Module 11 - Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structure and Systems: Aviation Training Hub

MODULE 11 - AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURE AND SYSTEMS
Windows User
AVIATION TRAINING HUB

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Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 7
11.1 Theory of Flight .............................................................................................................................. 8
Airplane Aerodynamics and Flight Controls .............................................................................. 8
High Speed Flight ..................................................................................................................... 47
11.2Airframe Structures - General Concepts ....................................................................................... 71
Airworthiness Requirements for Structural Strength ................................................................ 71
Structural Classification ................................................................................................................ 74
Primary, Secondary and Tertiary .............................................................................................. 74
Fail Safe .................................................................................................................................... 75
Safe Life .................................................................................................................................... 76
Damage Tolerance Concepts .................................................................................................... 76
Zonal and Station Identification Systems ................................................................................. 76
Stress ......................................................................................................................................... 76
Strain ......................................................................................................................................... 76
Dynamic Loads ......................................................................................................................... 76
Static Loads ............................................................................................................................... 77
Bending ..................................................................................................................................... 77
Compression ............................................................................................................................. 77
Shear ......................................................................................................................................... 78
Torsion ...................................................................................................................................... 78
Tension ...................................................................................................................................... 79
Fatigue....................................................................................................................................... 79
Drains and Ventilation Provisions ............................................................................................ 81
System Installation Provisions .................................................................................................. 82
Lightning Strike Protection Provision ...................................................................................... 82
Aircraft Bonding ....................................................................................................................... 82
Stressed Skin Fuselage .............................................................................................................. 83
Formers ..................................................................................................................................... 85
Stringers .................................................................................................................................... 85
Frames ....................................................................................................................................... 85
Anti-Corrosive Protection ......................................................................................................... 85
For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

B1.1 Basic M11 -AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, Dated: October 2019
Wing .......................................................................................................................................... 86
Empennage ................................................................................................................................ 89
Engine Attachments .................................................................................................................. 95
Structure Assembly Techniques: Riveting, Bonding and Bolting ............................................ 96
Methods of Surface Protection Such as Chromating, Anodizing, Painting .............................. 97
Surface Cleaning ....................................................................................................................... 99
Airframe Symmetry: Methods of Alignment and Symmetry Checks ...................................... 99
11.3Airframe Structures - Airplanes .................................................................................................. 103
Fuselage (ATA 52/53/56) ....................................................................................................... 103
Wings (ATA 57) ..................................................................................................................... 121
Stabilizers (ATA 55) ............................................................................................................... 128
Nacelles/Pylons (ATA 54) ...................................................................................................... 130
11.4Air Conditioning and Cabin Pressurization (ATA 21) ............................................................... 133
Air Supply ............................................................................................................................... 134
Air Conditioning ..................................................................................................................... 140
Pressurization .......................................................................................................................... 162
Safety and Warning Devices ................................................................................................... 175
11.5Instruments/Avionic Systems ..................................................................................................... 176
Instrument Systems (ATA 31) ................................................................................................ 176
Auto Flight (ATA 22) ............................................................................................................. 226
11.6Electrical Power (ATA 24) ......................................................................................................... 233
Batteries Installation and Operation........................................................................................ 233
DC Power Generation ............................................................................................................. 235
AC Power Generation ............................................................................................................. 241
Emergency Power Generation ................................................................................................ 249
Voltage Regulation ................................................................................................................. 250
Power Distribution .................................................................................................................. 257
Inverters .................................................................................................................................. 272
Transformers ........................................................................................................................... 273
Circuit Protection .................................................................................................................... 276
External Ground Power........................................................................................................... 284
11.7 Equipment and Furnishings (ATA 25) ....................................................................................... 286

Emergency Equipment Requirements..................................................................................... 286

Seats ........................................................................................................................................ 291
Harnesses and Belts ................................................................................................................ 296
Cabin Layout ........................................................................................................................... 296
Equipment Layout ................................................................................................................... 298
Cabin Furnishing Installation.................................................................................................. 298
Cabin Entertainment Equipment ............................................................................................. 298
Galley Installation ................................................................................................................... 298
Cargo Handling and Retention Equipment ............................................................................. 299
Airstairs ................................................................................................................................... 300
11.8Fire Protection (ATA 26) ............................................................................................................ 302
Fire Detection and Warning Systems ..................................................................................... 302
Smoke Detection and Warning Systems ................................................................................. 313
Fire Extinguishing Systems .................................................................................................... 316
System Tests ........................................................................................................................... 321
Portable Fire Extinguisher ...................................................................................................... 321
11.9 Flight Controls (ATA 27) ........................................................................................................... 322
Aileron and Asymmetrical Roll Spoilers ................................................................................ 323

Elevator ................................................................................................................................... 324
Rudder ..................................................................................................................................... 325
Spoiler ..................................................................................................................................... 326
Trim Control ........................................................................................................................... 326
Active Load Control ............................................................................................................... 327
High Lift Devices .................................................................................................................... 327
Lift Dump................................................................................................................................ 328
Speed Brakes ........................................................................................................................... 329
System Operation: Manual ..................................................................................................... 329
System Operation: Hydraulic .................................................................................................. 333
System Operation: Pneumatic ................................................................................................. 334
System Operation: Electrical .................................................................................................. 335
Artificial Feel .......................................................................................................................... 338
Yaw Damper ........................................................................................................................... 339

Rudder Limiter ........................................................................................................................ 340

Gust Lock Systems ................................................................................................................. 340
Balancing ................................................................................................................................ 341
Rigging.................................................................................................................................... 341
Stall Protection/Warning System ............................................................................................ 342
11.10
Fuel Systems (ATA 28) .............................................................................................................. 343
System Layout ........................................................................................................................ 343
Fuel Tanks ............................................................................................................................... 344
Supply Systems ....................................................................................................................... 350
Dumping ................................................................................................................................. 354
Venting .................................................................................................................................... 355
Draining .................................................................................................................................. 357
Crossfeed................................................................................................................................. 359
Indications ............................................................................................................................... 360
Warnings ................................................................................................................................. 362
Refueling ................................................................................................................................. 363
Defueling................................................................................................................................. 364
11.11
Hydraulic Power (ATA 29) ........................................................................................................ 367
System Layout ........................................................................................................................ 367
Hydraulic Fluids...................................................................................................................... 373
Hydraulic Reservoirs .............................................................................................................. 375
Electric Pressure Generation ................................................................................................... 379
Emergency Pressure Generation ............................................................................................. 384
Pressure Control ...................................................................................................................... 386
Power Distribution .................................................................................................................. 387
Indication and Warning Systems ............................................................................................ 397
Interfaces with Other Systems ................................................................................................ 399
11.12 Ice Formation, Classification and Detection ............................................................................... 399
Ice Formation .......................................................................................................................... 399
Ice Classification ..................................................................................................................... 401
Ice Detection ........................................................................................................................... 403
Electrical Anti-lcing Systems ................................................................................................. 404

Hot Air Anti-lcing Systems .................................................................................................... 406

Chemical Anti-lcing Systems ................................................................................................. 407
Hot Air De-lcing Systems ....................................................................................................... 409
Pneumatic De-lcing Systems .................................................................................................. 409
Chemical De-lcing Systems .................................................................................................... 410
Rain Repellent ......................................................................................................................... 410
Probe Heating.......................................................................................................................... 411
Drain Heating .......................................................................................................................... 412
Wiper Systems ........................................................................................................................ 412
11.13Landing Gear (ATA 32).............................................................................................................. 413
Construction ............................................................................................................................ 413
Shock Absorbing ..................................................................................................................... 425
Extension and Retraction Systems: Normal ........................................................................... 429
Extension and Retraction Systems: Emergency ..................................................................... 436
Indications ............................................................................................................................... 441
Warnings ................................................................................................................................. 441
Wheels..................................................................................................................................... 443
Brakes ..................................................................................................................................... 446
Antiskid ................................................................................................................................... 458
Autobraking ............................................................................................................................ 460
Tires ........................................................................................................................................ 463
Steering ................................................................................................................................... 471
Air-Ground Sensing ................................................................................................................ 477
11.14 Lights (ATA 33) ......................................................................................................................... 479
Navigation ............................................................................................................................... 481
Anti-Collision ......................................................................................................................... 484
Landing ................................................................................................................................... 486
Taxiing .................................................................................................................................... 488
Ice ............................................................................................................................................ 489
Cabin ....................................................................................................................................... 489
Cockpit .................................................................................................................................... 490
Cargo ....................................................................................................................................... 492

Emergency .............................................................................................................................. 492

11.15 Oxygen (ATA 35) ....................................................................................................................... 495
Cockpit Oxygen Supply .......................................................................................................... 496
Cabin Oxygen Supply ............................................................................................................. 504
11.16Pneumatic/Vacuum (ATA 36) .................................................................................................... 509
System Layout ........................................................................................................................ 509
Sources .................................................................................................................................... 513
Source: Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) ..................................................................................... 514
Source: Compressors .............................................................................................................. 515
Source: Reservoir .................................................................................................................... 515
Source: Ground Supply ........................................................................................................... 516
Pressure and Vacuum Pumps .................................................................................................. 517
Pressure Control ...................................................................................................................... 518
Distribution ............................................................................................................................. 522
Indications ............................................................................................................................... 524
Warnings ................................................................................................................................. 526
Interfaces with Other Systems ................................................................................................ 528
11.17Water/Waste (ATA 38) ............................................................................................................... 529
Water System Layout .............................................................................................................. 529
Supply ..................................................................................................................................... 532
Distribution ............................................................................................................................. 534
Maintenance ............................................................................................................................ 535
Drainage .................................................................................................................................. 535
Toilet System Layout .............................................................................................................. 536
Flushing................................................................................................................................... 537
Maintenance ............................................................................................................................ 537
Corrosion Aspects ................................................................................................................... 538
11.18Onboard Maintenance Systems (ATA 45) .................................................................................. 538
Central Maintenance Computers............................................................................................. 538
Data Loading System .............................................................................................................. 540
Electronic Library System ...................................................................................................... 542
Printing.................................................................................................................................... 544

Structure Monitoring (Damage Tolerance Monitoring) ......................................................... 546

11.19Integrated Modular Avionics (ATA42) ...................................................................................... 548
Functions of Integrated Modular Avionics ............................................................................. 548
Core System ............................................................................................................................ 552
Network Components ............................................................................................................. 553
11.20 Cabin Systems (ATA44) ............................................................................................................. 557
Cabin Intercommunication Data System ................................................................................ 558
Cabin Network Services ......................................................................................................... 561
Data/Radio Communications .................................................................................................. 563
Cabin Core System ................................................................................................................. 564
Inflight Entertainment System ................................................................................................ 566
External Communication System ........................................................................................... 569
Cabin Mass Memory System .................................................................................................. 571
Cabin Monitoring System ....................................................................................................... 572
Miscellaneous Cabin System .................................................................................................. 574
11.21 Information Systems (ATA46) ................................................................................................... 575
Aircraft General Information System ..................................................................................... 575
Flight Deck Information System............................................................................................. 577
Maintenance Information System ........................................................................................... 579
Passenger Cabin Information System ..................................................................................... 580
Miscellaneous Information System......................................................................................... 581
Introduction
An unknown aviation philosopher once said that "An aircraft is more than the sum of its parts".
This simple sentence carries a lot of truth, as the complex systems and countless individual
complex
components of a highly sophisticated leave us breathlessly wondering how it is possible to
survive in the hostile environment at an altitude of 10,000 m. Besides producing lift, an airplane
as a specific type of aircraft above all has to provide a survival space. This survival space has to
be of sufficient dimensions, comfortable and functional. At that, we have already achieved a
level at which it is claimed amongst aircraft constructors: "If today you take a modern airliner
and try to improve it further, you will, after lengthy optimization, only receive the starting
product.”

This book is intended to explain to the prospective technician the basic design of the system
"airplane". Beside the composition, we will examine construction principles like functionality
and maintenance. Structure, hydraulics, landing gear and flight controls are explained from
scratch. The part concerning emergency equipment delivers the knowledge required about the
safety systems mounted in an airplane. It is intended to help the technician in understanding
possible hazards and professionally avert them.
Theory of Flight
Airplane Aerodynamics and Flight Controls
As opposed to transport by land and by sea, the control of airliners and corporate aircraft occurs
in three dimensions (X, Y and Z). A total of six degrees of freedom (three rotational and three
linear or transversal) are available. For transverse motion, the arrowheads of the following
coordinate axes each point in the positive direction. A positive direction of rotation is defined as
oriented to the right, i.e., clockwise. Each of the three axes has a unique name, and each axis is
associated with a specific control surface.
Primary control about the three axes is executed by the use of the elevator, rudder and ailerons.
The elevator on the horizontal stabilizer lifts and lowers the tailplane of the aircraft about the Y-
axis (pitch axis). The rudder on the vertical fin controls the direction of rotation about the Z-axis
(yaw axis or vertical axis) and the ailerons in the outer wings control the direction of rotation
about the X-axis (roll or longitudinal axis). The following illustration demonstrates the motion
about each of these axes in relation to the corresponding control surface.
Motion of Aircraft about three axis

However, the secondary elements of the flight control system also have an effect on the three-
dimensional position of an aircraft. The high-lift devices (flaps and leading edge slats) and air
brakes (spoilers and speed brakes), for example, allow for control about the pitch axis, while
asymmetric air brakes (spoilers) can also cause rotation about the longitudinal axis (and partially
about the vertical axis or normal axis as well).
In fixed-wing airplanes, commercial as well as corporate, the ailerons serve above all to control
attitude about the longitudinal axis (roll axis). In most cases, the ailerons are located on the outer
ends of the wings (outboard). For a specific attitude adjustment (adjustment of the bank angle
the aileron on the downward rotating wing side deflects upwards, while the aileron on the
opposite upward rotating wing deflects downwards. The resulting variation in lift between the
two wing halves generates the required roll moment M about the longitudinal axis (roll axis). In
certain aircraft designs, a part of the flaps also functions like ailerons at low airspeeds. These
arrangements are called flaperons and are a combination of flaps and ailerons. If the elevator is
controlled selectively by various deflections (right and left tailplane side) to control lateral
attitude, this is called an elevron. An elevron is a combination of elevator and aileron. Elevrons
are mainly applied in high-speed military aircraft.
In general, the speed with which a fixed-wing airplane adjusts its bank angle about the
longitudinal axis is called the roll rate. The roll rate continues as long as the corresponding
aileron is deflected. In straight and level flight, as well as in steady turns, the aileron deflection is
zero. The greater the roll moment M , the higher the roll rate will be about the longitudinal axis.
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Asymmetric load, yaw angle and/or initial airflow separations on wide swept wings can reduce
the roll moment M.
As mentioned in the section on high-speed aerodynamics, commercial airliners and corporate

aircraft flying at high Mach numbers use high-speed ailerons and selective air brakes instead of
the normal ailerons to control their lateral attitude. These high-speed ailerons are located near the
wing surface root and are therefore less susceptible to aeroelastic effects (elastic deformation as a
result of heavy air loads). Thus, they have a greater effect on lateral control at higher airspeeds.
The normal low-speed ailerons are hydraulically or mechanically locked out at high airspeeds
(aileron lockout), as they would otherwise cause control surface reversal as a result of
aeroelasticity. A control surface reversal is in general described as a situation in which a control
surface, due to aerodynamic or aeroelastic effects, suddenly has the reverse effect on a fixed-
wing airplane than it normally should.
Use of Ailerons During Crosswind Takeoffs and Landings
During takeoff and landing in strong crosswinds, the fixed-wing airplane is in a steady sideslip
condition. This flight with sideslip requires sufficient rudder performance about the vertical axis.
Due to the slip roll moment that occurs, the aileron must have sufficient effect about the vertical
axis to maintain a roll moment balance of zero when countered. With a sidewind from the right,
for example, rudder deflection to the right and aileron deflection to the left is required in order to
counteract and cancel out the forces in a steady sideslip. Since commercial airliners and
corporate aircraft cannot endure steady sideslips for very long without consequential damage due
to the strong torsion forces on the fuselage, they often fly at a crab angle into the wind down to
ground level and turn into the slip angle only during the final stages of the landing. Small
airplanes also use these techniques, i.e., constant slip angle, constant crab angle or a combination
of both. CRAB ANGLE : angle between flight track and longitudinal axis of the aircraft
Effect of Ailerons During Engine Failure (Asymmetric Power)
During an engine failure in a fixed-wing airplane with engines mounted on the wings, torque
develops about the longitudinal axis due to the slip angle and resulting sideslip roll moment,
which must be countered by the use of the ailerons. In turboprop airplanes, the effect is further
intensified by engine torque.
Adverse Yaw
Adverse yaw induces unintentional yaw towards the opposite side during actuation of the
ailerons in addition to intended roll movement (in the desired direction). The cause of this

adverse yaw can be found in one of the aileron sides that deflects downwards. On this side,
although lift is increased and the wing side is raised, drag is also increased, generating a yaw
movement opposite to the roll movement.
For example, with a control stick to the right, which should initiate a right turn, the aileron on the
right wing side is deflected upwards as the aileron on the left is deflected downwards. This leads
to increased lift on the left wing half, but also increased drag on the same side. The opposite
occurs on the right wing side. As a result, the right wing half is forced down (roll movement to
the right), but the airplane's nose initially turns to the left (yaw movement to the left).
Measures to Prevent Adverse Yaw
Measures to counter adverse yaw are structural in nature. They include the use of differential
ailerons, aileron shut-off with selective air brakes (roll spoiler) and aileron-rudder cross-
coupling.
Operating Principle of the Differential Aileron
When differential ailerons are applied, the respective downward deflecting aileron will be
deflected to a lesser degree than the opposite upward deflecting aileron. Therefore, there is an
equal balance of drag between the descending and ascending wing half, which reduces the
opposing yaw.

Operating Principle of the Rudder Aileron Cross-Coupling
In aileron-rudder cross-coupling, the respective control lines are mechanically linked by a

transmission unit. Any deflection of the aileron is automatically supported by a specific rudder
deflection. This eliminates adverse yaw.
Operation of the Aileron Shut-Off With the Use of Roll Spoilers
The use of aileron shut-off from a specific equivalent airspeed eliminates the need for aileron
deflection completely, therefore preventing adverse yaw. The lateral attitude can be adjusted by
the use of selective air brakes (roll spoilers) and/or elevrons. The selective air brakes (roll
spoilers) located on the wings generate no adverse yaw, as they are only deflected upwards. They
rather generate additional drag on the downward traveling wing half, which in turn, generates
positive yaw.
Secondary Effects
Apart from the primary effects of the control surfaces, the actuation of the ailerons and rudder
also have a secondary effect on the attitude of a fixed-wing airplane. In addition to adverse yaw
caused by the aileron, a yaw roll moment or slip roll due to rudder deflection may also occur.
Yaw Roll Moment
The yaw roll moment is actuated using the rudder. Due to the rotational movement introduced
about the vertical axis, flow ratios on both wings change such that the backwards traveling wing
half (inner limit of the turn) generates less lift than does the forward travelling wing half (outer
limit of the turn). This occurs as a result of the increase in the relative wind velocity. The
variation in lift distribution on both wings causes a turn-induced roll moment Mx about the pitch
(longitudinal axis).
Slip Roll Moment
Another secondary effect caused by the actuation of the rudder is the slip roll moment. As soon
as the rudder is actuated, this initiates a rotation about the vertical axis of the fixed-wing
airplane. However, due to the inertia of the aircraft, the actual flight direction of the aircraft does
not initially change. This is why the airplane no longer flies in a longitudinal direction directly
into the oncoming relative wind but instead assumes a sideslip attitude. Due to the slight V-shape
form of the wings, this sideslip condition now brings about an airflow around the fuselage and/
or different distribution of lift on both wings, which produces a curve-like roll moment Mx about
the longitudinal axis, much like a yaw moment.
Spoilers
In large commercial airliners and corporate aircraft, the lateral attitude is controlled by the use of
the normal and high-speed ailerons. At high Mach numbers M, the high-speed ailerons are
additionally supported by the use of selective air brakes (roll spoiler). Selective air brakes are a
component of the air brake system, whereas the braking surfaces are mostly located on the upper
side of the wing. When applying normal air brakes, all braking surfaces extend symmetrically
from the wing contour. However, in applying selective air brakes, only one wing side deploys its
braking surfaces, commanding a downward motion. Many high-speed military aircraft control
their lateral attitude with the use of selective air brakes exclusively (roll spoilers), as well as with
selective elevrons, thus decreasing negative adverse yaw.
Elevators
Static stability is determined by the gradients in the pitch moment diagram. A state of
equilibrium (fully trimmed state) about the lateral axis is reached when the moment balance
around the axis is zero. On the pitch moment diagram, this point is the intersection point of the
graph with the horizontal axis (trim)
In equilibrium, the elevator with its downforce maintains a balance with the forward CG location
(weight force) about the pressure point of the wing lift.

