses the truth of experience in
terms of beauty, and it is a means of communicating ideas of intellectual and
social significance.
 Literature means to meet a lot of people, to know others’ point of view, ideas,
thoughts, minds and to know ourselves better.
 Literature is that which teaches us to enjoy life and to endure it.

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  Literature is a teacher—it teaches us good lessons, shows the right path and
advises us what to do.
 It is a friend—it increases our joy and gives us pleasure. Sometimes, is
revolutionary—it provides us and urges us to act against injustice and the
outdated.
 Literature is impossible to define. It is an experience of life.
 Literature is the communication of pure experience through the medium of
language (the author’s experience is translated into such symbolic equivalence in
language that the symbol translates back the same experience to the readers.
W.H. Hudon in his book an Introduction to the Study of Literature, puts it: “Literature is
composed of those books, of those books only, which by reason of their subject matter
and their mode of treating it, are of general human interest and in which the element of
form and the pleasure which form gives are to be regarded as essential.
Qualities of Literature
Generally speaking, artistic quality, suggestiveness, permanence and universality are the
qualities of literature.

A. Artistic quality: it is comprised of aesthetic appeal, structural accomplishment,

lingual perfection and force of presentation of a work of literature.
B. Suggestiveness: A work of literature should be capable of conveying maximum
ideas through minimum words possible. Words used by the writer should bear
many layers of meaning other than the literal one. The more we think of them, the
more do they bare new layers of meaning. In addition to it, a work of literature
should suggest the writer’s vision or philosophy of life also. In fact,
suggestiveness contributes one of the major factors to the success and the
greatness of a work of literature.
C. Permanence: Generations and civilizations will decline and vanish paving way
for new ones, and this process is ceaselessly going on. But, literature will survive
the passage of time and it carries over the flaming torch of ideals that constitute
the strong foundation of life from generation to generation. On the shore of the

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 ocean of time, it stands like a light house. Age can’t wither it, nor can custom
stale its infinite variety.
D. Universality: Despite the disparity of time and space, the elementary passions of
man are the same. The more literature reflects them; the more surely does it
awaken a response in men of all ages everywhere in the world. Therefore, good
literature knows no bounds of time, nor any nationality. It will equally be enjoyed
anywhere at any time.

The Object in Studying Literature

Besides getting the pleasure of reading, of entering into a new world and having our
imagination quickened, the study of literature has one defining object to know men. Man
is ever a dual creature; he has an outward nature and inner nature. He is not only a doer of
things but a dreamer of dreams as well. So to know him, the man of any age, we must
search deeper than history. History records his deeds, his outward acts largely. But every
great act springs from an ideal, and to understand this we must study his literature, where
we can find his ideals recorded—ideals such as his thoughts and feelings; his outlooks on
life and death; his hopes and fears; his reverence to God and man, etc.

Importance of Literature
It is a curious prevalent opinion that literature is a mere play of imagination without any
serious practical importance. This is not true. Our civilization, our freedom, our progress,
our homes, our religion—that means our life as a whole rest upon the strong foundation
constituted by ideals such as love, faith, duty, friendship, freedom, reverence, etc. as
such, they are to be properly preserved. Literature does this function. It preserves ideals
for both the existing and coming generations. The ancient Greek civilization was
declined. But we learn and evaluate their ideals which were preserved in their literature.
Peoples, cities, governments and civilization will vanish in the flow of time. Nothing but
ideals endure upon the earth. It is literature that preserves the torch of ideals
unextinguished and carries over from generation to generation.

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Functions of Literature
All critics agree on one point that the main function of literature is to entertain the
readers. But they differ among themselves regarding the functions of literature. Longinus,
the ancient Greek philosopher, says that the function of literature is to make the readers
sublime, which means to lift them out of themselves. Philip Sydney, the 16 th century poet
and critic, emphasize on the same when he says that the chief function of literature is to
‘move’. The aim of the writer, according to Dryden, the 17 th century poem and prose
writer, is to “make men better in some respect.” After categorizing literature into two
such as literature of knowledge and literature of power, De Quincy, the 19 th century prose
writer, says that the function of the first is to teach and the function of the second is to
move. Besides giving pleasure or entertaining or moving the readers, literature is
supposed to have other function as well. One important function is to heighten the
awareness of the reader to certain aspects of life. In addition to these primary functions,
literature also performs three subsidiary functions: propaganda, release and escape.
Propaganda literature popularizes some facts or ideas either by direct method or indirect
method.
Release literature aims at setting the pent up force free and the resultant purgation in the
personality.
Escape literature provides an escape from the grim realities of life, from boredom and
trivial reality into significant reality.
To sum up, the primary functions of literature are to delight the reader, to make him/her
sublime and heighten his awareness of life. The subsidiary functions are propaganda,
release and escape.

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Unit Two: Types of Literature
Literature based on language classified in to two. Oral and written literature.
2.1. What is Oral Literature?
When we think of literature, we always do it in connection with books and other printed
materials. Then what had been the status of literature before alphabets and printing
technology were invented? Of course, there existed literature even before those
inventions, and we call it oral literature. The word oral is the adjective of mouth and the
literature exclusively relied upon oral presentation for its existence.
2.2. Characteristics of Oral literature
1. Performance - This is a basic characteristic of oral literature. Oral literature is
dependent on a performer who formulates it in words on a specific occasion—
there is no other way in which oral literature can be realized as a literary product.
2. Audience – This is another essential factor of oral literature. An audience of some
kind is normally an important part of oral literature. If there is a story to be told,
there must be, at least, one person who has to listen to it.
3. Actual Occasion- The actual occasion in which an oral piece performed is
another significant point. Some of the occasions in which oral literature is
performed include wedding, harvesting, funerals, victory celebrations, religious
ceremonies etc. genres like proverbs can also be used as appropriate to the
occasion.
2.3. Genres of Oral Literature
Oral literature has different genres. Some of them are long while some others are short.
 Folktale- This is a short narrative in prose that has been transmitted orally. It is
popular in the sense that it is repeatedly narrated by many and handed down by
word of mouth. Folktales are found among peoples all over the world. Many
tales in many societies eventually achieve the written form.
 Fables– fables are narratives where the characters are animals and made to play
the roles of human beings.
 Myths usually involve the supernatural and serve to explain some natural
phenomena.

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  Folksongs – are other forms of oral literature. The songs could be love-songs,
war-songs, game-songs or work songs.
 Legend- is a type of short narrative which represents the history of great citizens
of a traditional community and is accepted by the community as part of its
history. The legend differs from myth in that the characters are human beings of
extra ordinary strength and talent.
 Proverb- different scholars define the proverb in various ways.
“A proverb is a short familiar sentence expressing a supposed truth or moral
lesson; … a saying that requires explanation”.
(Chambers Twentieth Century Dictionary)
A proverb is “a short well-known saying usually in popular language”.

(Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English)

In short, proverb is a saying that is short, popular and true. Proverbs are told in context.
The reason why a proverb is used is an important means of getting the meaning. Meaning
could also be arrived at by knowing who is saying the proverb to whom.

 Riddle- this is another short form of oral literature. It is an obscure description of

something which the listener is asked to name. It is mainly manifested in the form
of puzzles, the intention of which is to make a person use his/her wit; it is a
mental exercise, the challenge that someone has to face.

What is written literature?

The term written literature is used to refer to a body of imaginative literature committed
to writing or presented in the form of printed words.

2.4. Differences between Oral Literature and Written Literature

Brevity: oral literature is brief compared to written literature. The reason for this may be
the limited capacity of the human mind in terms of retention.

Dynamism- oral literature always changes. It is the same from telling to telling. Identical
themes are told by using different words or phrases. A single narrator may tell you the

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same story today and tomorrow, but there will be differences in telling the story. The
choice of words, phrases, styles, the order of events or episodes, twists of familiar plots,
contribute to the fluid nature of oral literature.

The creativity of the individual has also some degree of contribution to the variation. On
the other hand, written literature is static.

Physical Interaction- The face to face presence of the performer and the audience is a
pre-requisite for oral literature. But in written literature, the reader may not even know
the author.

Ownership – Oral literature is owned by the society that it belongs to. Any person can
exercise oral literature because the copy-right belongs to all. In written literature, the
piece normally belongs to a specific author.

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Unit Three: Genres of Literature

3.1. Fiction

The word fiction comes from the Latin word “fictio” which means something imagined
and invented. Fiction denotes a story created from the author’s imagination. Hence, in the
general sense the word fiction refers to any narrative literature created from the author’s
imagination rather than from facts.

In the specific sense, the word fiction is commonly used to refers to the short story, the
novella and the novel.

A. Short story

Any work of fiction with a word count between 7,500 and 20,000 is generally considered
a novelette or modern short story. A novelette or modern short storyis longer than a short
narrative, which usually has a word range of between 1,000 and 7,500 words, and flash
fiction, which is usually under 1,000 words.

B. Novella

A novella is a standalone piece of fiction that is shorter than a full-length novel but
longer than a short story or novelette. Novellas incorporate many narrative and
structural elements of novel-length stories—but like novelettes, they often focus on
single points of view, focusing on a single central conflict, and rely on fast pacing. Here
are the differences between novelettes and novellas.

C. Novel

The term long fiction is generally used to refer to the novel. This is because a novel is a
long factious story in prose. The novel emerged as a literary form in mid-18th century.

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3.2. Drama

Drama comes from Greek words “drain” meaning "to do", “to perform” or "to act." A
play is a story acted out. It shows people going through some eventful period in their
lives, seriously or humorously. The speech and action of a play recreate the flow of
human life. Therefore, the term dram referred as a stage and a mirror of the society

Drama as a literary genre is realized in performance, which is why Robert Di Yanni

(quoted in Dukore) describes it as “staged art”. Drama is the Re-enactment of real and
imagined events through roles and situations.

Drama enables individuals and groups to explore, shape and symbolically represent ideas
and feelings and their consequences.

Drama is literature designed for stage or film presentation by people- actors- for the
benefit & delights of other people- an audience and in this regard, unlike Fiction, the
essence of drama is the development of character and situation through speech & action.
In line with that, Re-aske, drama is a work of literature or a composition which describes
life and human activity by means of presenting various actions of- and dialogues
between- a group of characters.

As a literary form, it is designed for the theatre because characters are assigned roles and
they act out their roles as the action is enacted on stage. These characters can be human
beings, dead or spiritual beings, animals, or abstract qualities. Drama is an adaptation,
recreation and reflection of reality on stage. Generally, the word, dramatist is used for
any artist who is involved in any dramatic composition either in writing or in
performance.