Accordingly, the elevator controls the balance around the wing and therefore also the angle of
attack α in relation to the relative wind (onflowing airstream). If the lift on the wing is increased,
the elevator must first deliver more output (elevator is deflected upwards) in order to lower the
tailplane. In order to reduce lift on the wing, the output on the elevator must also be reduced
(elevator is deflected in a downward direction). Any change in the wing lift affects the total drag
of the aircraft and thus also the airspeed. Therefore, deflections of the elevator can be used to
actively adjust airspeed in an aircraft.
The aerodynamic center of an airfoil is usually close to 25% of the chord behind the leading edge
of the airfoil. Pitching moment coefficient, identified as Cm on graphs and charts, is fundamental
to the definition of aerodynamic center of an airfoil. The aerodynamic center is defined to be the
point on the chord line of the airfoil at which the pitching moment coefficient does not vary with

the angle of attack or at least does not vary significantly over the operating angle of attack of the
airfoil.
The torques or moments acting on an airfoil moving through a fluid such as air can be accounted
for by the net lift applied at some point on the airfoil and a separate net pitching moment about
that point whose magnitude varies with the choice of where the lift is chosen to be applied. The
aerodynamic center is the point at which the pitching moment coefficient for the airfoil does not
vary with lift coefficient (i.e. angle of attack). Lift coefficient is identified as CL.
Since an aircraft must be safe to fly in all flight conditions, the only sensible configuration
between the pressure point and center of gravity is that where the center of gravity lies in front of
the pressure point. This can only be ensured if lift at the wing at slow airspeeds and the
downward force at the elevator are decreased, and the forward located center of gravity forces
the wing profile to gain speed (a drop in the nose pitch of the aircraft). In the opposite
configuration, a CG located aft of the pressure point would only worsen the effects of a stalled
flight. This is why designers of commercial airliners and corporate aircraft always ensure that the
center of gravity is located ahead of the pressure point.
If the center of gravity is far ahead of the pressure point, a greater downward force at the elevator
would be required to produce additional lift at the wing in order to restore the equilibrium of
forces even though this results in very high stability. Both the lift at the wing and the increased
downward force at the elevator worsen the flight characteristics as a result of an increase in
induced drag and, as already described, increase the stall speed Vs.
A required downward or upward force at the elevator can either be generated by the elevator
deflection itself or by trimming the elevator. In many commercial airliners and corporate aircraft,
engine thrust also generates a resulting lever arm effect on the balance of pitch moments.
Effect of Downwash
The elevator, as a moveable part of the tailplane, is located in the airflow directed downwards
behind the wing (downwash field). This leads to the tailplane having a different attitude in
relation to the direction of onflowing air than the undisturbed wing. The following graphical
illustration demonstrates the effect of the redirection of airflow on the tailplane.

The effectiveness of a conventional tailplane is determined by the position and intensity of the
downwash field of the wing. Small deflections of the airflow, which already exist at low angles
of attack ct on the wing, also change the local angle of attack of the tailplane. It must always be
ensured that, regardless of the effects of the downwash field, any airflow separation first occurs
on the wing and that the tailplane remains controllable at all times, even during stalls. This can
be achieved in the design of commercial airliners and corporate aircraft by either locating the
elevator far above the flow field of a wing as a T-tail, or by making the elevator itself adjustable
(trimmable) by applying large pitch angle ranges.
Ice Formation on the Tailplane
The tailplane is decisive for the stability of a commercial airliner or corporate aircraft and
therefore also for ensuring safe flight conditions. This means that the effective control of the
tailplane must be ensured at all times during flight. In addition to the increased weight it causes,
any ice build-up can have an adverse effect on the functionality and effectiveness of an
aerodynamic (control) surface such as on the tailplane (elevator effectiveness), the consequences
of which can be catastrophic.
Therefore, before beginning a flight, it should be ensured that the airplane is completely de-iced
using a special de-icing fluid and that it is kept ice-free for a specific period of time (holdover
time). During the flight, the aircraft's own de-icing systems ensure that at least the upper surfaces
are effectively free from ice.
Location of the Center of Gravity
The location of the center of gravity (CG) on an aircraft has a significant effect on its stability
and maneuverability. Forward CG locations increase longitudinal stability but, to the same
extent, decrease maneuverability and vice versa. The CG location is generally defined in relation
to the Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC). A value of about 10-15% of MAC generally
corresponds to the forward CG limit and 35-40% of MAC to the aft CG limit in commercial
airliners and corporate aircraft. The mean for most calculations is the 25% MAC position, which
corresponds to an average center of gravity.

It will be apparent from the previous illustration that the maximum lift coefficient CLMAX with a
forward CG location will require more elevator deflection than it would with an aft CG location.
CL again is the sign for lift coefficient. If the maximum forward CG limit is exceeded before the
maximum lift coefficient CLMAX is reached, the elevator reaches its point of maximum deflection.
Therefore, in many airplanes, the forward CG limit is often determined by the maximum
downforce or deflection of the elevator. When this forward CG limit is exceeded, the tailplane
can no longer fully counter the effects of the top-heavy CG moment and this will cause
problems, particularly during takeoff and landings.
Moments Caused by Engine Thrust
Pitch attitude can also change with thrust. With underwing engines, reducing thrust creates a
nose-down pitching moment; increasing thrust creates a nose-up pitching moment. The
combination of elevator and stabilizer positions also affects pitch. In normal maneuvering, the
pilot displaces the elevator by applying an elevator control force. The pilot then trims the
stabilizer by driving it to a new position to remove the elevator control force. This new stabilizer
position is faired with the elevator. If they are not faired (one is down and the other is up), one
cancels out the other. This condition limits the airplane's ability to overcome other pitching
moments from configuration changes or thrust.

Elevator Position Versus Airspeed (IAS)
According to the previously described designs, the elevator is the main element for controlling
the pitching moment about the pitch In a static stable commercial airliner or corporate aircraft
with decreasing equivalent airspeed VEAs, the force of lift FL on the wing would decrease without
an increase in the angle of attack a. However, an increased angle of attack α decreases the
downward force at the elevator, which prevents an upward deflection of the elevator. When the
equivalent airspeed Veas is increased, the relationships are reversed so that the elevator is
deflected increasingly in a downward direction (downward elevator deflection).

The gradient resulting from the relationship between the elevator deflection and equivalent
airspeed Veas is influenced significantly by the location of the center of gravity, the longitudinal
trim setting (trim tabs, stabilizer) and the current Mach number. The steeper the gradient between
the elevator deflection and airspeed, the more stable the airspeed may be actively controlled by
the elevator. A flat gradient would make controlling the airspeed much more difficult as any
small change in the elevator deflection would result in a higher airspeed. The ratio then becomes
increasingly neutral.
Factors Influencing the Elevator Position and Speed Graph
The slope of the gradient between the elevator deflection and the airspeed is particularly
dependent on the center of gravity and longitudinal (directional) trim. A steep gradient indicates
a stable longitudinal control, whereas a flat, horizontal gradient indicates a neutral directional
control.
With a large static margin (large distance between the center of gravity and the neutral point), the
gradient of the curve is steep, indicating a high stability in longitudinal control. However, at a
steep gradient, the elevator also reaches its maximum operating forces much faster, and this
limits overall maneuverability. A larger static margin is achieved by increasing the forward
location of the center of gravity through extension of the high-lift devices or an increased nose-
heavy trim setting.
Canards
Essential for the stabilization of the aircraft about the pitch or lateral axis is the elevator or the
canard wing in the canard configuration. Their upward and downward forces generate a pitching
moment about the wing across the existing lever arm and can therefore counter any existing
disturbance moment about the pitch axis.
However, the location of the center of gravity relative to the pressure point of an aircraft is also
essential for directional or longitudinal stability. If the center of gravity lies forward of the
pressure point, the elevator must provide a downward force, and the canard must provide an
upward force in order to cancel out the negative pitch moment of the center of gravity. If the
center of gravity lies aft of the pressure point, the opposite is true. Here, the elevator only
generates lift and the canard generates a downward force to compensate for the pitch axis
disturbance moments through the center of gravity to produce a stable flight condition.
Yaw Control
The rudder is mainly used for directional control. It is responsible for flying coordinated turns,
for countering asymmetric thrust and for initiating sideslips. The rudder must therefore always be
in a position to provide sufficient yaw moment in all critical phases of a flight. The yaw moment
or the yaw moment coefficient cn increases linearly to rudder deflection and the sideslip angle β.

Rudder Limiters
The effect of the rudder in commercial airliners and corporate aircraft is limited by the maximum
rudder deflection. However, in order to have sufficient rudder performance to provide
asymmetrical thrust during an engine failure, the vertical stabilizer and the tailplane lever arm
must have a minimum value.
Directionally stable fixed-wing airplanes require a specific amount of rudder deflection for
steady sideslip in order to balance out the equilibrium about the sideslip angle β. In order to
accomplish this, there must be sufficiently high rudder performance available. The restoring
torque about the vertical axis or normal axis generally increases with a continually increasing
sideslip angle β. Therefore, for a larger sideslip angle β, a larger rudder deflection must also be
applied to maintain this angle. From a specific predefined sideslip angle p, the rudder itself
begins to float due to the inclined airflow, reducing the required rudder pedal force for rudder
deflection. From a defined sideslip angle β, the pilot experiences ever decreasing rudder pedal
force, which can ultimately lead to rudder lock. The following illustration demonstrates the
rudder deflection and the rudder pedal force in relation to the sideslip angle β. An additional rear
tail fin can serve to eliminate rudder lock, for example.

Relationship between rudder deflection and sideslip angle
Elevons
In combination controls, several functions are allocated to one control surface. The following
combination controls are used:
• Elevon
• Taileron
• V-tail
Elevons are used to control delta winged aircraft such as fighter jets. On these aircraft, the
control surfaces on the wing trailing edge act as elevators and ailerons. If the control surfaces on
both wings deflect upwards or downwards, they act as an elevator. If they separately deflect left
and right, they act as an aileron. Both rudder functions can be superimposed.
Tailerons are used in fighter jets with horizontal stabilizers (e.g. Tornado) because of the
separation of airflow over the wings at large angles of attack. The aileron loses its' aerodynamic
effects in these situations. Tailerons assume the functions of elevators and ailerons by deflecting
the two elevator halves inversely. They either support the conventional ailerons or replace them
completely. The horizontal stabilizer primarily functions as part of an all-moving tail.
V-tail is when the elevator and rudder functions are mixed and taken over by the two V-shaped
control surfaces (e.g. Beech Bonanza).
The V-tail offers the following advantages:
• Low weight
• Less pressure and frictional resistance
• Less interference drag
The V-tail has the following disadvantages:
• Complicated control surface activation for rudder functions

• Limited rudder effect for spin recovery
High Lift Devices
A fixed-wing airplane can fly quite safely with extended flaps (lift flaps at the trailing edge of
the wing) at low airspeeds without flow separation phenomena occurring. This is caused by the
increase of the maximum lift coefficient CL,max resulting from changes in the camber of the
profile and the effects (increased energy) of the boundary layer. In some landing flap systems,
the effective wing surface area SF is also increased, which, according to the following equation,
causes an additional decrease in airspeed Vs.
There are various types of flap systems, all of which require large storage and adjustment means.
The lower the stall speed Vso in a landing configuration (with flaps) in comparison to cruise
flight configurations (without flaps), the more technical effort is required.
Generally speaking, the extension and deflection of trailing edge flaps first cause a change in the
chord, resulting in a change in the angle of attack. In addition, the deflection of the flaps also
causes a slight shift of the pressure point in the direction of the trailing edge of the wing and, as a
result, an additional pitch-down moment. The image below demonstrates the change in the chord
taking the flap as an example.
The types of landing flaps are:
• Plain flap
• Plain slotted flap
• Plain split flap
• Plain Fowler flaps
• Multiple flaps
Types of Landing Flaps
Plain Flaps
A plain flap consists of a separate wing segment that is hinged on the wing and can be deflected
in an upward or downward direction. The depth of a flap may be up to about 30% of the chord
length (from leading edge to trailing edge) of the wing. Plain flaps increase lift based on the
principle of increasing the aerofoil curvature (camber). The maximum lift coefficient CLMAX, is
reached in a conventional aerofoil by deflecting the flaps to approx. 40 to 450. In addition to an

increase in lift, a large vortex region also increases drag, which worsens the glide ratio
significantly.
Plain Slotted Flap
Slotted flaps are designed in a similar way to plain flaps. When extended, the eccentric mounting
of the hinge point results in a gap (slot) between the wing and leading edge of the flaps. This gap
allows a small proportion of the airflow on the lower wing surface to flow onto the upper wing
surface, providing the boundary layer with energy. This significantly reduces the likelihood of
flow separation in the airflow over the wing. The vortex region trailing behind the wing is also
reduced.
Compared to plain flaps, a plain slotted flap generates less drag at a higher maximum lift.
Plain Split Flap
The plain split flap is similar to the plain flap. The only difference is that the lower surface is
hinged as the upper surface of the profile retains its contour. The split flap produces almost the
same amount of lift increase CLMAX as the plain flap but has a higher drag component and lower
pitch-down moment.
This type of flap was commonly used during the Second World War but is now very rare.
Plain Fowler Flaps
The plain Fowler flap is similar to the plain slotted flap, but the mechanism of the Fowler flap
not only increases the maximum lift coefficient but also the effective wing surface area SF. A
slot in a flap, as in slotted flaps, enables an accumulation of energy on the upper surface of the
wing. Compared with other flaps, the Fowler flap has the highest maximum lift coefficient but
relatively low additional drag. In terms of stall speed Vs, the Fowler flap is by far the most
effective.

Multiple Flaps
Double or triple flaps potentiate the effects of plain flaps. Due to the multiple effects of the
arrangement, flow separation and vortex formation are successfully suppressed, enabling an
increase of the maximum lift coefficient to 4.0.
Current passenger and business aircraft use double-slotted or even triple-slotted flaps in Fowler
or Zap flap arrangements. Plain flaps and split flaps are used only sporadically in gliders and
small aircraft.
The following graphs demonstrate the increase in the maximum lift coefficient CLmax depending
on the angle of attack α and the flap type.

The diagrams illustrate that during the extension of the trailing edge flaps, the critical angle of
attack (αcrit) decreases relative to when they are retracted. This is due to the twist of the wing
chord. The pilot must consider this when controlling the aircraft in slow flight.
The leading edge flap is another design. Slats are pivotally mounted to the forward region of the
wing profile and are deflected downwards in order to increase the profile curvature (camber).
Leading edge flaps are often used in combat aircraft that have very thin aerofoil sections to
increase maneuverability. A specific feature is the Krueger flap.
A slotted leading edge flap leads to an increase in the profile camber and an increase in wing
surface area. As the name suggests, it has a slot (gap) that allows air to pass between the wing
and the flap. This slot enables the energy-rich airflow of the lower wing surface to be distributed
along the boundary layer of the upper wing surface. The high-energy boundary layer then
reduces flow separation tendencies on the upper wing surface.

The forced airflow effect of the slot generates a high-energy boundary layer flow on the upper
wing surface and therefore a higher maximum lift coefficient The following image illustrates
these airflow conditions.
The diagram of lift coefficient over angle of attack represents the increase in lift for various types
of leading edge flaps and slats.

Lift Coefficient Over Angle of Attack Diagram for Various Types of Leading Edge Flaps and Slats

Combined Use of Leading Edge Slats and Flaps
The diagram illustrates that with the leading edge slat extended a sharp increase in the critical
angle of attack αcrit. can be achieved in comparison to the "clean" wing configuration. If leading
edge slats/flaps are combined with trailing edge flaps on a real airplane, a similar or higher
critical angle of attack αcrit can be achieved without the use of any other high-lift devices (cleaner
wing). During flight operations, slats are always extended slightly ahead of the trailing edge flaps
in order to prevent the critical angle of attack from falling to below the value of the "clean" wing.
The opposite occurs when the flaps are retracted. This reduces the likelihood of an undesired
wing stall because the pilot may assume that the critical angle of attack is constant.
If the high-lift devices are extended asymmetrically, this can lead to very dangerous situations
such as large and unmanageable roll and pitch moments for the pilot. A computer system
therefore monitors the symmetric extension of the devices as well as the forward and backward
increments of the leading edge slats and flaps in relation to the trailing edge flaps.
Secondary Effects of High-Lift Devices
For an aircraft in cruise flight, the pressure point is located close to the center of gravity.
Normally (i.e., in stable trim conditions), this pressure point is located slightly behind the center
of gravity so that a negative moment (pitch-down) occurs, which can then be compensated by lift
(downwards) from the elevator. The following illustration demonstrates all the forces and
moments acting on an aircraft.
The extension of the lift devices generally increases the camber of the profile, which initially
results in an increase of the negative profile moment (pitch-down). At the same time, changes
occur in the flow of air to the horizontal stabilizer as a result of the increase of the induced angle
of attack. The elevator lift is then increased, and the negative profile moment is compensated or
even overcompensated. Depending on the ratio and the particular aircraft design, the extension of
the high-lift devices may result either in a pitch-up (elevator moment change profile moment
change) or pitch-down state (elevator moment change profile moment change).
extended, high-lift devices are structurally limited to a maximum airspeed value VFE and
vertical acceleration NFE. A maximum airspeed VFD is also determined for the extension process.
Drag Inducing Devices
Passenger airliners and corporate jets have point designs that are optimized for cruise flight and
therefore require appropriate devices to adjust their flight characteristics during takeoff, approach
and landing. In addition to high-lift devices, air brakes (spoilers, speed brakes) also adjust the
airframe during these phases of flight. Speed brakes can also be used to support the asymmetric
ailerons at high speeds in order to prevent a rotation of the wing (torsion-induced wing twist).
Due to their arrangement and physical characteristics, speed brakes produce a downward force
(negative lift) and drag.
Depending on their intended use, air brakes can be classified as those used during normal flight
operations (flight spoilers, speed brakes), those used as air brakes on the ground for aborted
takeoffs and for landings (ground spoilers, lift dampers) and those used to facilitate the
longitudinal controllability of an aircraft (roll spoilers).
In modern aircraft, the decision to deploy spoilers during any phase of the flight is made by the

primary flight computer.
The deployment of air brakes in flight (flight spoilers) reduces lift and increases drag
considerably. The reduction of the glide ratio as an aerodynamic performance indicator enables a
higher rate of descent. This is the only way to ensure that aircraft, particularly those with turbojet
propulsion (jet aircraft without propellers), do not exceed their maximum airspeed on their glide
slope and to ensure that they can lose sufficient kinetic energy when making the final approach
to the runway.
Apart from additional drag, the deployment of air brakes and spoilers on the ground (ground
spoilers, lift dampers) also generates a strong downward force (negative lift) on the aircraft when
on the ground. This prevents uplift (floating) after touchdown and increases the effectiveness of
the wheel brakes. They are often automatically deployed on touchdown.
An asymmetric operation of the speed brakes in flight (roll spoilers) generates reduced lift and
increased drag only on one side of the wing. This makes the airplane yaw and roll in that
direction, and this is intensified by the operation of the ailerons.
Initial Flow Separation (Stall)
The flow conditions occurring during the initial stall procedure until a complete stall are
dependent on many factors. Aircraft designers seek to arrange a wing in such a way that the
separation of the airflow first occurs at the root of the wing (inner wing section) and then
migrates towards the outer wing as the angle of attack increases, so that the outer wing with the
ailerons retains sufficient airflow to remain effective for as long as possible. The stall
characteristics of such aircraft are very similar to a well-controlled and coordinated stall.

In order to produce these stall characteristics artificially, there are essentially two constructive
measures that can be taken. The first is the geometric twist, characterized by wing sections with
an increasingly larger span having a lower angle of incidence. The second design feature is the
aerodynamic twist, which is characterized by wing profiles with an increasingly smaller outward
profile thickness.
Boundary layer fences direct the flow of air parallel to the longitudinal axis and prevent cross-
flows on the respective wing section.

Dogtooth Leading Edges
Wings with dogteeth and recesses at the leading edge or with separate vortex generators (small
wings) in the boundary layer produce small energy vortices, which, like boundary layer fences,
prevent cross-flows from occurring and improve the stall characteristics.