Here are some definitions of Drama from different sources:

".... something intended specifically for performance on stage in front of an audience."

".... A composition in prose or verse adapted to be acted upon a stage in which a story is
related by means of dialogue and action, and is represented with accompanying gesture,
costume, and scenery as in real life."

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"... A story without a story-teller; in it characters act out directly what Aristotle called an
"imitation" of such actions as we find in life." Scholes and Kellog.

".... A lively image of human nature; representing its passions and humors and changes in
fortune to which it is subjected for delight and instruction of mankind." John Dryden.

What then is drama? Drama is an imitation of life. Drama is different from other forms of
literature because of its unique characteristics. It is read, but basically, it is composed to
be performed, so the ultimate aim of dramatic composition is for it to be presented on
stage before an audience. This implies that it a medium of communication. It has a
message to communicate to the audience. It uses actors to convey this message. This
brings us to the issue of mimesis or imitation. We say that drama is mimetic which means
that it imitates life. You may have heard people say that drama mirrors life. Yes, it is the
only branch of literature which tries to imitate life and presents it realistically to the
people. It is this mimetic impulse of drama that makes it appeal to people.

Imitation to some extent is a reflection of an action in real life. It is close to reality but not
reality. In imitation you assume a role and not pretend. You take on or claim the
personality of the person you are imitating. An imitation therefore involves an illusion of
the reality and a willing suspension of disbelief. The actor creates an illusion of reality to
make his action credible. The audience in order to believe him suspends its doubt
(disbelief) and believes that what it is watching is real. This explains why sometimes you
are moved to tears as you watch the suffering of a particular character when you are
watching a home video or any other dramatic presentation. This is called empathy,
according to Aristotle, mimesis (imitation) entails some copying but not verbatim
copying. The artist adjusts or adds to it. He therefore contributes to the original as he
creates another world through imitation. Consequently, the product becomes not an
appearance but a reality or at worst, a reflection of the reality. It is important to note here
that the action might not have existed before in reality. The playwright could imagine or
conceptualize an action, then write it down or present it.

Imitation is a broader term for copying somebody or something. In impersonation we

narrow it down to copying people. Generally, we impersonate or pretend to be somebody

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in order to deceive people or to entertain them. Usually, in an impersonation, the actor
tries to be as convincing as possible. In acting this is called getting into the role.
Impersonation could be interchanged with role-playing. You have seen that
impersonation is an important ingredient in drama because for the action to be real or
life-like, the actors must convince the audience that they are the person or characters they
are impersonating. Re-presentation is to give or show something again. In drama, the
artist may have been inspired by a particular action and decides to re-produce it or re-
represent it on stage. Here, it is not possible to re-present the action exactly as it appeared
in its original form. Sometimes the dramatic composition is based on that action. We also
use re-presentation when a particular performance is being presented again after its
premiere or the original and first performance.

What makes a Drama a Drama?

* A dramatist should start with characters. The characters must be full, rich, interesting,
and different enough from each other so that in one way or another they conflict. From
this conflict comes the story

* Put the characters into dramatic situations with strongly plotted conclusions

* The plot should be able to tell what happens and why

* The beginning, should tell the audience or reader what took place before the story leads
into the present action. The middle carries the action forward, amid trouble and
complications. In the end, the conflict is resolved, and the story comes to a satisfactory,
but not necessarily a happy conclusion.

* It should be filled with characters that real people admire and envy. The plots must be
filled with action. It should penetrate both the heart and mind and shows man as he is, in
all his misery and glory.

A scene is the performable, parts into which a drama piece is divided. Scenes are under
an act and they represent a complete episode or event to be dramatized. Most of the
Shakespearean plays are presented in scenes. Indeed, a scene is a sequence of continuous
action in a play. A play is made up of acts, and acts are made up of scenes.

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TYPES OF DRAMA

1. TRAGEDY

We are familiar with the words 'tragedy' and tragic as they are associated with
misfortune. Usually, they are used to describe personal misfortunes that do not concern
the rest of the society. For example, the breakdown of a marriage or death of a dear one
in an accident or even natural causes could be described as tragic. Also, some public
events that are unpleasant like the assassination of a head of state or a political leader,
natural or human disasters like earthquakes, flood disasters, plane crashes and other such
disasters are referred to as tragedies. In this unit we are not concerned with these
tragedies or tragic' events in our daily lives but as they relate to dramatic compositions.

Tragedy according to the Oxford English Dictionary is “a play of a serious or solemn

kind ... a very sad event, action or experience.” The last part of the definition explains
why the word is used to describe misfortunes, natural and human disasters in everyday
life. However, we will be concerned with the aspect of the definition that sees tragedy as
a play of a serious or a solemn kind.

Tragedy in drama is believed to have originated from the Greek worship of Dionysius,
the god of wine and fertility. During the festival, the dithyramb, a choral lyric in honour
of the god is sang and danced around the altar by fifty men dressed in goat-skin (goat was
the sacred animal of the god). This is perhaps from where tragedy got its name because in
Greek, “tragoedia” meant goat song. During this song, a story about the god was
improvised by the choral leader but later Thepsis stood out and instead of singing in
honour of Dionysius, sang as Dionysius. However, the song continued but a minimal part
of it was acted by one actor. As time went on, the spoken part was increased and
Aeschylus added a second actor while Sophocles added a third actor. As time went on,
the number of chorus decreased gradually as more actors increased. Thus tragedy was
born. The scope of the plays increased as they started including myths concerning other
gods. The plays became so popular that by 534 BC, the state gave official recognition to
tragedy and instituted a prize for the best tragedy presented at the annual Donysian
festival.