Vortex Generators
Due to the previously described wing sweep, the critical Mach number MCRIT. shifts towards
higher airspeeds, inevitably leading to diminished flight characteristics. A swept wing generates
more lift on the outer wing, which, during stall procedures at slow speeds, first produces flow
separations at that location and worsens the stall characteristics significantly.
Some of the lateral flow on the outer wing section can be prevented by attaching boundary layer
separators or controls to the wing surface, such as leading edge extensions (dogteeth), nose
recesses or vortex generators. These control can greatly improve stall characteristics.
The following image compares swept wings with and without boundary layer controls such as
leading edge extensions, nose recesses, wing fences and vortex generators.
In the present day, vortex generators are primarily used on military aircraft and business jets.
They transfer energy by intentionally creating turbulence from the free flow of air into the
boundary layer (turbulent boundary layer), thus preventing flow separation when the airflow is
strongly deflected. This method is used on control surfaces, flaps, wing tips or specific fuselage
contours. This principle has already been explained in the section on airflow separation and
stalls.
Another type of boundary layer control includes air suction and/or discharge devices. Similar to
vortex generators, this method seeks to prevent flow separation at large angles of attack or,
alternatively, enables a vortex-free laminar flow in the boundary layer to be maintained for
longer periods due to the reduction of drag.
Prevention of Flow Separation by Means of Boundary Layer Control
As flow separation results from the velocity deficit that is a characteristic of boundary layers and
causes an increase of pressure over the wing, suction devices seek to remove the boundary layer
from the wing surface through a suction slot before it can separate. A new boundary layer then
forms behind the suction region that, in turn, is able to eliminate a certain pressure increase. The
repetitive arrangement of suction slots can prevent the separation of the boundary layer
completely. The suction devices are driven by bleed air from the power plant, or, for example, by
the use of a vacuum generated aerodynamically at the fuselage. During the early 1930 s, this type
of boundary layer suction was tested on two aircraft by the Aerodynamic Research Institute of
Göttingen and maximum lift coefficients of CLmax =4 were reached. The following illustration
demonstrates the basic cross-section of a suction profile.

Reducing Drag by Boundary Layer Control
Boundary layer control (suction/discharge) can also be employed to reduce the skin friction of a
wing profile. The effect is based on the principle that the transition point between the laminar
and turbulent boundary layer is shifted or prevented altogether by means of suction or discharge.
It has been demonstrated, for example, that the planar (continuous) suction or disposal of airflow
by applying a porous upper surface can be more advantageous than the use of slots, since suction
slots cause disruptions in the airflow that can provoke flow reversal. Experiments have shown
that, theoretically, skin friction can be reduced by up to 70 or 80% by applying boundary layer
control devices. In real aircraft, the implementation of boundary layer control can reduce fuel
consumption by about 25% after taking power requirements and performance into account. This
image shows the principle of the slot-like suction and the change in frictional drag (skin friction).
Stall Strips
Natural signs of an impending flow separation (stall) at a high angle of attack α vary according to
aircraft design but include the shaking of the steering column (low-speed stick buffet) or of the
entire aircraft (low-speed aircraft buffet). This shaking is generated by vortex layers separating

from the inner wing section and impinging on the elevator. If this natural shaking is highly
pronounced due to geometrical relationships between wing and elevator or to the type of aerofoil
applied, artificial stall warning strips (stall strips) may be employed. These strips then generate
artificial vortex layers at the leading edge of the profile at a predefined angle ct. This system is
mainly used on smaller aircraft.
Another operating principle uses a mechanical switch that activates an acoustic or audible
warning when the stagnation point shifts. If the stagnation point at the leading edge of the wing
shifts downward far enough, it pushes a small metal lip upwards and activates the system. This
principle is also applied on smaller aircraft.

The angle of attack α of the wings of all large aircraft (as defined in the Certification
Specifications for large aircraft CS25) is continuously monitored by the use of AOA probes
(angle of attack probes). The data from the sensors is first transmitted to the air data computer
(ADC) and the risk of the airflow separation (impending stall) is then rated depending on the
flight phase and respective configuration. The results of the ADC are displayed on the AOA
indicator (angle of attack indicator). In the event of an impending stall, a specific sound or visual
warning is activated. The pilots of commercial aircraft with electric or hydraulic flight control
systems are often warned of impending stall by electro-mechanical vibrations in the control
column (stick shaker).

Trimming
Every aircraft turns while maneuvering around its axes, which intersect at the center of gravity.
If the sum of all moments about the center of gravity is zero, this is called a trimmed state. The
pilot becomes aware of this condition through the lack of control pressure on the input
instruments. If the sum of the moments about an axis is not equal to zero, this will result in
undesirable control pressures, which may only be eliminated by a corresponding trim adjustment.
Spring tabs, weight or trim tabs are generally used for this purpose.
The following types of trims may be used:
• Trim tabs
• Lagging tabs
• Leading tabs
• Servo tabs
• Spring tabs
• Spring loaded tabs
Trim tabs are small movable portions of the trailing edge of a control surface. These tabs are
controlled from the cockpit to alter the camber of the surface and create an aerodynamic force
that will hold the control surface deflected. The lagging tab is a balance tab that specifically
reduces the moments around the control surface mount (center of rotation) without changing the
aerodynamic balance about the control surface itself. With the leading tab (anti-balance tab), on
the other hand, these moments are intensified as the deflection of the control surface increases.
However, as with balance tabs, this does not change aerodynamic balance. In fixed-wing aircraft
with servo tab control (Flettner principle), there is no direct drive to the actual control surface.
The control signal is transmitted exclusively to the servo tab itself, which produces a deflection
in the actual control surface through aerodynamic forces. This principle allows for the deflection
of large control surfaces with relatively little effort by the pilot as well as for the control of the
aircraft at high speeds. This trim and control arrangement can be found, for example, on the DC-
9. Using the spring tab, control pressures are also affected by a spring in the control unit. At high
equivalent air speeds, this configuration acts like a normal balance tab. The spring-loaded tab
reaches maximum deflection at a lower equivalent airspeed and reduces the deflection towards
zero as the airspeed is increased. The following images shows different types of trim tabs.
Trim Tab
Trim tabs may be installed on any of the primary control surfaces. If only one tab is used, it is

normally on the elevator, to permit adjustment of the tail load so the airplane can be flown
hands- off at any given airspeed. The airplane speed is set with the control wheel, and then the
trim tab is adjusted until the airspeed can be maintained without exerting force on the wheel.
Stabilizer Trim
In commercial airliners and corporate aircraft the stabilizer trim is used instead of the simple trim
tab for pitch trimming. Stabilizer trims generally have a much greater trimming effect since they
are used to align the entire fixed section of the tailplane. This can be of a particular advantage in
the case of a "tuck under", as it provides greater stability at high speeds (high Mach numbers).
Furthermore, stabilizer trim often has smaller trim resistance, since no additional elevator
deflection is required in a trimmed state, as do trim tabs. There are however two disadvantages of
the stabilizer trim. Firstly it is technically complicated. Secondly, a malfunction or failure of the
trim actuators can make a fixed wing plane nearly uncontrollable due to its large trim effect.
Trim systems are necessary during takeoff and landing due to the use of extended high-lift
devices, which is why there should always be redundant stabilizer trim. Before takeoff, it is
important to adjust the stabilizer trim to the correct value depending on the center of gravity
location (%MAC) to allow for easy rotation during takeoff. For example, an airplane trimmed to
a tail-heavy condition has the tendency to pitch its nose up, while an aircraft trimmed to a top-
heavy state is difficult to rotate due to the high elevator forces that are required to pitch the nose
up. The following illustration demonstrates a takeoff trim table for a commercial airliner or
corporate aircraft.

Trim Tab Position in Relation to CG Location
Measures to Reduce Control Forces
Aerodynamic Balance
The forces required on the respective input device in the cockpit are referred to as control
pressures. Certain legal requirements exist for the minimum and maximum control forces. The
specific gradient of these values with regard to vertical load factors and airspeeds is also
prescribed in accordance with design specifications (certification specification). If the design of a
commercial airliner or corporate aircraft does not inherently meet these legal requirements, a
variety of resources can be applied to ensure that they are met otherwise.
• Working principle of the nose and horn balance

• Internal balance of control forces
• Control force balance using trim tabs
• Artificial feel measures
Working Principle of the Nose and Horn Balance
Balance weights in the nose or the horn of control surfaces generate static counter-torque, thus
reducing a constant amount of control force. If the nose is directed on the opposite side away
from the profile contour due to an offset of the center of rotation when deflected, this results in
the linear aerodynamic reduction of these control forces. These control forces can be adjusted
specifically by skillfully selecting the appropriate point of rotation. The same applies to the
spades. Spades also reduce control forces when control surfaces are deflected, especially in
acrobatic aircraft.
Internal Balance of Control Forces
internal control force balance is applied, the nose is not directed away from the profile
contour, but rather generates appropriate balance moments as a result of pressure variations in
the center wing section during deflections.

Control Force Balance Using Trim Tabs
Trim tabs are the most effective means of reducing or increasing control forces in fixed-wing
airplanes. Servo tabs move in the opposite direction of the control surface. The tab has a leverage
advantage, being located well aft of the surface hinge line and thus uses the relative airflow to
deflect the control surface in the opposite direction. This has the effect of reducing the control
force required by the pilot to move the controls. Introduced by the German firm Flettner, servo
tabs were formerly known as Flettner tabs.
Artificial Feel Measures
If the control pressures in commercial or corporate airplanes cannot be adequately reduced

through conventional methods, or if they are technically too complex to implement, then
hydraulic, electric or mechanical power assisted controls or fully powered hydraulic, electric or
mechanical flight control systems are used. With mechanical support, the naturally occurring
control pressure on the input device is intensified hydraulically, electrically or mechanically and
then transmitted to the control surfaces. In fully powered hydraulic, electric or mechanical flight

controls, the control pressure is transmitted electrically or mechanically to a hydraulic actuator

which then deflects the control surface. Since the completely hydraulic transmission of signals
and forces by the pilot generates no natural feedback from forces exerted on the controls, this
feeling must be provided to the pilot artificially by means of an artificial feel system. It provides
a corresponding artificial counter pressure to the input device of the pilot depending on the actual
control forces applied.
Mass Balance Control
A balance of mass must be implemented on control systems and control surfaces for various
reasons. As described in the section on stability, these measures can be used to correct the
gradient of the control force in relation to the vertical load factor to the required value, for
example, by the use of the bob weight.
Furthermore, any friction moment can be reduced with mass balancing on control rods and
control levers. Mass balancing is also often required in the nose of control surfaces in order to
dampen flutter in a control system. Flutter is described in more detail in the section on
limitations.
High Speed Flight
Flights with passenger airliners and business jets performed at high speeds (high speed flight,
M> 0.7) involve special risks and, as opposed to private pilot training, are discussed explicitly in

the theoretical training of commercial and airline pilots. The following speed ranges are
distinguished:
Flights at speeds from 0.3 Mach are also subject to high-speed aerodynamics. Until recently, the
nature of the airflow was mostly regarded as incompressible. According to the table above, this
assumption is only true up to 0.3 Mach or about 200 kt. From 0.3 Mach, this is called a
compressible flow, meaning that the flow pattern of air as a medium is subject to variations in
density. These speed-dependent effects are generally described as compressibility effects. The
effects of compressibility are also responsible for significant aerodynamic relationships being
reversed after reaching speeds of Mach 1.0. At subsonic speeds, for example, a nozzle
(convergent flow change) causes the flow rate to increase as opposed to a decrease in flow rate at
supersonic speeds. This is quite the opposite with diffusers.
A significant factor in classifying high-speed aerodynamics is knowledge and observance of the

speed of sound in the calculation of the Mach number M and the special effects that may be
expected from the design of an aircraft.
Speed of Sound
The term speed of sound denotes the speed at which variations in pressure propagate sound
through the medium air. If the speed of sound is higher, the propagation of sound is much
quicker and sound is heard much sooner. The speed of sound at 340 m/s under ISA standard
conditions is significantly slower than the speed of light, which is why we first see lightning
before hearing thunder during thunderstorms.
The speed of sound is different depending on the properties of the material or medium. As an
example, the speed of sound is higher in steel than it is in air. We can observe this phenomenon
if we put our ears to a train track. We can hear the train kilometres away through the rails before
we can actually hear the sound of the train through the air.
Examples of speed of sound for various media at ooC:
The speed of sound not only depends on the type of material but also on its temperature. This is
especially notable in gases in which the speed of sound a (measured in m/s) is a function of the
temperature T expressed in Kelvin (K).

An almost constant isentropic exponent K and an ideal gas constant R, the formula can be
simplified as follows:
Subsonic Flight
Flows can be broadly classified into four categories: subsonic, transonic, supersonic and
hypersonic flows. The most significant distinctive characteristic of these flow categories is the
Mach number.
A classical subsonic flow occurs when the Mach number is less than 1 at every point along the
aerodynamic body. It is characterized by regular, constant and harmonic streamlines.
Disturbances in the streamline, such as those caused by the deflection of a flap or a control
surface, can be distributed harmonically as a result of potential pulse propagation in the entire
flow field. The flow also divides before reaching an obstacle (e.g., an aerodynamic body)
because the wave pulse occurring at the speed of sound is faster than the flow velocity.

Transonic Flight
A subsonic flow with a velocity of M 0.7 can be accelerated locally to the supersonic (M 1.0)
range by displacement of the flow traveling around thicker parts of an aircraft (e.g., fuselage,
engines, thick aerofoils, etc.). The Mach number flown when this occurs is called the critical
Mach number M CRIT. The transition from subsonic to supersonic occurs more or less
continuously, but only a normal supersonic shock wave (normal shock) can make the transition
from supersonic back to subsonic aft of the local supersonic field. The flow aft of the local
normal shock wave then becomes subsonic again. Flows with local supersonic effects, i.e., those
with a mixture of subsonic and supersonic flows along an aerodynamic body, are called transonic
and may occur at speeds of up to M 1.3. The following image demonstrates the development of a
local supersonic wave field with increasing Mach number M: A further increase of the Mach
number M:

may also result in the formation of multiple supersonic fields (e.g., above or below). The first
bow wave (complete shock wave in front of the profile) as an indicator of a full supersonic flow
around the aerodynamic body can only occur at Mach numbers in excess of 1. The following
image demonstrates the range shortly before the speed of sound.

Supersonic Flight
A flow is called supersonic if the Mach number at every point of the flow is greater than M 1. It
is characterized by streamlines that are partially discontinuous and deflected abruptly over
compression shocks or expansion waves along the contour of the aerodynamic body. The purely
supersonic flow remains aft of the oblique compression shocks at the leading edge in the
supersonic range (M > 1) and extends along the course of the expansion waves. The following
image compares the harmonic subsonic flow with the discontinuous shock loads in the
supersonic range.
Aerodynamic bodies in the supersonic range develop compression shocks (often oblique shocks,
depicted by the solid line). This is due to an airflow discontinuous deflection with a restriction
referred to as concave deflection and to expansion effects (depicted by the dashed line).

The bow wave, as an oblique shock on the leading edge of an aerodynamic body in the
supersonic range, has a specifically defined cone angle. This oblique shock is dependent on the
flight Mach number and the bow angle of the aerodynamic body.
If the bow angle of the aerodynamic body is too large, the oblique shock wave separates from the
leading edge, becomes a normal shock and travels in the opposite direction of the airflow
towards the front. Therefore, if the bow angle is sufficiently blunt, the flow zone between the
detached normal shock and the bow is reduced to subsonic. The flow field is then transonic
again.
The zone formed by the oblique shock at the aforementioned cone angle is called the Mach cone.
In purely supersonic flows, the sound waves begin to propagate just aft of the sound source. The
higher the speed of the aerodynamic body, the smaller the angle of the Mach cone.

Mach Number
The Mach number M is the ratio between the true airspeed VTAS of an aerodynamic body and the
speed of sound a of the atmosphere around the aerodynamic body. It is also an important
parameter in fluid mechanics and hydrodynamics for the characterization of fluid flows. The
Austrian physicist and philosopher Ernst Mach (1838 - 1916) expressed it as the following
formula:
The Mach number M is generally a function of the flight altitude. In order to calculate the Mach
number of a corporate jet aircraft flying at a speed of VT AS 350 kt at 10,000 ft, the true airspeed
of 350 kt must first be converted to 180.06 m/s. The temperature T decreases by 2 K every 1,000
ft and is therefore exactly 268.15 K in an ISA atmosphere. The speed of sound has a value of:
Using this formula, the Mach number at 10,000 ft can be calculated as follows:
The calculation of the Mach number at 20,000 ft results in a speed of sound of:
The Mach number at 20,000 ft corresponds to a value of:
These two sampling points at 10,000 ft and 20,000 ft demonstrate that the Mach number M in an
ISA atmosphere at a constant true airspeed TAS increases with altitude. This increase in Mach
number only occurs as long as the temperature decreases with altitude. In the stratosphere above
the tropopause (at about 36,000 ft ISA), an isothermal process generally prevails. That is, the
temperature remains constant as the altitude increases, and the Mach number remains constant at
the same VTAS.

Despite the fact that the speed of sound a remains a function of the temperature T, as mentioned
above, the Mach number M only remains constant at a calibrated airspeed V as a result of the
static air pressure and is therefore dependent on the pressure altitude.
Since the true airspeed and the speed of sound are affected by temperature, the calculation of the
Mach number M which is a ratio of VTAS (true airspeed) and speed of sound a, cancels out the
effect of temperature. This is also why the Mach gauge used to measure the Mach number in a
cockpit is generally a pressure gauge.
The following image demonstrates the gradient of the calibrated airspeed VCAS, the true airspeed
VTAS and the Mach number M in relation to the flight altitude (pressure altitude). This is in a
climb at a constant calibrated airspeed Vcas below the crossover altitude and at a constant Mach
number above the crossover altitude. The objective of the crossover altitude is to prevent the
increase of the Mach number before the maximum permissible Mach number (Mmo) is reached
by reducing the calibrated airspeed VCAS and, as a result, the decrease of the true airspeed VTAS
Critical Mach Number
When an airliner or corporate aircraft exceeds the critical Mach number M CRIT in the subsonic
range (0.7 M CRIT 1.0), this results in local supersonic flows (M 1.0) in the air traveling around
thicker parts of the aircraft (fuselage, engines, thick aerofoils, etc.). These local supersonic fields
consist of normal shocks and have a negative effect on flight characteristics and flight
performance.
Exceeding the critical Mach number MCRIT, in addition to the effects on flight quality and aircraft
performance, also affects:
• Lift
• Resistance
• Pitching moment
• Effectiveness of the control surfaces
Aircraft designers therefore aim to constructively increase the critical Mach number M CRIT as
far as possible. The following measures in particular have proven to be suitable:
• The use of swept wings

• The use of special wing profiles
• The use of vortex generators
• The use of the area rule for fuselage construction
Effect on Lift
An increase of the Mach number M in the subsonic range from M > 0.7 and the exceedance of
the critical Mach number MCRIT causes boundary layer disturbances, and later also flow
separation, which has a considerable negative effect on lift. In other words, the lift coefficient CL
is reduced under otherwise constant conditions (angle of attack, wing area, configuration, etc.)
The maximum lift coefficient CLMAX is particularly reduced at a higher Mach number M,
increasing the risk of an accelerated stall in wind gusts and maneuvers. The accelerated stall at a
high flight Mach number is also called shock-induced stall (shock stall), since the reduction of
the maximum coefficient of lift CLmax causes shocks. This effect has more influence on the
development of a stall than the increase in the required coefficient of lift CL as a result of vertical
acceleration (load factor in the Z direction). Furthermore, the shock wave itself is dangerous
because it can bring about a complete flow separation without the additional lift coefficient CL
and cause strong and dangerous vibrations (Mach buffet) thereby straining the structure of the
aircraft. The lower limit for the shock stall resulting from exceeding the maximum coefficient of
lift, as well as the upper limit due to the flow separation resulting from the shock wave, pose a
risk to airliners and corporate jets traveling at a high Mach number due to the reduction of lift.
Both of these limits eventually meet as the altitude is increased. Their point of intersection is
called the "coffin corner" or Q corner (flight envelope).
In addition, at high subsonic Mach numbers the nearly linear relationship (linear range before
changes between the angle of attack α and the coefficient of lift CLmax as demonstrated in the
following diagram.