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Tragedy is the most esteemed of all the dramatic genres. It has attracted many definitions
and rules, from the days of Aristotle, who is the first person to write on the circumstances
of and what tragedy should be, to the present day. According to him in his “Poetics”:
Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete and of a certain magnitude;
in language embellished with each kind of artistic ornaments, the several kinds being
found in separate parts of the play; in the form of action not of narrative; through pity and
fear effecting a proper purgation of these emotions.

Aristotle explains all the aspects of this definition and moves further to give the elements
of tragedy as plot, character, thought, diction, music and spectacle. Try to read Aristotle’s
“Poetics”. These principles have continued to influence the definition till date. However,
some dramatic scholars agree with him while some others disagree with him. In drama,
tragedy is a serious play that deals with the misfortunes of man. It presents a man (tragic
hero) who is not too virtuous or too vicious but one who aspires for higher ideals. He tries
to improve himself and the world around him. In the course of this, he makes a mistake,
or commits an error of judgment. This leads to his fall.

Traditionally, in classical tragedies, the hero must be of noble birth, suffer and is
overwhelmed in the end. Tragedy presents injustice, evil, pain, misfortunes, paradoxes
and mysterious aspects of human existence.

Many critics argue that there are no tragedies in the modern period. The argument is
based on the fact that many playwrights do not adhere to the Aristotelian principles of
tragedy especially as regards the treatment of the subject matter, tragic hero and the
language.

Modern playwrights feel that they should not be restricted by any rules. According to
them, drama reflects the society, so they should reflect their society in the works. In the
modern society, little or no attention is paid to kings, princes and their exploits so a poor
man who is hard working can rise to esteem. The society also encourages him to rise. He
also has the capacity to fall into misfortune through an error of judgment and according
to Arthur Miller, since kings and monarchs are no longer available, tragedy should be

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based “... on the heart and spirit of the average man” (Dukore: 897). Contemporary issues
and human beings should, therefore, be treated in tragedy.

It is necessary to analyze the elements of Aristotelian theory of tragedy as noted as in the

quotation, for a proper understanding.

2. Comedy

Comedy comes from the Greek word Komos which means "a revel" and its origin is
traced to activities surrounding ritual performances in honour of the Greek god of fertility
and wine called Dionysus. Comedy is a form of drama often considered as the exact
opposite of tragedy. It is remarkable that the popular emblem of drama, a pair of masks,
appears to confirm this relationship between comedy and tragedy. While the sorrowful
one is representing tragedy, the one smiling designates comedy.

Apparently, comedy is generally characterized by an element of the comic. But while a

whole play may be described as comic, an aspect of a play may just constitute the comic
element. This means that you may find the comic element in a play, even when it is not a
comedy.

We use the words 'comedy' and comic to describe something that is funny in our
everyday lives. These include a joke, or a fantastic story that is full of nonsense, or an
absurd appearance that makes us giggle, smile or laugh. Comedy is not inherent in things
or people but the way things/people are perceived. Comedy is a deliberate presentation of
events/experiences drawn from real life but not the same with real life. We should
therefore not expect dramatic comedy to be the same as real life.

Generally, the plays have good endings or resolutions, so when a play ends happily, we
refer to it as comedy. In most comedies, the principal characters begin in a state of
opposition either to one another or to their world or both. By the end of the play, their
opposition is replaced by harmony. Aristotle in his “Poetics” insisted that in tragedy men
are shown “better than they are”, while in comedy “worse than they are”. For him it is an
artistic imitation of men of inferior moral bent, not in every way but only in so far as their
shortcomings are ludicrous. These short comings cause no pain.

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Another principle which is used in judging whether a play is a comedy or not is whether
it ends on a happy note. A tragedy is often seen a sending on a sad note, often with the
death of the hero. A third principle that we may apply to identify a comedy also
emphasizes its differences from the tragedy. It suggests that a tragedy appeals to our
emotion while a comedy appeals to our reason.

3. Tragicomedy

You have seen that tragedy is a serious play that ends on a sad note, while comedy ends
happily. In traditional tragedy, playwrights are not allowed to bring in any comic action.
Tragi-comedy is a play that mixes both comic and tragic elements in equal proportion of
each. It therefore elicits both tragic and comic emotions.

Elements of Drama
Elements of drama /dramatic element/
1. Setting – place and time that the events occur. To answer the questions when and
where. Setting = time +place + situation.
2. Character- It may be animal, object, human or other whatever, the writers’
choice.
3. Plot –the sequence of events in a literary work
Plot=story + conflict
4. staging- drama is a stage art. The element of staging refers to the various features that
a play presents when it is performed on the stage. In other words, staging refers to the
visual aspects of a play. Staging includes characters’ position, gestures, movements on
the stage, costumes, lighting, sound effects, scenic background, and propos. Dialogue is
the relation of the play writers and the speech of the character. Language of the character.
The language is write with poem, prose and mix.
5.Theme –the central message of the play.
3.3. Poetry

The Concept of Poetry

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It is very difficult to define poetry though we all have an instinctive sense of what poetry
is. If we are asked to define poetry, most of us may be tempted to give the answer which
St. Augustine gave in reply to as similar question about God: “if not asked, I know; if you
ask me I don’t know.” We all know instinctively what poetry is, but to translate this into
clear and exact language seems difficult, though not impossible. Different poets and
critics have given different definitions and it shows how difficult it is to give a complete
definition of poetry in a few sentences.

Definitions:

 In his dictionary, Dr Johnson defines poetry as "a metrical composition. It is the

art of uniting pleasure with truth by calling imagination to the help of reason.”

 “By poetry” says Macaulay, “we mean the art of employing words in such a
manner as to produce an illusion up on imagination, the art of doing by means of
words what the painter does by means of colors.”

 “Poetry” according to Wordsworth, “is the spontaneous over flaw of powerful

feelings recollected in tranquility.”

 In Coleridge’s view “poetry is the antithesis of science having for its immediate
object-pleasure, not truth.”

 “Poetry may be defined as the expression of personality” ----Shelley

 Poetry is an escape from personality. ----T.S. Eliot

 Poetry is a singing bird with honey in its beak. --- Keats

 Poetry is the commonsense of the soul. --- W.B. Yeats

 Poetry is a magic of words beyond logic. ---Sir Aurobindo

 Poetry is the most delightful and perfect form of utterance that human words can
reach. It is a criticism of life under the conditions fixed for such a criticism by the
laws of poetic truth and poetic beauty. ---Matthew Arnold

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  Poetry may be intended to amuse or to ridicule or to produce an effect which we
feel to be more valuable than enjoyment and different form instruction. But
primarily poetry is an exploration of the possibilities of languages. --- Michael
Robert

 The end of writing is to instruct; the end of poetry is to instruct by pleasing.

Samuel Johnson

 A poem begins with a lump in the throat, a home-sickness or a love-sickness. It is

a reaching-out toward expression; an effort to find fulfillment. A complete poem
is one where the emotion has found its thought and the thought has found the

words--- ROBERT FROST

This list of definitions can be extended too many pages, but enough has been given to
show how difficult it is to define poetry in one or two sentences. Still, we may say in one
sentence that poetry is an interpretation of life in which the emotional, aesthetic and
imaginative elements predominate.

Poetic truth and Scientific truth

In order to understand the nature of poetry, it is good to contrast it with science. Poetry is
an interpretation of life in which the emotional and aesthetic elements predominate.
Science also is an interpretation of life, but in its interpretation the logical and rational
elements predominate. That means, both poetry and science interpret life, but while the
former is subjective, the latter is objective. Science is concerned with the objective
aspects of nature and life. It observes nature closely, collects as much data as possible
and from the data it arrives at a general conclusion with the help of reason and logic.
Poetry on the contrary is, not concerned with the objective facts, but with the emotional
and aesthetic reactions of men to those facts. Let us take, for example, an objective fact in
nature, say a lily flower. The botanists study that flower objectively. After having studied
it is physical and anatomical features, he calls it ‘hexandria monogynia’. The poet, on the
other hand, is not at all concerned with its scientific aspects; he is concerned with the
aesthetic appeal of the flower. In order to convey its beauty, he will poetically call it ‘the

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queen of the garden’. To the scientist this description is a lie or at least an untruth. But
aesthetically and poetically it is a truth. Both the scientist and the poet have reached the
truth in their own way. Thus, poetic truth is different from scientific truth.

Schools of poetry

Didactic poetry

A poem, the chief object of which is to teach or instruct, is called a didactic poem. A
poem becomes didactic if the moral content or the philosophical content of the poem is
greater than the purely aesthetic or poetic qualities in it. Arnold says that excel in poetry
comes out of powerful application of moral ideas to life. It means that there must be some
didacticism in poetry. This view is supported by the opinion of other writers also. For
example, Coleridge says, “No man was ever yet a great poet without being at the sum a
philosopher.” Wordsworth says, “Let me be a teacher or let me be nothing.” It is clear
from these statements that great poets like Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Arnold believed
in the didacticism in poetry. But we are not to confuse the functions of a poet with those
of a preacher or moralist. The chief aim of the poet must be to please, not to instruct. The
philosophical or moral lesson must be conveyed unobtrusively to the reader without
spoiling the aesthetic and artistic qualities of the poem. Arnold himself has said that the
criticism of life in poetry must be subject to the conditions of poetic truth and poetic
beauty. Dryden also says that delight is the chief end of poetry; instruction can be
admitted, but only in the second place. We have no objection to a poet who offers us
philosophy in verse. We require only that his/her philosophy must be shaped into a thing
of beauty and presented indirectly wrapped in the bewitching garment of poetry.

Aesthetic poetry

There is a school of poetry which is exactly the opposite of didactic school. It is called
the aesthetic school of poetry. Poets who belong to this school have a horror of
didacticism. Their doctrine is ‘Art for Art’s sake’. Aestheticism is the theory that attaches
importance to beauty as the central principle in art. Beauty must be the sole object and

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consideration; every other consideration must give way to it. “Art for Art’s sake” insists
on the perfection of the technical to the exclusion of moral, political or other related ends.
The movement of aestheticism began in France and later in England. It developed in the
hands of Walter Pater and Oscar Wilde. But this doctrine of ‘Art for Art’s sake’ was
brought into discredit by the rank of its advocates. They had all been mediocre men. The
really great poets of the world had taken no account of it. The greatest poems of the
world are those that contain criticism of life- criticism subject to poetic truth and poetic
beauty.