A higher angle of attack must therefore be assumed at high Mach numbers if the coefficient of
lift is to remain constant.
Effect on Drag
Higher Mach numbers M increase drag, which can affect flight performance significantly. When
exceeding the critical Mach number M CRIT, the local supersonic fields generate considerable
shock waves or expansion waves on aerodynamic bodies. Due to the surrounding layers of air,
these cause wave drag, which is at its highest level when the speed of sound (Mach number M =
1) is reached.
When the speed of sound is exceeded (M > 1), the wave drag drops but still has the largest
proportion of the total drag of an aerodynamic body. The following diagram demonstrates the
development of the drag factor when exceeding the critical Mach number MCRIT in the subsonic
range.

The Mach number therefore has a significant effect on lift and drag and this determines the shape
of the drag polar. As the Mach number increases, drag increases and lift is reduced, decreasing
the lift-to-drag ratio E and aerodynamic efficiency.

The Mach number M at which drag begins to increase disproportionately is called the drag
divergence Mach number (MDD) and its value is always greater than the critical Mach number
MCRIT
Effect on the Pitch Moment
As a result of the profound local shock configuration (compression shocks) of a subsonic profile
above the critical Mach number MCRIT a center of pressure travel occurs in many airliners and
corporate jets in the direction of the trailing edge. At lower subsonic speeds, the center of
pressure lies at about 25%, whereas at high subsonic speeds it lies at about 50% MAC. At an
otherwise constant center of gravity, this center of pressure travel generates a strong pitching
moment in the direction of the nose (pitch-down moment) also called a "tuck-under" or "Mach
tuck"
To compensate for this, many aircraft are equipped with a Mach trimmer (Mach trim system),
which moves the horizontal stabilizer to a very effective trim-down position. Some aircraft types
also compensate for the "tuck-under" by weight trimming, i.e., by transferring fuel to the tail
section.
Should the Mach trimmer fail, the only precautionary or emergency measure that can be taken is
to avoid reaching the upper speed limit and to fly at a lower altitude. If the Mach trimmer fails
during a flight at a high Mach number in the upper speed range, the only effective
countermeasure would be the deployment of the air brakes and/or the appropriate reduction of
engine thrust.
Impact on the Effectiveness of Control Surfaces
At high Mach numbers (M > MCRIT) some special effects may occur on the control surfaces as a
result of supersonic fields or expansion fields, particularly on the wings.
When these systems are not hydraulically assisted, aerodynamic blocking usually occurs and the
strength of the pilot is no longer adequate to actuate the control surface using regular input
instruments.
Another effect on aircraft with hydraulic control, is that even a full deflection of the control
surface after a compression shock may have no effect on the attitude of an aircraft or may even
result in a reverse effect (reversal effect and force reversal) due to changes in the distribution of
pressure.

Airliners and corporate aircraft use high-speed ailerons and selective air brakes (spoilers) to
ensure sufficient controllability about the longitudinal axis at high Mach numbers.
Mach Cone
The mathematician and physicist Christian Doppler discovered that the propagation and
frequency of sound pressure waves depend fundamentally on the direction and velocity of the
sound source itself. The Mach cone builds on this context and describes the resulting three-
dimensional cone of pulse waves behind an aircraft traveling at a high airspeed. These wave
fronts or other pressure variations may occur (shock waves induced by compression waves) as a
result of sound pressure waves.
When the aerodynamic body travels through the air faster than the speed of sound (M 1), two
oblique shock waves form at the leading edge (bow wave) and often also at the trailing edge
(stern wave), depending on the airspeed, the bow angle and the nose radius. As the object travels
at supersonic speed, spherical shock waves occur in the atmosphere at all points along the flight
path of the object. Each of these spherically shaped, propagated shock waves exhibits a different
radius depending on the rise time of the shock waves. Along this flight path, the points lying
farther from the object have larger radii but smaller radii directly aft of the object. The
enveloping line of the shock wave is called the Mach line and is formed by three-dimensional
bodies designated as Mach cones.

When the Mach line formed by the wave fronts of the Mach cone hits the surface of the Earth, a
sonic boom is heard. Larger aircraft often produce separate bow and stern waves as they travel at
supersonic speeds and these can be observed as a "double boom". The sonic boom is generated
by a considerable variation in pressure, and these pressure waves fill out a narrow path on the
ground following the aircraft's flight path. The higher the aerodynamic object travels, the longer
it takes for an observer on the ground to hear the sonic boom after the object passes due to the
existing cone angle of the Mach cone. The intensity of the sonic boom also decreases as a result
of the frictional effects of the atmosphere. This is why supersonic flights are now only permitted
at high altitudes (generally greater than 36,000 feet). The size of the cone angle (Mach angle of
the Mach line in relation to the line of symmetry) of the Mach cone is inversely proportional to
the Mach number.
Up to the critical Mach number MCRIT, no part of the aerofoil will exceed the speed of sound in
the subsonic range and no compression shocks occur. After exceeding MCRIT in the subsonic
range, a normal shock occurs aft of the local supersonic field and this leads to the transition of
the supersonic flow to a subsonic flow. These local supersonic effects can only occur on the

thicker parts of aerofoils in the subsonic range as a result of the displacement of airflows over the
wing profile and of the increase of local flow velocities in the supersonic range. However, the
first supersonic fields occur most frequently when the critical Mach number MCRIT is exceeded at
the thickest part of the wing profile. The shock wave, as an abrupt transition from supersonic to
subsonic, gradually travels back towards the trailing edge as the Mach number increases while
almost all of the aerofoil is surrounded by supersonic flow in the direction of the trailing edge.
the shock wave reaches the trailing edge of the aerofoil at high supersonic speeds (high
Mach number), the shock wave becomes stationary. Viewed in the span direction, the shock first
occurs at the thicker aerofoil root and propagates upon further increase in speed in the direction
of the thinner end of the wing (wing tip).
In theory, there are two types of shock waves: normal shocks and compression shocks. Generally
speaking, normal shocks occur perpendicular to and in front of or on top of profile contours and
always switch flow velocities from the supersonic range directly to the subsonic range. Oblique
shocks occur at angles of less than 900 on the surface of an aerodynamic body and make a
transition from the higher supersonic range to the lower supersonic range.
All compression shocks evoke shock waves as a result of this compression process, which then
induce flow separation on the contour of an airliner or business jet, thus reducing flight
performance through wave drag. In some cases, this can change the flight characteristics quite
dramatically. For example, control surface effectiveness at high subsonic Mach numbers can be
reduced drastically in the medium subsonic range. This is mainly due to the compression shocks
that cause boundary layer separation.
Normal Shock Wave
In general, a normal shock first occurs in the subsonic range upon exceeding the critical Mach
number MCRIT at the thickest parts of an airliner or corporate jet, most often on the upper side of
a wing near the wing root.

Flights in the supersonic range can also produce a normal shock at the contact surface at the front
of an aerodynamic body if the nose radius or bow angle of that body is too large or too blunt.
This upstream shock wave is often slightly curved and therefore called a bow shock, which
induces a characteristic bow wave.
The most significant characteristic of a normal shock is that it has a straight angle in relation to
the surface or principal direction of flow. This also explains why there is no wave deflection as
the shock occurs. When comparing the parameters of air temperature, static pressure, velocity,
air density, total pressure, air speed and Mach number before and after the normal shock wave,
the following relationships become apparent:
An important fact relating to the normal shock wave is that the Mach number after the normal
shock is always smaller than 1 (M2 < 1).

Oblique Shock Wave
An oblique shock wave (oblique shock) occurs almost exclusively with flow deflections in
purely supersonic flows. It is important for the development of oblique shocks that the flow
deflection occurs as sharp as possible, but only at a small angle.
If the flow deflection is not sharp enough, multiple oblique compression shocks occur along the
aerodynamic body. This is a principle that is specifically applied to multiple shock diffusers on
engine intakes of supersonic aircraft. The following image illustrates the deflection at the
rounded corner of an aerodynamic body.

An oblique shock wave is never at a right angle to a surface. It always forms an angle of less
than 900 with the contour of the aerodynamic body. An oblique shock wave always results in a
flow deflection. When comparing the parameters of air temperature, static pressure, velocity, air
density, total pressure, air speed and Mach number before and after the oblique shock wave, the
following relationships become apparent:
An important fact relating to the oblique shock wave is that although the Mach number after the
oblique shock wave is always smaller than before the shock occurs, it is always greater than 1
(M2 > 1).
Area Rule
The increase in local velocity at thicker parts of aerodynamic bodies is the main cause of local
supersonic fields on subsonic aerodynamic bodies. At high-subsonic flight speeds, the local
speed of the airflow can reach the speed of sound where the flow accelerates around the aircraft
body and wings. An important approach in their prevention is the application of the "area rule"
during the design and construction phase of an aircraft. In order to avoid the formation of the
associated strong shock waves, this total area distribution must be smooth. Aircraft have to be
carefully arranged so that at the location of the wing, the fuselage is narrowed or "waisted".
Similar but less pronounced fuselage waisting is used at the location of a bubble canopy and the
tail surfaces.

Factors Affecting Airflow in Engine Intakes of High Speed Aircraft
The flow velocity at the engine inlet of subsonic aircraft must remain below the critical engine
speed. The shape of the engine intake provides an optimization of the airflow speed. The air
arrives at the first stage of the compressor at an optimized speed and allows efficient operation of
the engine. The velocity of the air stream is at approx. 0.5 Mach.
The divergent shape of the engine inlet causes a slowing of the airflow. For supersonic aircraft
the opposite is true. Regardless of the shape of the air intake, the speed of the airflow is
controlled by valves in the air duct.
Effects of Sweepback on Critical Mach Number
The onset of the first local supersonic fields in subsonic flight at high Mach numbers is explained
by the local velocity increase at thicker parts of the aircraft (fuselage, engines, thick aerofoils,
etc.), hence making the wing particularly vulnerable. The effective relative thickness, i.e., the
ratio between the wing profile height and chord, is crucial for the existence of these local
supersonic fields. The use of a swept wing (wing sweep) reduces the relative thickness because
the profile height does not change. However, the sweep increases the profile depth. The local
supersonic fields first occur at higher airspeeds which increases the critical Mach number MCRIT,
eventually leading to the generation of wave drag.
The maximum coefficient of lift in swept wing designs decreases considerably at lower speeds in
comparison to the straight wing, but it is greater at higher speeds than in straight wing designs.

The following illustration demonstrates these relationships as a function of the sweep angle.
Another effective means for shifting the critical Mach number MCRIT to higher speeds in
comparison to swept wing designs is to change the relative thickness and shape of the aerofoil. A
thin aerofoil also has a small relative thickness, which allows the local supersonic fields to occur
at a later stage. The following picture illustrates the critical Mach number MCRIT as a function of
relative aerofoil thickness (aerofoil thickness ratio in percentage).

Apart from the relative profile thickness, the profile shape can also lead to the occurrence of
local supersonic fields. A strongly cambered profile will benefit the local supersonic fields more
during subsonic flight than will a slightly cambered profile. It has also been illustrated that
certain profile contours similar to the laminar profile, i.e., those with a greater maximum
thickness, are more favorable in terms of wave drag. This eventually led designers of airliners
and corporate aircraft to develop the "supercritical wing profile" called the "roof top" profile
because of its straight upper surface.
A supercritical profile has a special design that is reminiscent of the shape of a whale. This
special contour enables high drag divergence Mach numbers (MDD) to be reached because wave
drag increases only very slightly due to the smaller or even absent compression shock. A
disadvantage, however, is the somewhat higher minimum airspeed required compared to the
classical laminar flow profile. This makes it necessary to incorporate an exterior flap system on
supercritical wing profiles to allow for slow flight.
The following illustration demonstrates the comparison of flow types of a supercritical profile
with a laminar flow profile. The laminar flow profile forms a significant compression wave but
has a much better lift-to-drag ratio at lower speed ranges. However, the supercritical profile
reaches its maximum glide ratio only at high Mach numbers.
Airframe Structures- General Concepts
Airworthiness Requirements for Structural Strength
There are a multitude of levels of certification for aircraft. The level of certification an aircraft
has to conform with is determined by its design principle and operational purpose. A light single
engine helicopter, for example, needs to fulfil criteria different to those a 300 ton long-range jet
airplane has to meet. Flight safety is a factor that has to be provided in both cases, but the
requirements will differ in regard to service life, flight altitude, the number of passengers or all-
weather operation capabilities. Furthermore, there are levels of certification for certain
components like piston engines or procedures such as adverse weather operations or noise
abatement measures. If an aircraft does not fit into the existing levels of certification, for
example a DLR research helicopter, it is either operated as an experimental aircraft for its entire
service life, which introduces different requirements regarding flight safety, or EASA creates a
new level of certification.
The following levels of certification have been published by EASA:

• EASA CS-22 Sailplanes and Powered Sailplanes
• EASA CS-23 Normal, Utility, Aerobatic and Commuter Airplanes

• EASA CS-25 Large Airplanes

• EASA CS-27 Small Rotorcraft
• EASA CS-29 Large Rotorcraft
• EASACS-31HB Hot Air Balloons
• EASA CS-34 Aircraft Engine Emissions and Fuel Venting
• EASA CS-36 Aircraft Noise
• EASA CS-APU Auxiliary Power Units
• EASA CS-AWO All Weather Operations
• EASACS-E Engines
• EASA CS-ETSO European Technical Standard Orders
• EASA CS-Definitions Definitions and Abbreviations
• EASACS-P Propellers
• EASA CS-VIA Very Light Airplanes
• EASACS-VLR Very Light Rotorcraft
It is the main purpose of the European system of authorities, centered around EASA and the
national aviation authorities (e.g. the German Luftfahrtbundesamt) to maintain and, where
necessary, improve the high standard of flight safety in Europe. This goal necessitates the
creation of uniform standards, especially in the area of certification. The classification of failure
conditions according to AMC 25.1309 Figure 2 of EASA CS-25, depicted below, is an important
step in this direction. It classifies dangers by the scope of the damage caused in relation to their
probability. The chart distinguishes between "No Safety Effect", "Minor", "Major", "Hazardous"
and "Catastrophic".

In the area of failure conditions, the worst combination is that of high failure condition
probability and catastrophic effects. This means that a system failure will always lead to a total
loss of the aircraft. If this failure also has a high probability of occurring, the combination is the
utter worst case, which is why it is not acceptable in the context of certification.

If devices, systems or assemblies are declared especially important for flight safety or
airworthiness in the certification specification, it might, under some circumstances, be necessary
to design the system in question with a degree of redundancy. This counterbalances the systems'
given failure probability by providing a backup system. A typical example for redundant systems
are the backup hydraulic controls of large aircraft that automatically take over control should the
primary system fail. In many cases there are two or more backup systems. If there is one
redundant system, we speak of a duplex configuration, if there are two "spare" systems, we look
at a triplex design. These layouts are design solutions that artificially reduce the probability of a
failure condition that has catastrophic effects.
Structural Classification
Primary, Secondary and Tertiary
An aircraft's primary structure comprises the numerous different individual components forming
the fuselage, tail boom or stabilizers. The primary structure is made up of thousands of parts,
which may have a size of square meters (cabin skin) or millimeters (brackets and sensors).

The term secondary structure comprises all components used to attach the different systems to
the primary structure. These systems include:
• Hydraulic systems
• Fuel (airframe) systems
• Oxygen systems
• Cabin systems
• Electronic systems
The attachments vary in shape and size, from small brackets to large frame constructions.
The tertiary structure includes minor components and equipment that supports the primary or
secondary structure (e.g. static dischargers).
Fail Safe
The durability of components in operation and optimized weight are significant considerations in
modern aircraft design. The two factors are related directly - a large reduction in the weight of a
component can have negative effects on its durability and safety. The following three design
principles are used to prevent total component failure:
• Safe life
• Fail safe
• Damage tolerance
Regarding the safety of a component or system, redundancy is an important factor. Redundancy

means the availability of two technically identical components within one system. In normal
operation, only one of the components is required - the second component only serves as a back
up for increased safety in case of a failure. Fail safe means that the system may not be
operational any more, but the aircraft is still in a controlled condition.
The fail safe method is based on the assumption that components fail due to the continuously
varying loads it is subjected to during operation. The overall system is designed to compensate
the failure of one component by suitably dimensioning the other components to absorb the
additional loads and stresses. Applied to the context of an aircraft structure, this means that the
additional load is distributed amongst the other assemblies. Distributing force flux is one of the
main design principles of the fail safe method.

Safe Life
The safe life method employs statistical methods to determine the expected lifetime of a
component. These calculations are based on the results of strength tests carried out to prove the
component's continued operability. When the defined lifetime is reached, the part in question has
to be replaced, even if it does not show any sign of damage. Usually, if a component designed
following safe life principles fails, it causes the overall system to fail.
Damage Tolerance Concepts
The damage tolerance method has been derived from the fail safe method and is the most recent
approach used in aircraft design. Based on an evaluation of possible component failure, damage
up to a certain limit is tolerated. This method has the advantage of saving the additional weight
required for dimensioning the other parts of an assembly to take the loads of a failed component
as required by the fail safe method.
Zonal and Station Identification Systems
Stress
If a sufficiently large load acts on a body, it changes its shape. The ratio of its original and
resulting dimensions is called stress.
Strain
The term "load" describes the application of force to a material. An example: A massive steel
girder supports a weight and slightly bends. Each of the atoms inside the girder now pulls on the
atom above and pushes on the one below. Loads can also be applied without mechanic force, for
example by temperature changes, chemical reactions or electromagnetic fields. The following
terms describe the different ways in which force can be applied to material. The application of
force to a body is measured in N /mm2
Dynamic Loads
Dynamic loads are 'live" loads which grow or decrease over a period of time. The applying force
varies and is always greater than zero. A reacting force is generated by the material that is
subjected to the dynamic load and must, due to its elasticity, return to its original state.

Static Loads
A static load on the other hand is constant. Its magnitude increases up to a certain point and then
stays constant (e.g. a weight attached to a wire).
Bending
When a body is subjected to bending, three different forces are being applied to it: The
elongation of the outer sides generates tensile forces while the inner side is being compressed.
The length of the body is subject to shearing forces that can cause the material to split.
Compression
Compression is caused by pressure. The term "pressure" describes a force that acts on a surface.
Compression causes a negative elongation of material and is measured in N/m2. An aircraft's
landing gear shock absorbers are compressed during landing.

Shear
Shearing means displacing two surfaces of a body, as you shift a book's covers into opposite
directions.
Torsion
When an object is twisted, the resulting force is called torsion. Torsion generates tension on the
outer side, compression on the inner side and shearing forces along the object.

Tension
The strength of materials is equal to their mechanical tension. This tension is calculated from the
maximum force with which the material reacts to deformation.
Fatigue
"Fatigue" describes the slow and progressive weakening process of a material caused by its
environment, for example repeated mechanical stress or changing temperatures. Fatigue means
that even uncritical stress may impede a component's functionality or cause failure.
Wöhler Curve / S-N Diagram
The Wöhler fatigue test, named after August Wöhler, determines how many load cycles lead to
the failure of a component. A test piece is loaded for a fixed number of load cycles or until it
fails, for example by showing cracks. The test results are recorded in a diagram, the S-N curve or
Wöhler curve.