Classification of Poetry

In abroad way, poetry can be classified under two heads: personal or subjective poetry
and impersonal or objective poetry. In personal or subjective poetry, the poet gets deep
down into himself and finds his inspiration and themes in his own experiences, thoughts
and feelings. The ode, sonnet, elegy and other miscellaneous lyrics are belonging to this
category. The term lyrical poetry is often loosely applied to all kinds of subjective poetry.
In the other class of poetry-impersonal or objective poetry- the poet goes out of himself.
Mingles with the actions and passions of the outside world and deals with what he
discovers there with little reference to his own individuality. The epic, ballad, dramatic
monologue and short narrative poems are coming under this section.

A. Lyrical poems

I. The Ode

The ode may be defined as a rhythmic lyric, often in the form of an address, generally
dignified or exalted in subject, feeling and style. In the ode, the element of thought is
more important than the musical quality. Orderly evolution of intensified thought
revealing the poet’s personality is another characteristic of the ode. Ode to the West
Wind, Ode to the Skylark (Shelley), Ode to a Nightingale, Ode on a Grecian Urn (Keats),
Ode to Duty, Ode on the Intimations of Immorality (Wordsworth), Ode on the Death of
Duke of Wellington (Tennyson) are the famous odes in English.

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An ode may be regular or irregular. A regular ode is written in a number of stanzas, all
are similar in length, meter, and rhyming scheme. But, if the stanzas are dissimilar in
structure and pattern, the ode is irregular. Ode to the West Wind (Shelley) and Ode to a
Nightingale (Keats) are good examples of the regular ode. Ode on the Intimations of
Immorality (Wordsworth), Ode on the Death of Duke of Wellington (Tennyson) are
examples of irregular odes.

In some cases, a classical form is taken as a model. Then we get imitations of the
Horatian ode and the Pindaric ode. The Horatian ode is associated with the ancient Latin
poet, Horace. It consists of a number of short stanzas, all similar in length and
arrangement. Collin’s ‘Ode to Simplicity’ is a good example of the Horation ode.

The Pindaric ode is associated with the name of the ancient Greek poet, Pindar. It was
originally sung to the accompaniment of a dance. It consists of three parts: the strophe,
the antistrophe and the epode. In the strophe the dancers move from the left; in the
antistrophe they turn from the left to the right. When the epode is sung the dancers stand
still. Gray’s ‘The Bard’ is one of the best Pindaric odes in English.

II. The Elegy

The elegy is one of the most important kinds of personal or lyrical poetry. It is a poem of
lamentation in which the poet mourns the death of a person close to him. In its simplest
form, it is a brief lyric of mourning or direct utterance of personal bereavement and
sorrow. But in English literature, the elegy has expanded too many directions and taken
elaborate and complicated form. Sometimes it becomes the medium of communal feeling
instead of individual sorrow. Sometimes the elegy becomes a memorial poem containing
the poet’s tribute to some great men and often a study of his life and character. Often the
philosophic and speculative elements become predominant. But, the excellence of an
elegy must be judged mainly by the sincerity are intensity of the emotion expressed. The
grief must be genuine and deep. Any touch of artificiality will spoil the effect and beauty
of a poem. Astrophel (Spenser), Lycidas (Milton), Elegy Written in a Country
Churchyard (Gray), Adonias (Shelley), In Memoriam (Tennyson) Rugby Chapel, Dover
Beach, Scholar Gypsy (Arnold) are the famous elegies in English.

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One particular type of elegy requires special mention. It is the Pastoral Elegy. The
pastoral elegy attained perfection in the hands of such classical Greek poets as Theocritus
and Virgil. These poets laid down certain rules and convention which came to be known
as Pastoral conventions. The English poets, when they wrote pastoral elegies, strictly
followed the pastoral convention. In a pastoral elegy all the characters including the
mourner appear in the guise of shepherds. The poem will naturally contain many scenes
of pastoral life also.

III. Sonnet

A sonnet is a poem of fourteen lines, divided conventionally into two parts: the octet (the
first two lines) and the sestet (the last six lines). It was in Italy that the sonnet was born
and there it was perfected by the pot, Petrarch. In Petrarchan sonnet, the octet is divided
into two quatrains (four line groups) and the sestet into two terzets (the three line groups).
The lines are all rhyming lines. But there is no fixed rhyming scheme. Each poet chooses
his own rhyming pattern. Thus the traditional type of sonnet or the Petrarchan sonnet
consists of two quatrains followed by two terzets.

The sonnet was introduced into England in the traditional form in the 16 th century. The
Elizabethan poets modified the traditional pattern. Shakespeare modification was the
most noteworthy and gradually it became the recognized form. In the Shakespearean
sonnet there are three quatrains followed by rhyming couplet (two lines). This couplet is
used to sum up the sentiments of the whole poem.

Some of the greatest sonnet writers in English are Shakespeare, Spenser, Milton and
Wordsworth. The sonnet being a short poem, usually expresses only one idea or emotion
in a condensed manner. As an example for Petrarchan sonnet, we may take Wordsworth’s
poem “London-1802”, and Shakespeare’s “Love and Time” for Shakespearean sonnet.

B. Narrative poems

I. The Epic

An epic, which is coming under the category of impersonal or objective poetry, is long
narrative poem dealing with the adventures and the exploits of a great hero or many

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heroes. There are two kinds of epics: the national epic and the literary epic. The national
epic describes the heroic deeds of a great hero or heroes belonging to the nation to which
the poet belongs. The best examples of the national epic are The Iliad, The Odyssey
(Homer), The Aeneind (Virgil), The Ramyana (Vamiki), and the Mahabharata (Vyas).
The literary epic on the other hand chooses for its hero a mythological or imaginary
figure not belonging to any particular nation. Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained
(Milton) are the best examples for the literary epic.

The first feature of an epic is that it must be fairly long poem. The poem becomes long
because the poet narrates a number of episodes and sub-plots which are only very loosely
connected with one another. That means, the plot of an epic is loose, not organic.

The second feature is style. The epic is usually written in an exalted and scholarly style
suited to the exalted nature of the theme. This style is called “grand style”.

Another requirement of the epic is that its hominid characters should not be ordinary. The
theme must be elevated and noble and the chief characters must be extraordinary people
with uncommon powers and talents. Often the characters are mythological and are
distinguished from ordinary men by their superior or supernatural powers.

Supernaturalism is an essential feature of the epic. Every epic contains a large number of
supernatural events and beings. Some supernatural beings represent good and some
represent evil. Thus indirectly the epic introduces a conflict between good and evil and
invariably the conflict ends in the triumph of good over evil. This lends moral tone to the
epic.

Epics, however, are not in vogue today. Modern men are so busy and practical that they
have neither time not patience to write or read epics. All the epics of the world were
written centuries ago and no epic has been written in modern times.

II. The Ballad

The ballad, which belongs to the group of impersonal or objective poetry, is a short story
in verse. It is the most common form of narrative poetry. There are two kinds of ballads:
the popular ballad and the literary ballad.

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The popular ballads or the traditional ballads were all composed in the middle ages.
They were meant to be sung on festive occasions and so they have a strong musical and
rhythmical appeal. They usually deal with tales of love, valour, and adventure. The story
is narrated in a rapid and straight forward manner. Many of the traditional ballads are
anonymous. The Chavy Chase, The Bonny Earl of Murray, Robin Hood are the best
examples of the traditional ballad.

The second kind of ballad is the literary ballad. These ballads were all composed after
the 15th century. The literary ballad is similar to the traditional ballad in all the important
respects. The only difference is that while the former was meant to be sung, the latter is
meant to be read like other persons. The Revenge (Tennyson), The Sands of Dee
(Kingsley), The White Ship (Rossetti), The Highway Man (Alfred Noyes), Lord Ullin’s
Daughter (Thomas Cambell), The Lays of Ancient Rome (Macaulay) and Marmion
(Walter Scott) are the best examples of the literary ballad.

The charm of ballad lies in its rhyme, alliteration, rhythm, simplicity, straight-
forwardness and primitive feeling. The ballad differs from the lyric in being descriptive
rather than impressionistic. Telling a tale is more important in the ballad; where as in the
lyric, expression of a mood is more important.

III. The Dramatic Monologue

The dramatic monologue belongs to the class of objective or impersonal poetry. A

monologue is a speech made by one man. In a dramatic monologue only one character
speaks and we hear only his voice. He is, however speaking, to a silent listener whose
voice we don’t hear. The character who speaks is usually called the protagonist of the
monologue. The poet catches him at some critical moment of his life and makes him
speak out his thoughts and feelings. The monologue is called dramatic because the
speaker is made to express his feelings at some dramatic turning point of his life.
Secondly, the protagonist, while giving expression to his thoughts, reveals his character.
Thirdly, while making his speech, the protagonist gets enough chances to make dramatic
movement also. Lastly, as if in a drama, there is scope for changing of scenes in the
poem.

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The dramatic monologue is essentially a study of character. It is predominantly
psychological, analytical and argumentative. Dramatic monologue ought really to be
objective and the poet should remain aloof and make the speaker express his thoughts and
feelings. But this is seldom achieved in practice very often. The speaker becomes the
mouthpiece of the poet and expresses not his views, but the poet’s. This is the case with
the monologues of Robert Browning, who is the greatest writer of dramatic monologues
in English. In an ideal monologue this should not be the case.

In spite of this defect, Browning is admitted to be the greatest master of the dramatic
monologue in English. Andrea del Sarto, Fra Lippo Lippi, Rabbi Ben Ezra, a
Grammarian’s Funeral, My Last Duchess, the Patriot, the Last Ride Together are typical
examples of Browning’s dramatic monologue.
3.4. Non-fiction
Writings that are created from facts about real person or real life situations rather than
from the author’s imagination are usually called non-fiction. Non-fiction describe or
interpret facts and present judgments and opinions. It includes news-reports, dairy, true
adventure stories, essay, feature articles, historical, biographical works and the like all of
which describe fact. Nonfiction, like fiction has characters, setting and plot.
Elements of nonfiction
1. Tone- expresses an author’s attitude toward the subject and the readers. This is
communicated with the author’s choice of words and details.
2. Perspective - the author’s point of view on the subject including:
- His or her opinions
- The source of the information (general research or personal experience)
Purpose of non-fiction
 To persuade: editorials, speeches and reviews are often written to influence the
opinions or actions of an audience.
 To inform: articles, news reports and instructions present facts to increase the
knowledge an understanding of an audience.
 To entertain: humor columns and many biographies and autobiographies are
written for the enjoyment of an audience.