The following three areas of the Y axis are important:
• K Low Cycle Fatigue

• Z Limited Endurance
• D Very High Cycle Fatigue
Analysis of the S-N curve begins in the very high cycle fatigue area. If a material or component
is repeatedly stressed above its very high cycle fatigue value, it will fail after a certain number of
stress cycles. If the magnitude of stress stays below very high cycle fatigue, the material can
theoretically withstand an infinite number of stress amplitudes.
Stress Concentration
Stress concentration is another possible cause of material failure. This term describes a situation
in which mechanical stress concentrates on a certain point in the object. Under normal
circumstances, force is distributed evenly across the object. If the object is damaged, for example
by a crack, stress concentrates on a certain point. If stress at this point is higher than the
material's cohesion strength, it may cause failure. In practiced maintenance, cracks are therefore
"drilled off' at their ends. The drilled holes distribute force evenly across the object and therefore
reduce stress concentration compared to the crack.
The combination of corrosion and the stresses on the aircraft during operation have a significant
impact on the durability of the materials used in aviation. A corrosive environment facilitates
crack formation, which can lead to sudden and unpredictable material failure. Metal alloys are
especially vulnerable to this type of failure. Even a metal part that appears bright and shiny can
exhibit microscopic cracks on the inside.
Drains and Ventilation Provisions
The accumulation of water or other fluids in aircraft leads to corrosion or fire hazards. Therefore,
the adequate ventilation of the airframe structure and the possibility of draining of fluid
accumulations must be provided. There are two types of drains: internal and external drains.
External drains have an outflow to the external side of the aircraft and are built into the wings,
tail unit and engine nacelle. The fluid drains freely into the environment. In aircraft without a
pressurized cabin, the drains are always open.
Drain valves are installed in the pressurized parts of an aircraft. They are mostly found on the
keel of the aircraft. The air pressure in these areas keeps the valves closed during operation.
Drain valves are rubber-sealed valves or spring-loaded valves. If the airframe is not pressurized,
the drain valves open and the accumulated fluid drains away.
For some fluids, such as waste water from the toilets and kitchen, drainage must not be possible
during a flight. Drain masts on the outside of the aircraft allow the fluids to be released into the
environment. They are aerodynamically shaped so that they do not cause much resistance. In
order to prevent them from freezing, they are heated electrically or pneumatically. The
pneumatic heating feed comes from hot air from the bleed air system.
Internal drains are used to direct fluids to the external drains.
Hollow spaces in the aircraft structure help fluid to accumulate. In order for the steam from
flammable fluids or water to evaporate, the aircraft manufacturer ensures that these areas are
ventilated when constructing the aircraft. Examples are ventilation ducts or ram air inlets.
Ventilation ducts channel the steam away and ram air inlets channel the air to the desired area
where the air is discharged via drain outlets.
System Installation Provisions
Depending on the type of system component, access or maintenance must be taken into account.
The points on the aircraft where filters, oil sight glasses or grease points are located must be
easily accessible for technicians. It must be possible to install and remove units that can be
replaced during maintenance during the operation of an aircraft (LRUs - line-replaceable units)
quickly. An optimal aircraft and system component layout enables quick and cost-effective
aircraft maintenance.
Lightning Strike Protection Provision
As aircraft often move through air masses with varying electric charges, they are likely to trigger
lightning. Lightning often strikes into the nose or engine air inlets, passes through the airframe
and exits through the tail. The entrance and exit points are prone to airframe or component
damage. This is why aircraft undergo special inspection after a lightning strike.
The passengers are protected from the effects of a lightning strike as the airframe acts as a
Faraday cage.
Aircraft Bonding
"Ground connection" means the electric connection of all conductive airframe components that
consist, for example, of aluminium or carbon fibre. Ground connections ensure all components
of the airframe have the same electric potential. In single core wire electrical systems, the ground
connection provides ground for avionics and other devices.
Ground connections:
• Close the electric circuit

• Protect passengers from electric shocks by uneven static discharge
• Protect avionics from interference by static discharge (e.g. by sparking)
• Protect the aircraft and passengers in case of a lightning strike
Most commonly, ground connections are achieved using:
• Metal clamps on pipes connected to the airframe

• Metal clamps with rubber pads and additional metal strips
• Ground connection wires on moving parts
All pipes and lines in the hydraulic, fuel and other systems are filled with a medium, generating a
static charge in the pipe that is a potential explosion hazard. This is why it is especially important
to ensure all pipes and lines are equipped with a suitable ground connection.
Stressed Skin Fuselage
The monocoque principle allows for a multitude of aerodynamic shapes. Monocoque designs are
rather strong and similarly rigid as a tube. Their cross section exhibits high torsional and bending
strength and is not narrowed down by any strutting or similar rigidity enhancement measures.

Stressed Skin Fuselage (Level 2)
The skin is a load-bearing component and absorbs the following forces:
• Tensile forces
• Compressive forces
• Thrust forces
In order to prevent longitudinal creases, the fuselage must be supported by longitudinal stringers
and bulkheads.
As the fuselage has to house cargo, tanks, seats or equipment, it requires longerons and
bulkheads. Bulkheads are connected to the outer skin and absorb tension. They feature
feedthrough points for the stringers that absorb and transfer longitudinal forces.
The semi-monocoque design approach is an evolution of monocoques. Lateral forces are

absorbed by bulkheads while stringers deal with longitudinal loads and forces. The shape of the
resulting frame is covered with light metal, producing a primary riveting connection between the

outer skin and stringers and a secondary riveting connection between the bulkheads and the outer
skin.
The rigidity of a semi-monocoque component does not rely on any single part. Loads generated
by lightly damaged (e.g. cracks) parts are absorbed by the intact remainder of the component.
Formers
Formers protect the stringer against kinks and maintain the fuselage shape.
Stringers
Stringers have a smaller cross-sectional area than longerons. They support the longeron with the
absorption of compressive forces and increase the rigidity of the aircraft's fuselage.
Frames
Frames are used where forces flow in the fuselage of the airplane (e.g. landing
gear/ undercarriage).
The semi-monocoque shell is mounted by riveting it to the frames and the outer panels. The
fuselage segments generated are riveted to the stringers and the outer panels in a longitudinal
direction. As the stringers, frames and outer panels overlap slightly when riveted, they have a
similar strength to circular fuselage segments.
Anti-Corrosive Protection
Airplanes are operated in different environments with different temperatures. Varying humidity
and temperature lead to condensation on structural components. This water can trigger corrosion
on airframe components.
All aluminum components in the airframe have to be degreased and painted before assembly. A
rubber-type sealant is applied to stringers, skin panels and bulkheads before they are joined.
After riveting, these components are additionally coated with anti-corrosion paint.
The paint also serves an anti-corrosion purpose. It is subjected to high stresses caused by the
following factors:

• Low or high temperatures

• Large temperature variation
• Expansion or contraction of the airframe
• Mechanical influence by rain, hail or icing
Before being painted, the different surfaces go through a preparation process. After the primer
has been applied, the aircraft is finished in a top coat that gives it the desired color.
Wing
The primary structural components of a wing or tailplane (horizontal stabilizer and rudder
control surfaces) are the spars, ribs, stringers and the outer skin. The connection between the
wing section and the fuselage is made through the use of a wing box (center wing box). The
wing box is used to conduct all loads to the fuselage.
The following aircraft components are attached to the wings (internal and external):
• Fuel tanks (including sensors, pumps and control components)

• Hydraulic and electrical control and drive systems for ailerons, spoilers, flaps and slats
• Wing de-icing system
• Engine pylons
• Main landing gear including its extension and retraction actuators
In many constructions, the center wing fuel tank is most commonly located within the center
wing boxes.
A special feature is the construction of the supporting wing spar. To adequately absorb all of the
loads exerted on the airframe (bending and torsion, strain, pressure and shear forces), a design in
the form of a closed profile (in a tubular or box shape) appears to be ideal. This can be achieved
in two ways. In single-spar wing constructions, only a single available spar and the outer skin
around the front edge of the wing form a closed profile (torsion nose). The contour of the wing in
single- spar constructions is defined by the ribs. This construction method is most commonly
applied in light aircraft.
In multi-spar wing constructions, the front main spar and the rear spar (support spar) have their
own torsion boxes, which are used simultaneously as an integral fuel tank. This construction
method is most commonly applied in airliners and corporate aircraft.

Wing structure
The wing spar and its individual components are the main supporting elements of a wing
construction. The spar extends along the entire length (span) of an aircraft surface. It consists of
one or more webs or girders (vertical elements) that extend through the upper and lower sections
of the spar caps (horizontal elements) to produce a bending beam construction. The horizontal
spar caps absorb the resulting strain and compressive loads. In turn, the webs absorb the
transverse shear forces exerted on the structure. The main spar as a whole absorbs the entire
bending and torsional loads on the wing and together with the outer skin covering the supporting
spar, closes off the torsion box that absorbs the torsional loads.
The ribs are used to shape the wing and reinforce the cross-members connected with the spars. In
this way, they contribute significantly to the integrity of the aerodynamic structure and its
characteristics. In addition, they also serve to protect the outer surfaces of the integrated
components.
Stringers (stiffeners) are mounted at right angles to the ribs and parallel to the spars. They serve
to increase the rigidity of the outer skin as the aerodynamically effective surface of a wing.


Empennage
The tailplane and control surfaces on the wing are used to control and stabilize an aircraft about
its three axes. Because of their large lever arm in relation to the center of gravity (the intersection
of the three spatial axes), flight control surfaces are usually mounted at the rear (in conventional
configurations), or sometimes (but very rarely) on the nose of the aircraft (as in canard
configurations). A disadvantage of the conventional configuration is the generation of lift by the
horizontal stabilizer that is needed to balance out the torsional moment and the center of gravity
of a wing. This makes it necessary for the wing to generate more lift, which results in more
resistance. A solution to this problem lies in the duck or canard configuration, which has never
gained popularity in passenger and corporate aviation.
The tailplane only controls and stabilizes the aircraft about two axis. The horizontal stabilizer is
responsible for movements about the transverse axis and the vertical stabilizer takes care of
control about the vertical axis.
Construction of the Horizontal Stabilizer
The horizontal stabilizer consists of the stabilizer and the elevator attached to the aft stabilizer
spar. In large commercial aircraft, the entire elevator is suspended to allow movement and its
position can be changed by a hydraulic spindle in order to trim the aircraft. This type of trim has
the advantage of a full rudder deflection always being available for the control purposes despite
the trim changes made. Moreover, a large trim range is also required in long-haul aircraft due to
their high speeds of travel. The tuck-under Mach trim caused by supersonic effects on the wings
(in the high subsonic range of Mach 0.70) is responsible for this. In addition, commercial
airliners with swept wings (which carry integral tanks in the wings) require a greater trim range
due to the large shift in the center of gravity as a result of fuel consumption (integrated tanks in
the wings) and the different load arrangements of passengers and cargo.
Vertical Tailplane Structure
The vertical tailplane structure is comprised of the fixed vertical stabilizer and the movable
rudder. The vertical tail surface and its lever arm in relation to the center of gravity largely
determine the direction of stability about the vertical axis. The height of the vertical tail structure
determines, to a certain extent, the lateral stability along the longitudinal axis.
Depending on the type and combination of the vertical and horizontal tailplane sections, a
distinction is made between the following configurations. The cross-tail, butterfly or V-tail, the
multiple tail and the T-tail are well-known configurations.


Tailplane designs
Wings and tailplanes are exposed to various loads during flight operations and on the ground.
on the ground and without sufficient airflow, the wings and tailplane need to bear their own
weight and, to a certain extent, the loads exerted on the rest of the airframe at the connection
points of the fuselage and landing gear. When in the air, this also includes the lift loads and drag
forces, as well as the aerodynamic moments exerted on the entire aircraft. Bending moments
cause bending loads and the torsion moments generate torsional stresses. As wings and tailplanes

are lightweight structures, their deformation resulting from the loads exerted on them on the
ground and in the air can often be observed with the naked eye.
Aeroelasticity is the science that studies the relationship between aerodynamics and the theory of
elasticity. It examines, among other things, which aerodynamic effects and degrees of elasticity
can lead to the destruction of a component/assembly. As with a piano string, a wing, an elevator
or an aileron has a natural frequency at which it would oscillate without further intervention. If a
condition in the air were reached in which the airflow passing by the wing triggers the natural
frequency of the wing, the wing starts to oscillate periodically (aero-elastic vibrations). These
vibrations can become critical within a short period of time if they are continuous. In such a case,
the vibrations will multiply the air loads acting on the wing, sometimes resulting in the
destruction of a component/assembly. This potentially dangerous phenomenon is called
aerodynamic flutter. Flutter not only requires self-excitation but also sufficient energy (which is
generated by the passing airstream). Flutter is therefore a function of true airspeed (TAS).
On the ground, the wings and tail surfaces are exposed to vertical loads due to the masses of the
connected aircraft components. A horizontal load on the wings and tailplane, for example, can
result from the inertia and/or connection loads of the landing gear when braking, as well as from
rolls in a curve as a result of radial and rudder forces.
In the air, the wings and tailplane are exposed to the forces of lift and resistance. These forces act
symmetrically or asymmetrically, depending on the flight conditions.
In symmetric conditions, the same air forces are exerted on the left wing as on the right wing.
The rudder is not exposed to loads transverse to the direction of flight. The wings and tailplane
are exposed in particular to symmetrical bending loads.
In asymmetric flight conditions, caused by uneven air forces exerted on the right and left wing,
there is generally a moment of force about the vertical axis, for example caused by a rudder
deflection or by wind shear (gust of wind). The loads exerted on the rudder are transverse to the
direction of flight and the wings are exposed to an asymmetric bending load.
A sideslip is a special, asymmetric flight condition. This is stable, stationary and can be caused,
for example, by engine failure. Here, the rudder generates the balancing moment and is exposed
to extreme loads transverse to the flight direction. These loads can cause damage to the tailplane
or fuselage if they are extreme and of long duration. Passenger and corporate aircraft are not
well- equipped to deal with sideslips of a long duration.
Flutter in structural parts/ assemblies can be drastically dampened or prevented by a balance of

masses. Additional masses shift the natural frequency to another frequency that cannot be
reached in normal flight. For example, flutter on a rudder can be weakened by increasing the
friction with the use of mechanical, gas-filled shock absorbers. In large assemblies, such as
wings and tailplanes, the natural frequency (resonance frequency) can be shifted by applying a
clever arrangement of the engine pylons.
providing mass balance for the purpose of flutter compensation, the position and size of the
compensatory masses or additional mass are crucial. First, it is important to know the exact
flutter mode and natural frequency (resonance) of the vibrational motion that must be
compensated for. The vibrational motions can be determined on a large-scale fatigue test stand
on the ground (ground vibration test - GVT). The GVT is used in particular to determine the
existing torsional and bending stiffness, in order to be able to plan specific compensatory
measures.

In the case of bending vibrations, an attempt is made to position the compensatory or additional
masses between the nodal points along the span of the wing in order to achieve maximum
vibration damping. Nodes are positions along the wing span that do not undergo deflection in the
waveform. For example, the compensatory or additional masses can also be provided by the
engine pylons and fuel tanks themselves. In these cases, no additional masses are required if the
pylons and tanks are optimally positioned. In the case of torsional vibrations, the torsional
frequencies can be specifically influenced by positioning compensatory or additional masses
either in front of or to the rear of the wing. Quite often, an extension or shortening of the pylons
is sufficient in order to selectively shift torsional frequencies.
Engine Attachments
Aircraft engines are attached under the wings or on the tail. As turbojet engines generate less
torque than turboprop engines, the mounting parts do not have to be as robust in this case.
The functions of the engine attachment include:
• Supporting the engine

• Transmission of the aircraft's thrust
• Connecting electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic systems with the engine
• Fuel supply
• Fire protection
The attachments can be divided into primary and secondary structures.
Primary structure is critical load bearing structure of an aircraft/ spacecraft that in case of severe
damage will fail the entire aircraft/ spacecraft. Another term for them is "Critical Load-Bearing
Structures".
Secondary structures would be those components that do not bear flight loads and are not
directly critical to flight such as fairings, cowlings, baffles, unpressurized cabin doors, access
panels, armrests, instrument panels, etc. Damage to these may result in undesireable flight
characteristics and possibly lead to other damage but the primary structural integrity will remain
intact.
The primary structures bear all the loads and act as fire protection. They are therefore made from
titanium and riveted alloy steel. The torque box is part of the primary structure, has a bearing and
attachment points for the engine.

It comprises the following parts:
• Rafters
• Ribs
• Stiffeners
• Paneling
The attachments act as an interface between the engine and the pylon. They are built using the
fail- safe method and transfer all loads from the engine to the airframe. Irrespective their
position, the engines are fixed to the pylon by two or three mounts.
Due to large amount of heat the engines generate, the mounting system must be able to expand in
all directions. Therefore, the mounting point is not generally subject to any thrust forces but only
enables expansion in a longitudinal direction.
Structure Assembly Techniques: Riveting, Bonding and Bolting
The structure of the airframe is exposed to high loads, which make stable connections necessary.
Screw connections are easy to loosen and can be made with standard tools. The following should
be taken into consideration when installing screws:
• Direction of installation
• Compliance with the permissible torque values
• Strength
• Thread
• Screw head shape
• Surface protection
• Using the right nut
• Using shims/washers
The choice of the correct screw length plays an important role in screw connections. It is
forbidden to:
• Cut off screws (surface protection is destroyed)

• Re-thread threads (weltered from the factory for strength reasons)
• Re-install corroded screws
• Re-use large bolts without tests

With the use of rivets, non-detachable connections of components can be produced. Their cross-
section and their length must be matched to the thickness of the metal sheet. The manufacturer's
maintenance manual can be used to find out which rivets are to be used for work on the airframe
or in other areas. installing rivets, the following aspects apply:
• Mark drilling with soft wax pin

• Drilling must be round
• Drilling must be cylindrical
• Drilling must be perpendicular to the surface of the parts to be riveted
• Drilling walls must be smooth
Other structure assembly techniques are
• Welding
• Soldering
• Glueing
Methods of Surface Protection Such as Chromating, Anodizing, Painting
Airframe structure surface protection includes the protection of all metallic and non-metallic
materials. It is comprised of the following steps:
• Surface pre-treatment
• Primer
• Top coatin the desired color
Both plated and unplated sheet metal is used in the aviation industry. Plated sheet metal features
a pure aluminium corrosion protection layer, which is rolled onto the metal during the production
process. The aluminium layer oxidizes within a short period, protecting the metal surface below.
This oxidized layer is rather thin and therefore not very durable. Chemical treatments are used to
produce an additional layer of oxides, which serves both as corrosion protection and primer for
the paint.
The following processes are used for chemical corrosion protection:
• Anodizing
• Chromating

Anodizing is an electrochemical process. The metal component is immersed in a watery solution

such as sulphuric acid, which triggers an electrolytic reaction. The metal serves as an anode. The
electric current forms a protective oxide layer on the metal component's surface.
Chromating is a procedure mainly used on zinc and aluminium. Chrome acid acts on the metal's
surface and generates chromates. Slightly dissolving the material allows the chromate layer to
absorb the dissolved components.
The paint also protects the airframe's surface. The volume ratios and coordination of different
paint types have to be made in accordance with the paint manufacturers' specifications. It is key
for an optimum paint finish to consider these guidelines.
Before a component is painted, it is coated with a layer of primer. Primer consists of two
polyurethane-based components. The primer is followed by a top coat, also polyurethane-based,
as well as logos, decals, registration marks and nationality markings, which are commonly
adhesive films.

Surface Cleaning
Dirty surfaces can hide damage underneath them. The pollution itself (e.g. battery acid, hydraulic
fluid) may damage airframe surfaces. It is therefore important to regularly clean all areas and
surfaces. The numerous different surfaces and materials necessitate the use of varied cleaning
agents. While the windscreens are cleaned using clear water, cleaning the engine compartments
may call for alcohol based cleaning agents. In any case, the manufacturer's cleaning guidelines
contained in the manuals are to be considered and adhered to. Surfaces can be damaged
irreparably by the use of incorrect cleaning agents.
Cleaning agents are consumables and are listed by their designation and supply number, for
example, in the maintenance manual. The maintenance manual lists the following exterior
cleaning agents:
• White spirit
• Plastics cleaner
• Washing-up liquid
• Cold cleaners
Very dirty areas may be pre-treated with cold cleaners before the aircraft is cleaned using warm
water and liquid detergent. Refer to the aircraft manuals for identification of the proper and
approved cleaning agents. The cleaning process is concluded with rinsing and drying of the
surfaces.
The manufacturer defines which areas have to be protected during cleaning, for example by
covering air inlets or sensors to prevent water or dirt from entering them.
Airframe Symmetry: Methods of Alignment and Symmetry Checks
Events that occur during flight operations, such as hard landings or abnormal flight loads, may
require an airframe symmetry check.
The positions and angles of the most important structural components of an aircraft relate to the
longitudinal reference line parallel to the longitudinal axis of the aircraft and the lateral reference
line parallel to the trailing-edge line. checking the symmetry of an airplane, the positions of
the main components are compared against these reference lines.

The airplane must be jacked for this purpose and be level. The plane is kept level using spirit
levels or the grid method. leveling the airplane with spirit levels, these are placed on fixed points
of the airframe. This method is not used for small airplanes.
When leveling with spirits level these are placed on fixed points on the airframe. This method is
not sued for small airplane
A metal plate fixed to the airplane is used for the grid method. A grid is engraved on this plate. A
pendulum that is fitted to a prescribed point on the airplane hangs above it. If the tip of the
pendulum is hanging exactly in the middle of the grid, then the airplane is level. This grid is not
used for large airplanes.
The check may contain the following aspects:
• Dihedral angle of the wings

• Angle of incidence of the wings
• Verticality of the empennage
• Engine system
• Symmetry check
• Dihedral angle of the horizontal stabilizer
• Angle of incidence of the horizontal stabilizer
Dihedral Angle Check
The dihedral angle is measured using measuring plates from the manufacturer. If these are not
available, a flat support base and an inclinometer can be used to determine the dihedral angle.
The measurement is performed at the points on the wing specified by the manufacturer and on
the horizontal stabilizer, as these may have design differences in the dihedral angle along their
length.