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  To describe: some essays or articles are written to help a reader understand the
look, feel, experience of a person, place or event.

Unit Four: Elements of Literature

4.1. Plot
The sequence of events in a story. Each event causes or leads to the next. Plot is often
created through conflict.
4.1.1. Stages of plot
Most plots develop in five stages.
Exposition- introduces the stories, characters, setting, conflict or the situation at the
beginning of a story.
Rising action- the part of a plot that adds complications to the conflict and increases
reader interest. It occurs as complications, twists, or intensifications of the conflict occur.
Climax- is the emotional high point of the story. The point of greatest emotional
intensity, interest or suspense in the turning point in a story or drama.
Falling action-is the logical result of the climax. In a story, the action that typically
follows the climax and reveals its results.
Resolution- the part of the plot that concludes the falling action by revealing or
suggesting the outcome of the conflict.
4.2. Conflict
Conflict is a struggle between opposing forces in a story or play.
An external conflict is one between a character and an outside force, such as another
character, nature, society, or fate.
An internal conflict takes place within the mind of a character that is torn between
opposing feelings or between different courses of action
4.3. Character & Characterization
They can be people, animals, or whatever the writer chooses.

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The protagonist is the main character. Major or central characters are vital to the
development and resolution of the conflict. In other words, the plot and resolution of
conflict revolves around these characters.
Minor characters serve to complement the major characters and help move the plot events
forward. Not all stories have antagonists.

4.3.1. Characterization
The methods an author uses to reveal a character’s personality. In two ways; direct and
indirect characterization.
In direct characterization, the author or narrator makes direct statements about character’s
traits.
In indirect characterization the author or speaker reveals a character’s personality through
the character’s own words, thoughts, and actions of other characters.
4.4. Point of View
The relationship of the narrator, or storyteller to the story. In the first person point of
view, the narrator is a character in the story, referred to as “I”. The reader sees
everything through that character’s eyes.
In the third person point of view, the narrator not a character in the story, referred to as
“she” or “he”.
In third-person omniscient, or all-knowing point of view the narrator is not a character in
the story but someone who stands outside the story and comments on the action. In third
person omniscient point of view, the narrator knows everything about the story’s events
and reveals the thoughts of all the characters.
In third –person limited point of view, the narrator reveals the thoughts of only one
character, referring to that character as “he” or “she”. The narrator reveals the thoughts,
feelings, and observations of only one character.
4.5. Setting
The time and place in which the events of a story, novel, or play occur. The setting often
helps create an atmosphere or mood. Setting is not just physical, however; it includes
ideas, customs, values and beliefs of a particular time and place.

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4.6. Theme
The central /main/ idea or message of a story or a literary work.
Theme is not the subject of the work but instead is an insight about life or human nature.
Some works have:
Stated themes: This is expressed directly and explicitly presented in a story.
Implied themes: must be inferred by considering all the elements of a story and asking
what message about life is conveyed.
This is revealed gradually through such other literary elements as a plot, character,
setting, point of view, imagery, figures of speech, or symbolism.
4.7. Style
Style refers to the characteristics manner in which a particular writer uses the resources of
a language. The way a writer chooses words, arranges them in sentences and longer units
of discourse, and exploits their significance determines his/her style. In the discussion of
the style of a fictional text, we concentrate on diction, the kind of word choices a writer
makes; syntax, the order those words assume in sentence; and the presence or absence of
figurative language, especially figures of comparison (smile and metaphor). Therefore, it
is important to consider style as an important element of fiction and other forms of
literature.
Literary techniques
There are so many types of techniques in literature, that used to construct the creative/
imaginative literary works. Some of them are listed here:
1. Foreshadow- give highlight, prediction information to audiences, what emerge
for the future.
2. Flash back – the techniques use to give additional information from the previous.
The information is related to the current one.
3. Suspense – to increase the feeling of the audiences what emerge the next, or after
the story.
4. Dialogue –the conversation of the characters, the relation between the authors and
the character. The speeches of the character, the languages of the characters.
5. Description – it descripts the physical appearance of the characters.

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Unit Five: Basic Literary Terms and Figures of Speech
5.1. Basic Literary Terms
5.2. Figures of Speech
It is language which uses figures of speech.
1. Hyperbole _is a figure of speech which contains an exaggeration for emphasis.
2. Litotes _is a figure of speech which contains an understatement for emphasis, and
is therefore, the opposite of hyperbole.
3. Metaphor _a figure of speech in which one thing is described in terms of another.
4. Metonymy _a figure of speech in which the name of an attribute or a thing is
substituted for the thing itself.
5. Oxymoron _ a figure of speech which combines incongruous and apparently
contradictory words and meanings for a special effect.
6. Personification ¬ a figure of speech in which abstractions, animals, ideas and
inanimate objects are endowed with human form, character traits or sensibilities.
7. Pun _ a figure of speech which involves a play upon words.
8. Simile _ is a figure of speech and a kind of metaphor in which the likeness of two
things is made explicit by such words as like, and as.
9. Synecdoche _ a figure of speech in which the part stands for the whole, and thus
something mentioned.

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