Angle of Incidence Check
The angle of incidence is checked at a minimum of two of the points specified by the
manufacturer and is used to establish if there has been any twisting of the wings or the horizontal
stabilizer. A measuring plate from the manufacturer is used to measure the angle of incidence.
The plate has either stops or mounting points that fit onto certain airplane airframe structures. In
this way it is ensured that the measuring plate is at the specified point during the check.
Empennage Alignment Check
Engine Adjustment Check
The engines are attached so that the thrust stream is parallel to the longitudinal reference line. As
the alignment depends on the attachment of the engine, the measurement is done from the mid-
line of the attachment to the longitudinal reference line. The position can be found in the
corresponding handbook provided by the airplane manufacturer.
Symmetry Check
To check the symmetry of an airplane, the distances between certain positions are measured and
compared with the specifications in the manufacturer's servicing guidelines.
For smaller airplanes, a steel tape or adhesive tape which is kept in tension by springs is used.
The tape is placed between two measurement points. Its length is determined and compared with
the specifications.

For large airplanes, a pendulum, which hangs above the hangar floor, is attached at the
measuring points specified one after another. The position of the tip of the pendulum is marked
on the floor with chalk. If all measuring points are marked on the floor, the distances between
them are measured and compared with the specifications.
Symetery Check
Airframe Structures- Airplanes
Fuselage (ATA 52/53/56)
Construction
The fuselage is the main component of the airframe and provides space for the passengers, cargo
and other equipment. Airplanes usually have one of two fuselage designs that are known as
monocoque and semi-monocoque designs (shell or half-shell design).
1 2
In a monocoque design, frames and pressure bulkheads are used to shape the fuselage. The
airplane's skin is riveted to the frames directly. Using this design, the airplane's skin can
withstand the cabin pressure and has enough stability to make the fuselage rigid. The biggest
problem with the monocoque design is making the outer skin sufficiently strong and keeping the
weight within the permitted thresholds.
In the semi-monocoque design, the skin shares the load with the stringers, the frames and with an
additional clip. Compared to the monocoque design, in the semi-monocoque design, the outer
skin is riveted to the clips, which are in turn riveted to the frames. This type of construction
makes the fuselage more flexible and provides a good ratio of stability to bending stiffness.

primary structure
The fuselage mainframe comprises the following components:
• Frames
• Pressure bulkheads
• Stringers
• Floor grid
• Floor-skin sheer connection
• Keel beam
The frames maintain the shape of the fuselage and reduce the total length of the stringers, which
prevent airplane instability. They bear and also distribute the various loads that are generated by
structural stresses, e.g. shear stress and tensile stress. Frames are located 20 inch from one
another in the fuselage construction.
Pressure bulkheads bear and distribute the various fuselage loads. They are located in the
fuselage nose, in the tail of the fuselage, in the wheel well and in the wings. Several pressure
bulkheads, e.g. the front and rear pressure bulkhead, form part of the fuselage pressurized cabin.

Stringers form the fuselage skin and are located on the inner surface ofthe outer skin. They have
been developed to bear the loads that are generated by bending, shear stress, twisting and cabin
pressure.
In a monocoque design, the stringers run along the recesses in the frame and are joined to the
outer skin through riveting. In semi-monocoque designs, they are connected to the frame with
angled or T-clips. Clips are located on the inner surface of the outer skin and are attached to the
frames as well as the stringers. The main purpose of these clips is to transfer the compressive
load from the outer skin to the frames and to help the frames bear the compressive stress.
The floor grid lies horizontal and at right angles to the outer skin. It is attached to the frames and
also bears the fuselage's compressive loads. The floor grid also supports the cabin pressure and
can absorb the normal loads on the seat rails and floor panels.
Floor-skin shear joints extend over the two sides of the fuselage and are level with the floor grid.
They are connected to the floor grid, the frames and the stringers thus providing an additional
distribution path for the cabin pressure loads. The outer skin forms the external surface of the
fuselage.
The outer skin and its reinforcements are the largest component of the fuselage structure and
therefore form the most important part of the structure. As the stringers and frames are
positioned at regular intervals, the outer skin bears most of the primary loads. This prevents the
outer skin from buckling and maintains the fuselage's cross-section. The keel beam is located in
the wing center section of the fuselage. It supports the wheel well area, which is where the
biggest bending stresses occur and it can assume the wing loads.
The keel beam consists of compression flanges and a shear web structure with stiffeners. Due to
the keel beam, no outer skin or longerons are required in the wheel well area. The landing gear
can therefore retract freely into the wheel well.

The center fuselage is part of the cabin with a structure for connecting the wing center section
and the main undercarriage. The area underneath the cabin floor of the airplane is not
pressurized. A pressure limit is created by the outer skin of the wing center section and a
pressure membrane extends from the wing center section above the main undercarriage. The
front and back pressure limit is created by the pressure bulkheads that are in front of the wing
center section and at the end of the main undercarriage bay.
The rear section is designed so that it withstands the various empennage loads. It is made from
frames, stringers and the outer skin. These components are riveted to one another.
Wing
The main function of a wing is to create lift. The wing holds the fuel for the flight and
components for flight control. It also holds the engine and other systems. The wing structure
consists of three main areas:
• Left wing box

• Center wing box
• Right wing box

They are permanently joined to one another to form the mainframe of the wing. The function of
this mainframe is to bear the different loads that the fuselage structure is subjected to.
The main components of the left and right wing boxes are the front and back wing spars.
Together with the ribs, the longerons and the outer skin, they form water-resistant areas that are
used for fuel storage.
The outer panels form the wing surface. They are strengthened by stringers on the internal
surface. The thickness of the outer skin is tapered in the direction of the wingtip. The upper panel
is mainly subjected to compressive loads and is made from an aluminium/zinc alloy. The lower
panel is mainly subjected to tensile loads on the fuselage structure and is manufactured from an
aluminium/copper alloy.
The front and rear spars are designed to bear loads. They are connected to the outer skin with
rivets and screws. The distance between the spars decreases outwards, towards the wingtip. The
spars are beams with perpendicular stiffeners. These give the option of attaching the leading and
trailing edge ribs. They also provide more rigidity.

The rear spar is structured in a similar way to the front spar. In addition, there are support arms
for the main undercarriage that are known as false rear spars. The support arms distribute the
loads from the main undercarriage to the rear wing spar and the fuselage structure.

Depending on the type of airplane, there may be ribs arranged diagonally and adjacent to one
another in the wing box. Ribs can withstand torsions, compressive loads and shearing loads.
They give the wing its shape and provide the walls for the fuel tanks.
The leading edge structure is located at the front end of the wing profile and supports the flap
and slat structure, depending on the type of airplane. It has stiffeners, ribs and an outer skin.
These are made from a composite material for weight reduction reasons. The leading edge is
made from an aluminium alloy.
The trailing edge is the rear end of the wing profile. The trailing edge structure holds the flight
control elements. It also holds other airplane system equipment, pipes and cable. The trailing
edge structure consists of ribs, stiffeners, spars and the outer skin.

The center wing box spreads various loads to the fuselage and can hold a fuel tank. It also
supports the fuselage and the left and right wing boxes. It consists of a front and rear spar and the
outer skin.
Tailplane
The empennage is an area that is not pressurized. It comprises:
• The vertical tail

• The dorsal fin
• Rudders
• Stabilizers
• Elevators
• Rear area
• Tail cone
The rear area has attachments for the vertical tail, the tail cone and the horizontal stabilizer. The
tail cone forms the end of the fuselage and is made of framework, frames and the outer skin that
are riveted together.
The tail cone is a detachable individual unit that has an auxiliary power unit space and access
flaps for the structure and the inspection of the auxiliary power unit. In addition, it has an air
inlet and an exhaust pipe for the auxiliary power unit.
The horizontal stabilizer is used for trimming and, in some airplanes, as a fuel tank. It can be
designed as an individual structure or as a 3-piece structure. It consists of two boxes that are
joined to one another. There are also two removable leading edges, two rotating elevators and
two end plates that are screwed to the end of the boxes.

Pylon
A pylon is located under each wing of an airplane and has several functions. It supports the
engines, which are located on each wing and controls the systems between the engine and the
wing. The main function is to bear all the loads from the engine to the torque box.
The pylon is constructed from a framework and skin structure. The parts are riveted to one
another and bonded. The pylon has a primary and secondary structure. It has a torque box, a
firewall, fairings, drains, a spar to support the engine fairings and intakes for the engine.
The torque box is part of the primary structure and is mainly made up of longerons, ribs,
stiffeners and outer panels, like the other main structural components. The torque box has a
bearing and attachment points for the engine.

The front connecting pins on the wings transfer weight and transverse stresses, while the rear
connecting pins transfer weight and axial loads. The engine fairings support arm protrudes from
the torque box and is screwed to the front end of the torque box. It supports the engine fairings
with mounting systems and distributes the load to the torque box.
The fairings between the wings and the airplane airframe are attached to the pylon, in order to
create an aerodynamic profile with reduced air resistance.
Doors: Construction, Mechanisms, Operation and Safety Devices
Modern airplanes have different types of door. The doors are differentiated by their function:
• Entry doors
• Service doors
• Cargo doors
• Emergency exits
Passengers can board and disembark the airplane through the entry doors. Equipment can also be
quickly, safely and efficiently loaded. The doors on the left-hand side of the airplane are mainly
used as passenger doors; the doors on the right-hand side are used as service doors for galley
supplies. The entry doors are numbered sequentially from the left side of the nose to the tail: 1
Left, 2 Left etc. The same applies for the right-hand side: 1 Right, 2 Right etc. In an emergency,
all entry doors are also used as emergency exits so that passengers and the crew can leave the
plane as quickly as possible.
The service doors enable access to the various areas for maintenance purposes, e.g. to the
stabilizer, the hydraulic or the electronics systems.
The cargo doors are used for the quick, safe and efficient loading and unloading of cargo and
equipment. There are different types of cargo doors. In the lower part of the airplane, there is
usually a front, a rear and a bulk products cargo door. In some airplanes, there is an additional
nose or side cargo door for loading the main deck. The bulk product cargo hold is accessible
through the bulk products cargo door. The door is on the lower right-hand side of the fuselage
rear.
floor
The basic construction of doors comprises the door structure, the fairings and the various
mechanisms. The basic design offers effective door operation in normal situations, as well as
safe operation in emergency situations. Each entry door has an upper fairing, a fairing in the
middle and a lower fairing. The fairings are a decorative and protective covering for the door
structure, the locking mechanism and the emergency slides. The lower fairing covers the
emergency slide and the emergency equipment. It also has the inspection window for the
pressure indicator. The lower fairing is joined to the middle section with a hinge and can be
opened by pulling at the bottom of the fairing.
The middle fairing covers the door structure and the level mechanism. It also contains a window
and the inside door handle. Each entry door has a window for the passengers and the crew. All
windows can withstand the cabin compressive loads and are designed following the fail-safe
principle. The middle fairing has a viewing window, through which the mode selector lever for
the emergency slide can be seen. This is either in the park position or in the flight position.
The main doors are opened in three steps:
1. Move the mode selector lever to the park position

2. Open the door lever

3. Fully open the door with the door handle
Boeing and Airbus use different terms for the mode selector lever modes. Boeing terms them
park" and "flight", and Airbus "manual" and "automatic".
The upper fairing covers the door structure and the locking mechanism. The emergency slide
light is also located in the upper fairing.
The door structure is a riveted component comprising of the outer skin, the inner skin and the
internal framework. It forms the housing for:
• Opening, closing and emergency mechanisms

• Door retention components
• Door seals
The outer skin of the door covers the structure and ensures aerodynamic quality. The inner skin
covers the door structure and provides additional stability. The door structure comprises of the
door frame, the brackets, the airframe frames and the partition walls. The door frame surrounds
the door structure. The brackets are the main structure within the door frame. The partition walls
provide additional stability.

The door frame has a pressure lock and a seal. The door frame has door bolts that keep the door
closed whenever cabin pressure predominates. The bolts lock into receivers and position the door
in closed status. The door bolts transfer the compressive load to the receivers that are in the
fuselage structure.
The entry doors have seals. These prevent compressed air in the cabin being lost and rainwater
from entering the cabin. In an B737NG, the door seals are flexible materials made of cloth and
glass fiber reinforced silicon rubber. The tube shaped is fitted to the inner surface of the outer
skin at the door edge. If the door is closed, the seal presses against the door frame. The cabin
pressure increases and thus forms a pressure-tight seal. The seals are made in many forms to
meet the requirements of their function.

The door mounting mechanism opens and closes the door. The entry door operating mechanism
on the B737NG consists of a door handle assembly, torque tubes, guides, latches, stop fittings
and an upper hinge assembly. The upper hinge assembly supports the weight of the door and
controls the motion of the door as it opens and closes. The door rotates as it swings open or
closed. A guide arm mechanism programs the door rotation. This is a pantagraph mechanism. A
pin holds the spherical bearing of the guide arm to door structure. Door motion toward open
stops when the guide arm roller bottoms out in the guide plate S-tracks. A latch mechanism in
the guide arm locks the upper door hinge in the wide open position. When the door is fully open,
a spring loaded pin goes into a detent in the upper guide plate. The pin is concentric to the roller.

Door lock
Each cargo door has an aluminium or composite structure and has an outer skin, inner frame,
support ribs and stiffening brackets. The structure of the rear, front and side cargo doors includes
the door mount, the locking mechanism, the lever mechanism and the hooking mechanism. The
cargo door locking mechanism is fail-safe and has additional safety mechanisms. Cargo doors
are operated manually and electrically, whereas the entry door system can only be operated
manually.
The locking mechanism is a safety mechanism that locks the door lever in position. It also
operates several door locks with rotating hooks. The system also has two pressure relieving
valves that ventilate the cargo hold and prevent suction caused by the movement of the cargo
door.
A cargo door can be manually or electrically operated from the outside. A "Power ON" light
shows the cargo loading system is ready for operation.
Emergency Exits: Construction, Mechanisms, Operation and Safety Devices
The entry doors have an assistance system that operates in an emergency. It operates an actuator
that opens the door quickly. In the event of an emergency opening, the emergency slide
automatically opens if the mode selector lever is in the "automatic" or "flight" position. If the
mode selector lever is in the "manual" or "park" position, the system is not active and the
emergency slide is not triggered.
The emergency slides for the emergency exits via the wings are in side storage compartments on
the outside of the aircraft usually towards the back part of the wing from where the passengers
will jump onto the slides.
The emergency slides for the entry doors have aprons and apron poles. The aprons connect the
slides with the apron poles. One end of the apron is wrapped around the apron pole. The
emergency slide and the apron pole are located below the lower door trim.
The mode selector lever controls the apron pole mechanism. It engages the apron pole in
automatic" mode and disengages it again in "manual" mode. If an entry door is opened from the
inside in "automatic" mode, the emergency slide is activated and the apron pole holds the
emergency slide to the entry door.
Windows: Construction and Mechanisms
Cabin windows are located on either side of the passenger cabin. They are designed so that the
passengers can look out of them and they maintain cabin pressure. These windows are fixed to

frames that are part of the fuselage. The window frames are riveted to the inner side of the
fuselage skin. The frame holds two glass panes in position and bears the load of the airplane
structure.
Cabin windows are equipped with a seal on the window frames on the inside of the fuselage and
fitted using a clamping ring with nuts and bolts. The cabin windows have two panes - one
internal pane and one external pane. Both panes are manufactured from a special acrylic glass
and designed so that they withstand the differential pressure. The internal pane has a small
ventilation hole in the middle near the bottom edge. This hole ensures that, during normal
operation, the pressure between the panes is the same as the cabin pressure. If the external pane
breaks, the internal pane can withstand all the differential pressure.
Windscreen: Construction and Mechanisms
All windscreens allow maximum visibility for the flight crew and withstand the cabin pressure.
They also protect against bird impacts and ice formation. Usually, six cockpit windows are
installed in airplanes and they are arranged at uniform intervals around the cockpit. The two front
panes are called the windscreen. The side windows are located on either side of the cockpit. In
most types of airplane these can be slid. They act as emergency exits for the flight crew and
enable the crew to have a direct view of the ground.
All cockpit windows are made from several layers of material. Heat-strengthened glass is very
hard and is used on the external part of the windscreen. The two inner layers of the windscreen
are made from a chemically strengthened glass, similar to acrylic glass. This layer is hard and
elastic. All layers of glass are bonded to one another with polyurethane. There is a heating film
on the internal side of the external glass pane of all windows. This heating film protects against
icing and condensation. The heating film is an invisible conductive layer that heats up when
electricity flows through it.
Cockpit Window Structure
The fixed rear side windows consist of two layers of stretched acrylic. The fixed windows and
windscreens are mounted from the outside and are positioned on the airplane structure frame
directly. A silicone seal surrounds the windows and also bonds them to the airframe.
Wings (ATA 57)
The wing of an airplane is a continuous structure and goes through the airframe. The wing
structure is comprised of the following parts:
• Center wing box

• Left outer wing
• Right outer wing
The center wing box is part of the airframe and provides an attachment point for the wing. Each
outer wing has a wing box, leading edge, trailing edge and a wingtip. The leading edge has
mounting points for the slat flaps, the trailing edge for the landing gear, the aileron, the landing
flaps and the speed brakes. The wingtips can point upwards as either winglets or sharklets.
The center wing box extends from the first wing rib on the left-hand side to the first wing rib on
the right-hand side across the entire width of the airframe. It forms an integral fuel tank. The
center wing box has attachment points for the outer wing. Access to the integral tank for
maintenance purposes is possible through several manholes.
The main structure of the external wing is the wing box. It extends from the connection to the
center wing box to the wingtip. The box consists of a front and rear spar that are connected by
rips. Panels on the upper and underside complete the wing box and form an integral tank.
Stringers provide the wing box surface with sufficient strength.
Wing
A wing comprises the following components:
• Wingtip
• Leading edge and its components

• Slat flaps
• Trailing edge and its components
• Landing flaps at the trailing edge
• Aileron
• Speed brakes
Wing Components
Ribs
Continuous ribs manufactured from aluminium or composite materials connect the front and rear
spars. They divide the integral tank into several cells.
Paneling
The paneling of the upper and lower sides consists of several panels made from an aluminium
alloy. The paneling on the upper side is given its stability by extruded aluminium stringers. The
paneling is connected to the ribs and spars by bolts.

Wing Structure
The wing box forms a fuel tank, which is primarily sealed by the mechanical bonding of the
components. A sealant is also used in the corners of the tank. Each outer wing has a closed area
that serves as a collection cell for the fuel pump. In each wing, there is a dry area on the side
internal to the engine for fire protection reasons. This is sealed especially tightly so that no fuel
can flow into the dry area via the stringer and the upper paneling. Holes in the front spar enable
access to the dry area.
Leading Edge
The leading edge is located in front of the front spar between the wing root and the wingtip. The
leading edge has a fixed structure and several components with movable control surfaces. These
movable control surfaces are the slat flaps that are located at different positions on the leading
edge.
The leading edge consists of ribs, which are connected with spars, and their front edge is
paneled. The planking is made from an aluminium alloy. The following systems are integrated
into the leading edge:
• Drive mechanism for the slat flaps

• Ducts for the engine bleed air
• Electrical, pneumatic and hydraulic systems

• De-icing system
Trailing Edge
The trailing edge of the outer wing extends along the back of the rear spar between the wing root
and the wingtip. The trailing edge has a fixed structure and several movable control surfaces.
The movable control surfaces are:
• Inner landing flap

• Outer landing flap
• Aileron
• Speed brakes
The fixed structure of the trailing edge has mounting points for:
•The main undercarriage

•The movable control surfaces
•The engine mount
The movable control surfaces are affixed to the fixed structure of the trailing edge.
Control Surface
Aileron
The ailerons are affixed to the fixed structure of the trailing edge. To perform an airplane roll
motion, the ailerons are moved up or down. Several speed brakes are also used for roll motion.
The aileron has a keel-shape and is made from a carbon fibre reinforced composite material. The
aileron is given its stability by an internal structure comprising ribs and spars. Mounts on the
front face of the aileron enable it to be joined to the mounts on the trailing edge of the outer wing
with screw bolts. One or more of the mounts on the front side of the aileron are used to connect
the actuator or actuators that send the pilot's control commands. Seals on the upper and lower
edge of the leading edge complete the area and ensure better aerodynamic behaviour. The front
spar has several inspection holes for viewing the internal structure of the aileron.

Structure of the Aileron
High Lift/Drag Attachments
There are several speed brakes on the upper side of the trailing edge of the outer wing. The speed
brakes extend and retract for these functions:
• Roll motion
• Acting as air brakes
• Acting as ground brake flaps
The speed brake drive mechanism is controlled electrically and uses hydraulic pressure to extend
or retract. The speed brakes have a keel shape and are made from a composite material,
consolidated carbon fiber or aluminium, depending on the type of the airplane. There is a
honeycomb core in the middle. They are joined to the mounts on the trailing edge of the outer
wing using aluminium mounts and screw bolts.

Speed Brakes
Slat Flaps
The slat flaps are extendible and give the airplane the correct lift in different flight conditions.
The slat flap drive system is controlled electrically. Hydraulic pressure drives cogwheels, whose
rotation acts on rails that are connected to the slat flaps. The rails run on bearings for stability.
Slat Flaps

The fluid that accumulates in the area around the slat flaps is emptied through drainage holes in
the lower wing paneling. As the slat flap rails run through openings in the front spar, the
collecting tank is right on the back of the spar. They collect the fluid from this area and discharge
it into the environment via a pipe.
Collecting Tank
Stabilizers (ATA 55)
Construction and Control Surface Attachment
The tailplane, also known as the horizontal stabilizer, comprises a main box, removable fairing
plate, leading edge and fairings on the tip of the tailplane. The back of the tailplane has mounting
points for the control surfaces.

Horizontal Stabilizer
The main box is made from composite materials. Its steadiness comes from the combination of
stringers and ribs. The leading edges are made of Nomex-reinforced carbon fibre and are
especially reinforced due to the danger of hail and bird impacts. The fairings of the tailplane tip
are made of metal. They are riveted to the main box.
The cover of the main box's rear spar is made of composite material (NOMEX/carbon). The
carbon fibre-laminated bearing for the elevator, its servos, hydraulic pipes and control rods are
mounted on the cover. In the areas subject to regular inspection intervals, there must be
removable inspection plates.

Elevator
The elevator consists of a single-piece box made from carbon, which is clad with
NOMEX/carbon plates. The trailing edge of the elevator is made of aluminium.
Vertical Stabilizer
The stabilizer components are made from either aluminum or carbon. The main box is connected
to the frame of the rear airplane airframe using several fasteners. The bolts for this connection
are designed according to the fail-safe principle. The alignment of the bolts is different - while a
pair of bolts bear the transverse stresses, transverse bolts bear the lateral stresses. The leading
edge is made of reinforced materials due to the danger of hail and bird impacts.
The vertical stabilizer consists of a main box, a removable leading edge, a rear fairing and one or
more rudders.
Nacelles/Pylons (ATA 54)
Construction

The pylons on the wings have the following tasks:
• Carry the engines

• Transfer loads to the wing boxes
• Support of systems in the nacelle and its connections to the wmg
The pylons are box-shaped and mounted protruding from the wing box. They consist of a main
frame with auxiliary structure and fixing supports. The engine fairings are fixed to the main
frame.
The engine fairings on the same side can generally be swapped between airplanes of the same
type. The main frame consists of a fail-safe box with a rib structure as well as upper and lower
spars. Side covers complete the pylon box.
The auxiliary structure supports most of the systems in the area and can be divided into a front,
middle and rear section. The front section forms the aerodynamic profile between the engine and
the wing leading edge. The middle section forms the connection between the main frame and the
lower side of the wing. The rear section completes the aerodynamic profile.

The nacelle consists of an air intake, engine fairings and exhaust pipe. For weight reasons, all
parts are made of fibre-reinforced plastics. The leading edge of the air intake and the exhaust
pipe are exceptions. They are made of metal.
Nacelles
The front pylon attachment is made of titanium and each one is fitted with two bolt sets. There is
a bearing that bears the longitudinal and lateral loads directly behind this connection and this
bearing transfers these loads to a titanium cone. This is connected to the mount with bolts
through the lower skin of the wing.
The rear connection between pylon and wing consists of two plates between the rear pylon rib
and a support attachment on the wing.
The front connection between the engine and pylon is made with a pyramid-shaped mount. The
connection is made between the first rib of the pylon and a cone on the engine. This cone
transfers longitudinal and lateral loads to the pylon. Tension bolts transfer the vertical loads.

Firewalls
Firewalls are an integral part of the engine nacelle. They are made from heat-resistant steel or
titanium and isolate the engine area from the rest of the airplane structure. This construction
measure limits any fire that occurs to the engine area and prevents it from spreading to the other
structures.
The pylon is fixed to the wing pylon with bolts. These transfer the loads that are generated to the
wing box.
Air Conditioning and Cabin Pressurization (ATA 21)
Aircraft operate in a wide variety of climatic and atmospheric conditions while inflight and on
the ground. Ground temperatures may be up to 450 degrees Celsius (1130 Fahrenheit) while at
inflight cruise altitudes, temperatures will be as low as -500 degrees Celsius (-580 Fahrenheit). In
order to provide a safe and comfortable environment for passengers and crew as well as
temperature sensitive cargo, Environmental Control Systems (ECS), commonly referred to as air
conditioning systems, are used to provide a carefully controlled airflow into the cabin and
cockpit. This same airflow is the source of pressurization. Air conditioning systems use an

assembly called a pressurization and conditioning kit, or most often referred to as an air
conditioning pack.
Air Conditioning and Pressurization System
Air Supply
Aircraft pressurization is accomplished by supplying a controlled air source into the cabin from
either the compressor section of a turbine engine, a turbo compressor or from an electric powered
auxiliary compressor. The air sources for turbo compressors and auxiliary compressors are
usually ram air scoops on the outer part of the engine cowling or fuselage.

An external high pressure air source can also be supplied to the cabin air conditioning system but
this is generally not allowed by aircraft manufacturers due to the fact that the external air source
is not controlled by the aircraft systems. The use of external high pressure air sources as well as
pressure vessels (accumulators or reservoirs) are generally reserved for pneumatic engine
starters.
External sources of conditioned air for the aircraft cabin are generally mobile carts or fixed unit
with air conditioning systems designed specifically for aircraft.
Engine Bleed Air
The compressor of a turbine engine provides an excellent and reliable source of air to ensure a
comfortable temperature and to pressurize the cabin. Extracting a pressurized air from a turbine
engine is taking away thrust power the engine is producing. Additional fuel flow must be
planned to account for the power reduction in order to maintain the desired thrust output.
Although the airflow from the engine has cooled significantly before arriving at the air
conditioning pack, it is still very hot. Since this air is still very hot, it can be used to provide heat
to the output of the pack ensuring a highly controlled optimum cabin temperature.
The airflows and pressures being produced by the engine is used to produce thrust which propels
the aircraft. Bleeding any amount of this airflow for the air conditioning and pressurization
system or any other system is bleeding thrust power from the engine. This means that the more
air taken from the engine for the packs, the more fuel is required for the engine to maintain the
commanded thrust levels.
Hot air is extracted from the turbine engine, usually at the section and the outlet of the high
pressure compressor. Using a combination of controllers, sensors and valves, the bleed air flow
to the aircraft pneumatic system is maintained at a relatively steady rate. At the lowest engine
ground idle speed, the flow rate and pressure is normally lower than what can be seen at
minimum engine idle speeds while inflight (flight idle). As engine power is increased, so will the
bleed air delivery capabilities. It must be ensured that the bleed air flow rate and pressure is
suitable at all engine speeds.
Most turbine engine have bleed ports at two different points on the compressor. One at a lower
pressure stage and the other at a higher pressure stage. Air is taken from the high-stage
compressor at lower engine speeds and the lower-stage compressor is used at higher engine
speeds. As engine speeds rise, the low-stage pressure increases until, at a defined pressure, the
high-stage pressure is cut off. This supply changeover is known as "bleed shift".

The specific details on how an engine bleed air system functions will be discussed in detail in the
engine learning modules.
Auxiliary Power Units
The APU will normally be the source of high-pressure air when the aircraft is on the ground and
the engines are not running.
APU bleed air may also be supplied inflight on some aircraft but with certain limitations. As the
aircraft ascends in altitude, the density of the atmosphere becomes lower making it more difficult

for the APU compressor to supply a reliable source of bleed air at pre-defined pressure
parameters. The output of the compressor becomes less as the aircraft climbs.
Since APUs normally operate at a 100 percent operational speed, any load demand will cause an
increase of exhaust gas temperature. A bleed air demand places a very large load on the APU.
Addionally, a demand load from the APU electrical generator will result in a lower capability of
the APU bleed air function. APU bleed air usage is limited on many aircraft to a range of 18000
to 21000 feet pressure altitude. Use of the generator at the same time will reduce the bleed air
capability to an even lower altitude. The APU generator will operate at a reduced capacity up to
the maximum certified flight altitude of the aircraft.
The electrical generator has priority over the APU bleed air function. APU bleed air will be
sacrificed in the event of APU faults or exceedance of maximum temperatures.
Turbocompressors
Engine bleed air may also be used to drive a turbocompressor which will supply the air
conditioning system. External air is sucked in from an outside inlet or scoop. This airflow can be
used to supplement the output of the air conditioning packs or in emergencies, provide a limited
pressurization source for the cabin.
A venturi type flow multiplier can provide a cabin pressurization air source without the need of
the turbocompressor components. Engine compressor bleed air at high velocities flows through
the nozzle of a jet pump producing a venturi effect that pulls in external air from the outside of
the aircraft. The engine bleed air and the outside air from the flow multiplier provides the air
needed for cabin pressurization.
Auxiliary Compressors
Some aircraft, including large commercial passenger aircraft, do not have bleed air from the
engines or APU and therefore do not have a pneumatics system to supply the air conditioning
and pressurization system.
In these scenarios, a continuous flow of air at extremely high volumes is generated for the air
conditioning packs with the use of compressors driven by electric motors. The Cabin Air
Compressors (CAC) will normally use a centrifugal compressor to produce the volume and flow
required.

The CACs use a motor-driven compressor with air bearing operating at very high rotational
speeds. External air is pulled in through a duct system with inlets that have controlled inlet doors.
As the air is compressed, it becomes very hot. This hot, high pressure air goes to the air
conditioning packs and the trim air system. The flow sensor downstream of the CACs gives flow
data for flow control of the CACs and the air conditioning packs.
The CACs operate with other components as a sub-system to ensure a correct temperature and
pressure of air for the packs at the necessary flow rate. A supplemental or Add Heat Valve
(AHV) is used to ensure the air temperature supplied to the compressor is sufficient. The AHV
can open to send warm air back to the CAC inlet to increase the CAC outlet air temperature, as
necessary.
The CAC also has a special, variable diffuser as part of its inlet. The variable diffuser, controlled
by an external actuator, makes sure the CAC operates efficiently. The motor uses inlet air and the
air bearings use ram air to ensure the CACs can operate at high speed and stay cool. The CACs
increase the pressure and temperature of the air during compression. This pressure is sufficient to
cause its flow through the ozone converter and to the pack as supply air hence turning the Air
Cycle Machine (ACM).
Ground Supply
When on the ground, the pneumatic systems' pressure sources do not work if the engines are shut
down. In this case, an external pressure source can be connected. The external unit consists of a
trailer-mounted compressor powered by a diesel engine. The compressor's output pressure can be
adjusted to the respective aircraft's requirements. Use of an external high pressure air source for
the air conditioning system is generally prohibited by aircraft manufacturers.

Conditioned Air Ground Supply
External air conditioning units, designed specifically for aircraft operations, can be connected to
the aircraft air conditioning distribution system. These external units are usually attached to the
passenger loading bridge although they may also be mounted onto a mobile cart allowing for
remote operations.
When using this method, the air conditioning packs are bypassed and the supplied conditioned
air goes directly into the air conditioning distribution manifold. A supply duct connects the
ground air conditioning unit to an external connection of the aircraft distribution manifold mix
chamber. The aircraft protective system has no control over the quality or reliability of the
external source of conditioned air.
Accumulators
Some systems include accumulators that store air at the maximum system pressure. This pressure
is used for normal and emergency operations for flight controls and landing gear. The
accumulator pressure can also be used to smooth out the pressure and flow interruptions.

Air Conditioning
Airplanes fly very high for environmental reasons. However, people cannot survive at these
altitudes without support. At a flight altitude of 40,000 ft, the temperature is around -560C. The
air pressure is so low that human respiration fails. Therefore, the passengers and flight crew must
be protected against freezing and death.
The pressure/air conditioning system ensures that the pressure in the cabin is correct. The system
ventilates the cabin and keeps the temperature within a comfortable range. If an airplane is on the
ground on a hot, sunny day, this could be unpleasant for the passengers on board. Devices in the
airplane could suffer damage due to overheating.
The pressure/air conditioning system cools and warms the air. The system ventilates the cabin
and ensures that the air pressure is sufficiently high in large aircraft. It supplies pressure for the
entire passenger cabin, the cockpit, the cargo hold and the avionics compartment.
The system must ensure that the air:
• Is fresh
• Is clean
• Has a comfortable temperature
• Has the correct humidity
• Has the correct pressure
Design regulations for airplanes generally state that the cabin must be supplied with a minimum
amount of fresh air. The acceptable quantity per person per minute is 0.283 m3. This corresponds
to approximately 0.35 kg per minute at sea level.
The entire volume of cabin air must be replaced every three to five minutes. Depending on the
number of people in the airplane, this means that in the case of a Boeing 747 with a cabin
volume of almost 800 ma and 500 passenger seats, at least 160 m3 air per minute must be
exchanged.
The air must be clean. It must not contain any dangerous or hazardous gases or vapors. High
Efficiency Particulate Accumulator (HEPA) filters are used in most air cycle distribution
systems. Air filters clean the air by blocking and capturing particles in the airflow. At high flight
altitudes, there is also an ozone converter.
The temperatures must be within a comfortable range. In most airplanes, the temperature can be
set within a range from 180C to 300C with a target of 200C to 230C.
The air humidity on board an airplane is a challenge for aircraft structures and systems engineers.
a specific range of humidity is needed for human health and safety, an excess of humidity can
lead to aircraft corrosion, especially in places which are not very well vented.
The last job of the system is to maintain cabin pressure. For this, there must be a compromise
between the comfort of the passengers and the airframe design. The design regulations specify a
cabin pressure that corresponds to a maximum altitude of 8000 feet (2400 meters) in cruise
flight. Newer aircraft are able to offer a maximum cabin altitude of 6000 feet (1830 meters) in
cruise flight.
System Layout
Trying to gain a basic understanding of an air conditioning and pressurization system on any
aircraft can be a very challenging task. The shear complexity of some systems and the various
components involved in keeping the cabin environment safe and comfortable for the passengers
and crew can be overwhelming unless you have a solid grasp of basic air conditioning and
pressurization principles.
Bleed air from the engine first passes through various flow and pressure regulating valves before
arriving at the pre-cooler. As the hot bleed air passes through tubes in the pre-cooler, cold air
from the engine fan passes over the tubes in the pre-cooler drawing away much of the heat. From
the pre-cooler, the still very hot bleed air travels through ducts behind the wing leading edge into
the air conditioning packs. The detailed methods to extract bleed air will vary from one engine
type to another.
The air conditioning system, ATA 21, typically begins with the bleed air arriving at the pack
flow control and shut-off valve (PFCSOV), sometimes referred to as the pack valve. At the inlet
to the pack valve are temperature and pressure sensors whose purpose is to protect the
downstream pack components from excessive temperatures and pressures. If one or both of these
parameters were to be exceeded, the pack valve will close.
Also located in the bleed airflow just before the pack valve inlet is an ozone converter which
removes ozone molecules from the air that will go through the pack and into the cabin.
After the pack valve, some of the airflow is diverted for use by the pack temperature control
valve and the cabin trim air system. We will come back to these functions shortly.
The airflow at this point is still extremely hot and must be cooled. The first cooling point will be
in the two-part heat exchanger. In the primary heat exchanger, the hot airflow passes through
tubes or a plate/fin arrangement with cold external air passing over them removing a large part of
the heat component of the pack airflow.
The external airflow is known as the ram airflow. On the external side of the fuselage very close
to the pack bays is a ram air scoop taking in air from the outside. The ram air inlet has a variable
position panel door controlling the amount of air passing through the ram air system. The inlet
panel door is controlled by the pack controller. After the ram air has passed through the heat
exchangers, it is exhausted through a ram air exhaust.
After the pack airflow has passed through the primary heat exchanger, it is ducted to the
compressor section of the Air Cycle Machine (ACM). The airflow will drive the compressor
which is connected to a shaft with the ACM turbine on one end and a ram air fan on the other

end. The fan will pull air through the ram air system when the airplane is on the ground and there
is not enough ram airflow.
After leaving the ACM compressor, the airflow will pass over temperature sensors and then
through the secondary heat exchanger which will remove more heat from the airflow. However,
it is still very warm at this point.
Next, the airflow will pass through a water condenser/ separator assembly. The exact nature of
this process will depend upon the size of the aircraft and the pack. Airflow through the condenser
is cooled using the output of the ACM turbine. Any remaining moisture in the airflow will
condense and be removed from the airflow at the water separator.
A typical water separator employs swirl vanes at the inlet to spin the airflow. Water, being
heavier than air, will move to the outer part of the flow due to the induced centrifugal force while
the dry air will pass through the separator on its way back to the ACM. Any water collected is
normally injected into the ram air duct to aid in the heat exchanger cooling process.
After the airflow leaves the water separator, it is relatively cool. Cool air will not have the
dynamic energy needed to complete its journey efficiently back to the ACM so it must be
reheated. This is done by using the heat component of the airflow entering the condenser
assembly.
Airflow entering the ACM enters into the turbine section. Here, the airflow undergoes a volume
expansion and a pressure drop. In this process, the airflow will lose any remaining heat. It is
possible that the airflow can become so cold that it will cause freezing in the condenser and
downstream ducting. In order to prevent this from happening, temperature sensor signals to the
pack controller will cause a pack temperature control valve to modulate towards open. This will
allow some very warm bleed air, which was taken after the pack valve, to enter the outlet of the
ACM turbine in order to maintain a minimum pack temperature output. From this point, the
airflow will enter the distribution system.
There are many temperature sensors in the pack airflow and in the distribution ducts that will
make a demand on the pack temperature output. The pack controller receives these signals and
will command the coolest temperature selected. Most airplanes have only two air conditioning
packs. The output of both pack will go into the mix manifold. The output of the left pack is also
shared with the flight deck who is always receiving 100 percent fresh air from the system.
The airflow into the mix manifold is distributed into the cabin supply ducts but before that

happens, recirculated air from the cabin is also put into the mix manifold. This recirculated
airflow uses electric fans as the motive source and passes through a HEPA filter before
reentering the mix manifold. The recirculation fan can cause an airflow in the distribution system
without the packs running. Recirculation system lower the output demands of the air
conditioning packs which translate to a lower demand for bleed air from the engines. A lower
bleed air demand means less fuel is required to maintain a commanded engine thrust level.
Aircraft cabins are divided into sections called "zones". Smaller ducts extend from the mix
manifold to the cabin zone distribution duct system. Some of the airflow goes to the lower cabin
area distribution while the rest of the airflow will go into the upper distribution system which
may include variable outlet vents which blow air directly onto the passengers from the Passenger
Service Units (PSU) on the bottom of the overhead bins. From the mix manifold to the upper
distribution network, these ducts are called "riser ducts". They pass between the airplane
structure and the cabin sidewall panels. This is the reason why some seats are missing a window.
On some aircraft, especially large aircraft, the variable outlet vents at the PSUs will be supplied
by an independent airflow source called the Gasper vent system. An electric fan is used to pull in
air from the area above the cabin ceiling panels and supply this airflow directly to the gasper
vents (variable outlets) at the PSUs. These fans can operate in conjunction with the cabin air
distribution system or independently via a switch in the flight deck.
Temperature sensors are located in the zone distribution ducts and at various points in the cabin.
Their task is to maintain the cabin temperature at the parameters chosen by the pilots or cabin
crew. Since the air conditioning packs temperature output will be the coldest selected, these
temperature sensor signals are used by a cabin temperature controller to operate trim air valves.
Trim air valves will allow warm air from the pack inlet to enter specific supply zone ducts finally
creating a comfortable cabin atmosphere.
This airflow entering the cabin is used not only to ensure a comfortable temperature for the
aircraft occupants but also to pressurize the cabin. Operating independently but in conjunction
with the pack controller is the cabin pressure controller. The cabin pressure controller senses the
actual cabin pressure and will control or modulate an outflow valve anywhere between full open
and full closed to maintain the pressure at predefined levels. When not fully closed, cabin
pressure is exhausted to the atmosphere. During cruise flight, most outflow valves are almost
completely closed. The pilots will have some input controls and indications as to how the cabin
pressure controller will operate on individual flight but under normal conditions, the system is
fully automated with no pilot interaction required beyond the preflight inputs.
Air Cycle Machines (ACM) are widely used in air conditioning systems providing a source of
temperature-controlled air to the cabin for passenger comfort and safety as well as cabin

pressurization. ACMs use bleed air from the pneumatic system or a separate cabin air
compressor.
Either source supplies a very warm, pressurized air flow which flows through a heat exchanger,
into a compressor, again through the heat exchanger, then through a water separator and back to
the ACM turbine section where the expansion of the flow volume causes most remaining heat to
be extracted. A specifically controlled hot air source is added at this point to produce the desired
pack output temperature which will flow into the cabin via the distribution system. The air
conditioning components that interact with the airflow before the distribution system are referred
to as a "pack" which is an acronym for two common terms, pneumatic air conditioning kit and
also for pressurization and conditioning kit.
Air cycle systems typically operate on three basic principles.
• Heat exchangers
• Airflow thermal energy conversion
• Airflow volume expansion
The heat exchanger principle works by passing a ram airflow over fins and tubes which contain
the hot bleed airflow coming into the air conditioning pack and leaving the compressor section of
the air cycle machine. The ram airflow is coming into the heat exchangers from the outside of the
aircraft. As the aircraft moves in a forward direction, some of the airflow very close to the
fuselage is directed into the ram air inlet. At the front of each inlet is a panel whose position is
controlled by the air conditioning pack controller modulating the position of the door and
controlling how much air flows into the ram air inlet. This action is in response to the pack
output temperature and other sensors within the pack. Depending on system design and various
environmental parameters, heat exchangers can remove up to 90 percent of the heat of the
airflow coming into the pack.
A heat exchanger unit typically has two sections, a primary heat exchanger and a secondary heat
exchanger. The primary section cools the airflow between the pack flow control and shutoff
valve and the compressor. The secondary section cools the airflow between the compressor and
the water separator unit. Temperature sensors in the airflow ducts will protect the heat
exchangers in the event of an over temperature exceedance.
The air cycle machine (ACM) is a primary component of the air conditioning pack. There are
several types of ACMs in use in aviation but the turbo-compressor type will be discussed in the
section for applicability reasons.

The turbo-compressor unit consists of a single shaft supporting the compressor, turbine and a
fan. The ACM normally has two primary casings, one for the compressor and one for the turbine.
With the ACM fully assembled, the casings house two bearing assemblies and a single shaft on
which the compressor and turbine are mounted. The turbine and compressor airflows never
makes contact with each other.
After leaving the primary heat exchanger, the airflow enters the compressor where its energy and
temperature are increased. The airflow now has the energy required to travel through the system
but it will be cooled again in the secondary heat exchanger.
As the airflow travels to the turbine, it will pass through a water separator. Here the airflow
encounter swirl vanes, spinning the airflow causing the heavier than air moisture and water to
move to the outer part of the airflow where it is captured and sent through a small tube to the
heat exchanger inlet where it is sprayed into the ram airflow assisting the cooling of the heat
exchangers.
From the water separator, the airflow travels to the ACM turbine. The design of the turbine
causes a rapid expansion of the airflow extracting any remaining heat energy before being
directed to the passenger cabin distribution system. The energy being extracted by the turbine is
used to drive the shaft which also turns the compressor.
On this same shaft is a ram air fan. When the aircraft is not inflight, there is no ram airflow to
support the heat exchangers. With the ACM spinning, the fan will induce an airflow in the ram
air system which will be enough to allow for the use of the air conditioning packs on the ground.
The ACM shaft rotates at extremely high speeds, usually 60,000 to 80,000 rpm. Proper
lubrication of the bearings is critical for safe and efficient operation of the ACM.
There are two lubrication methods in use. Older ACM typically use a wet sump oil system which
controls the amount of oil flow to the bearings with wicks or the "oil slinger" methods. Proper
servicing of the ACM oil is critical. Too much oil results in a contaminated airflow into the pack
and the cabin. Not enough oil results in premature wear and failure of the ACM.
The air bearing uses the pressurized airflow through the ACM to cause the rotor shaft to "float"
on the thin airflow layer. Air bearings must be clean and oil/grease free.
The cooling performance of the ACM turbine can be so great that the output temperature falls
below 20 Celsius, or other preset minimum, which puts the downstream components in danger of
freezing. In some air conditioning packs, warm bleed air is taken from the airflow either before,

after or at an intermediate point of the ACM and supplied directly to the output of the ACM
turbine to raise the output temperature of the pack.
Vapor cycle machines are used in reciprocating engine aircraft but may also be used on any
aircraft. The output however, will not be enough to support most cabin pressurization systems.
A typical vapor cycle system is a closed loop system and includes basic components such as a
compressor, a condenser, an expansion valve and an evaporator. The various components in an
installed system are connected together via a tubing system completely filled with a special
refrigerant liquid. The refrigerant continuously circulates through the system changing its state
from a liquid to a vapor according to its temperature and pressure.

An expansion valve releases a pressurized fluid. The special cooling fluid expands and cools
down. The cold fluid flows through an evaporator, which is a special heat exchanger. 1--leat
from the cabin air is absorbed in the evaporator. This reduces the cabin temperature. The cooling
fluid warmed by the cabin air changes state from liquid to gaseous. A compressor compresses the
special cooling fluid that is in gas form. This compression causes the gas' temperature to rise.
The warm gas then flows through a condenser, which is a special heat exchanger. The ambient
temperature cools the special cooling gas in the condenser. The special cooling fluid reverts to a
liquid state and the circle starts over again.
In the vapor compression cycle, the refrigerant enters the compressor as a very hot vapor and is
compressed to a higher pressure. The compressor includes a motor (driven by the aircraft engine
or electric) and provides the necessary energy to create a pressure difference between the suction
line and the discharge line forcing the refrigerant to flow in a single uniform direction from the
lower to the higher pressure. The pressure and temperature of the refrigerant increases during the
compression step. The pressure of the refrigerant as it enters the compressor is referred to as the
suction pressure and the pressure of the refrigerant as it leaves the compressor is referred to as
the discharge pressure. The refrigerant is discharged from the compressor as superheated vapor
and then enters the condenser.
Typical air-cooled condensers are made from conduits layed out in a serpentine-style shape so
that multiple rows of conduit are formed next to, or parallel, to each other.
Metal fins are usually attached to the outer surfaces of the conduit expanding the surface areas
for increasing the convective heat transfer of the refrigerant passing through the condenser and
the airflow. This airflow can be caused by the airflow from the engine propeller or an electric
fan. With the aircraft moving forward, an even greater ram airflow source is available.
The expansion valve reduces, or meters, the pressure of the refrigerant transforming it into a
saturated liquid-vapor at a lower temperature. This expansion is also referred as the throttling
process. The expansion valve is typically a capillary tube or fixed orifice in small capacity air
conditioning systems and a thermal expansion valve in larger capacity systems. The thermal
expansion valve contains temperature sensor on the inlet suction line. It uses that temperature
information along with the pressure of the refrigerant in the evaporator to modulate the position
of the valve between open and closed to maintain steady and proper parameters for the
compressor inlet. The temperature of the refrigerant falls below the temperature of the ambient
air (airflow for the cabin) as the refrigerant passes through the expansion device. The refrigerant
enters the evaporator as a saturated mixture.
Condenser and evaporators are types of heat exchangers.

Compressor - extracts or sucks low pressure refrigerant vapor from the evaporator and
compresses it. With the vapor compressed, its pressure and temperature are higher than before
the compressor.
Condenser - condenses the hot refrigerant vapor coming from the compressor. The heat
component of a cooling airflow from outside the aircraft is exhausted overboard or to a
designated spot in the aircraft. In doing so, the refrigerant condenses from a vapor to a liquid.
Receiver-Dryer - serves as a reservoir for the liquid refrigerant downstream of the condenser. It
contains a desiccant that absorbs any moisture remaining in the system.
Thermal Expansion Valve - meters or regulates the amount of liquid refrigerant allowed to flow
into the evaporator. The metered quantity of refrigerant is determined by the temperature and
pressure of the refrigerant as it leaves the evaporator. To protect the compressor, all refrigerant
should be vaporized before reaching the compressor. In order to accomplish this, the thermal
expansion valve sprays the refrigerant liquid through a nozzle into the evaporator inlet. This
converts the refrigerant into low pressure droplets increasing its surface area and allowing the
warm cabin air to more easily evaporate the droplets.

Evaporator - absorbs the heat of the aircraft cabin into the refrigerant. As the heat is absorbed the
refrigerant evaporates.
Refrigerant - Almost any volatile liquid can be used as refrigerant, but for maximum
effectiveness, one is needed that has a very low vapor pressure and therefore a low boiling point.
The most effective refrigerants can also be very dangerous to the environment. Common types of
refrigerant include R22, R134 a, and R410 a. R134 a is considered as the safest to use and will
typically be the standard unless otherwise noted.
The air distribution system on most aircraft will mix the relatively cold air from the air-
conditioning packs and hot air taken from the pack airflow before the ACM turbine. This hot air
is added in to the max chamber and in some aircraft, into the individual cabin zone distribution
ducts in response to automated inputs from the cabin temperature controller or manual inputs
from the flight crew. The conditioned airflow passes through a variety of check valves and
shutoff valves on the way to the delivery air distribution ducts. Check valve prevents the air
pressure loss due to inoperative or defective components. The conditioned airflow is then
distributed to cabin vents located in sidewall panels, floor level vents and also vents located at
each passenger service unit (individually passenger controlled).
The cabin air is then drawn back into the conditioning system by recirculation fans, mixed with
new incoming air, then redistributed to the aircraft cabin. The use of a recirculation system
lowers the demand on the packs resulting in less of a demand for the engine bleed air. This will
improve power efficiency and reduces fuel demand for the engines.

There are different types of ventilation systems in an airplane. There is a ventilation system for
the galley and lavatories that removes warm, moist and stale air. A different type of ventilation
system in the cargo hold can exchange the air when, for example, there is live cargo there. There
is also a separate system for cooling the equipment.
The different cargo holds in an airplane have four types of ventilation:

• Non-ventilated
• Ventilated with heating
• Ventilated without heating
• Air conditioned
The installation location of the mixing unit and the routing of the air distribution ducts are
different in every type of airplane. In a Boeing 737-800, the distribution system only has to
supply two cabin zones - the forward and rear zones. Air flows from the mixing unit through the
primary supply duct, which runs horizontally along the fuselage. The air then flows along risers
that are installed vertically in the fuselage. This is a reason why some passenger seats may
appear to be missing a window. Finally, the air flows through the outlets in the cabin. The air
flows through separate pipes for the cockpit. The passengers have individual air supplies via an
adjustable nozzle that are located below the overhead compartment. The quantity and direction
of the air flow can be regulated with the nozzles.
To support and improve cabin ventilation and airflow, a large portion of the volume of cabin air
is recirculated back to the mixing unit where it is mixed with conditioned air form the packs. The
use of recirculated air improves overall airflow and reduces the demands on the packs and the
engine bleed air system. This translates into better efficiency and a considerable fuel savings.
The recirculation fan will pull in draw air from the cabin area, usually around the floor level,
pass it through a check valve and filter removing smoke and annoying odors before the
recirculation air enters the mixer unit. The types of filters normally employed are high efficiency
particulate accumulators, also known as HEPA filters.
On some aircraft types, the recirculation fans can be turned on with a switch in the cockpit even
with non-active air conditioning packs. This will induce an airflow in the distribution system
helping to keep passengers comfortable.

Recirculation
The cockpit area is supplied with 100 percent fresh air from the air conditioning system,
normally the left air conditioning pack. There are two different processes to ensure that only
fresh air reaches the cockpit. The first option is to take the air directly from the air conditioning
system before it flows into the mixing unit.
The second method is the aerodynamic route. For this, the air is taken from the mixing unit.
However, because of the installation location of the cockpit supply ducts, only fresh air flows
into the cockpit.
If the air conditioning systems fail in flight, air can be streamed into the airplane through an
emergency ram air inlet. The air flows directly to the mixing unit. In the mixing unit, the air
mixes with the fed back cabin air. The emergency ram air inlet has an electrical actuator that
opens out the inlet flap into the airflow.

In a ventilated cargo hold, the cabin air flows through an outlet and then arrives at the cargo
hold. The atmospheric differential pressure or the fans suck the air from the cargo hold, which
then flows overboard through outlet valves.
Cargo hold Ventilation
A modern airplane uses numerous computers, electronic display systems and other electronic
systems. The majority of these systems are in the cockpit and the avionics compartment. If
several electrical and electronic components are in one place, they produce heat. Therefore, some
of these components require a cooling system to keep the temperature within an acceptable range
and to protect the devices against damage. A typical cooling system blows air through ducts and
boreholes and around the electronic components.
Exhaust air from the cabin, conditioned air from the cooling system or air from outside the
airplane is used to cool the components. The warm air generated by the devices flows directly
out of the airplane or is sent to the underbody area via pipes, from where it flows out overboard
via outlet valves. The warmed air generated by device cooling can also be used to heat the cargo
hold.
Sometimes the air remains in a closed circuit and is re-used after it has been cooled by a skin
heat exchanger. The cooling system for the devices is independent of the air conditioning system.
It is completely automatic and is regulated by an internal computer. The cooling system uses
electrically operated valves to regulate the airflow for the different operating modes. The valves
work as shut-off valves. There are two identical fans in the system that transport the air. A heat
exchanger under the outer skin of the airplane increases the cooling performance. It consists of a
duct or a duct system that is located directly underneath the outer skin. The warm air flows
through the duct. The cold outer skin cools it down, if the airplane is flying at high altitudes.

On some aircraft types, usually large wide body airliners, a gasper system is installed providing
the sole source of a cool airflow to the outlet nozzles found on the bottom of the overhead bins
and other location throughout the cabin. Each nozzle is controlled by a passenger or cabin crew
member. The main source for the airflow is normally an electric fan controlled from the cockpit
with a simple ON/OFF switch. The airflow source can be from outside the aircraft, air
conditioning pack outlet duct or in the area above the cabin ceiling panels. The gasper fan is
generally not connected to the air conditioning pack controller.
Flow Control System (Level 1)
Flow control within an air conditioning distribution will usually begin with the ability of the
pack flow control and shutoff valve to control the airflow through the pack.

Regulatory requirements require a minimum volume percentage of fresh air be supplied to the
passenger cabin and crew areas. Additionally, poorly circulated or stale air must be removed and
odors eliminated.
Most cabin pressurization systems rely on a controlled steady rate and volume of airflow under
all varying conditions during flight. The velocity and density of the air supply is constantly
monitored by the pack controllers who share information with the cabin pressure controllers.
Flow control can increase or decrease the demand on the source supply. Cabin pressure control
will determine how much air supplied to the cabin is allowed to flow overboard through the
outflow pressure control valve.
The flow and volume of air must be controlled at constant values regardless of aircraft altitude or
cabin pressure. Adjustments must also be made in response to the engine/aircraft bleed air
systems capabilities.
A variety of temperature and pressure sensors and switches are built into each cooling system
(pack). They can be found at (but not limited to) the pack inlet, in the heat exchanger airflows,
on both side of the ACM compressor, at the outlet of the ACM turbine and at the pack discharge
point where the conditioned airflow goes into the distribution system. Additionally, similar
temperature and pressure sensors and switches are found in the aircraft pneumatic supply system
which will have a direct impact on pack operations.
An example of the purpose of the sensors and switches at the inlet to the pack, pack flow control
and shutoff valve is to protect downstream components from over temperature and overpressure
conditions. The signals from these components go to the pack controller which will module the
position of the pack inlet valve from full open to full closed in order to maintain the airflow to
within the demands and capabilities of the system. At the same time, the pack controller can
share the signal data with the airframe bleed air controller to control the pneumatic bleed air by
modulating the position of a bleed air pressure regulating and shutoff valve (PRSOV).
Within the air conditioning distribution system are temperature and pressure sensors and
switches whose signals will also be shared with the pack controllers to keep the airflow levels
and temperatures of the incoming airflow at defined levels according to automatic or manual
inputs.
Cabin conditioned air distribution systems on smaller aircraft with a single pack output may also
employ a flow divider valve in the pack output duct. The principal of operation here is the pack
will put out a commanded temperature into the cabin airflow duct. When the cabin temperature
meets the commanded level, the airflow divider valve will position itself to send half of the
airflow to the upper distribution system and the other half of the airflow to the lower distribution

system. When an increase cabin temperature has been commanded, the pack output temperature
increases and the flow divider valve will reposition to send approximately 70 percent of the
airflow to the lower distribution system and the remaining 30 percent to the upper distribution
system. The valve will remain in this position until the actual and commanded temperatures are
the same. For a cooler cabin temperature demanded, the flow divider valve will reposition itself
opposite of that for the heating command.
The cabin pressure controller has the task of maintaining a preset cabin altitude pressure
according to actual cabin pressure, outside air pressure and the planned landing altitude. To do
this, the cabin pressure controller will control the position of cabin pressure outflow valves
whilst signaling the pack and bleed air controller demanding an increase or decrease of
commanded airflow into the cabin in order to maintain the cabin pressure levels.
Temperature Control System (Level 1)
An aircraft air conditioning system must be able to operate under a very large number of
conditions inflight and on the ground. In addition to maintaining a proper airflow level for cabin
pressurization, the pack controllers will employ signals from cabin temperature controllers to
keep the cabin and cockpit areas within their commanded temperature ranges.
The following parameters influence the cabin temperature:
• Environmental temperature
• Sun radiation
• Cabin insulation
• Thermal radiation from equipment
• Thermal radiation from passengers
• The temperature and quantity of air that is directed into the cabin
As the output temperatures from air conditioning packs can be very cool, it must be warmed up
slightly for passenger comfort and safety. This is accomplished by using some of the very warm
bleed air coming into the packs, usually before the heat exchangers, and adding it into the mixing
chamber or supplying it directly to the distribution ducts of aircraft with more than one cabin
distribution zone.

Temperature
Temperature sensors in the distribution ducts are installed at strategic locations in the cabin and
provide the necessary signals to the cabin temperature controllers to control this warming airflow
thus maintaining the desired and commanded temperatures. This is also known as Zone
Temperature Control and the warm air being added is known as trim air. Hot air valves located
near the packs for zone temperature control are known as trim air valves. Aircraft with small
cabins or a single cabin zone will add warm air into the mix chamber with the use of a mixing
valve.
Cabin temperatures are indicated in the cockpit and are located adjacent to the cabin temperature
controls. Some aircraft cabin configurations give the cabin attendants partial or full control of the
cabin temperature functions equivalent to the pilots.
In automatic mode, the cabin zone temperature controllers regulates and monitors the system. It
receives the temperature requirements from the controller in the cockpit and compares this value

against the actual zone temperature measured by the temperature sensors in the cabin. Using
these results, the controller calculates the temperature in the ducts required to achieve the
selected cabin temperature. This value is known as the duct temperature demand. The controller
selects the coldest demand from all the duct temperature demands, as this determines the
required cooling system output temperature. The cooling system controller uses this signal to
regulate its operation.
If all duct temperature demands are the same, the coolest demand for the cooling system
temperature regulation comes from the passenger cabin zone. The reason for this is that the air
from the cooling system that flows into the mixing unit must be colder than the air used for the
cockpit duct, as the recirculated air from the cabin is warm.
The zone temperature controller requires feedback on the temperature in the mixing unit. If the
temperature requirement from the cockpit duct is the coldest demand, the zone temperature
controller can use feedback from the cockpit duct to improve regulation.
Automatic Temperature Control

If a higher zone temperature demand is selected, hot trim air must enter the duct. For this task,
there is an automatic trim air control circuit that changes the trim air valve setting. The new
valve setting is the result of the difference between the duct temperature demand and the actual
temperature in the duct. A damping circuit prevents temperature fluctuations. This circuit uses
the temperature signal value from the duct temperature sensor for the damping calculation. The
air from the cockpit and the avionics compartment can enter the cargo hold through an
equipment cooling outlet. It flows through a heater and then through a supply duct into the cargo
hold.
Electric Heating Systems
Electric heating on an aircraft is usually a supplemental function to the cabin air conditioning
source. In these units, a fan flows air over heating elements warming up the airflow and
circulating
it back into the cabin. Safety devices are installed in the components to prevent overheating if the
fan or other normal controlling function fails. The use of electric heating systems is limited due
to the large amount of electrical power required for these components.
Humidity Control System (Level 1)
Humidity control in the aircraft and conditioned air distribution system is very important not
only for passenger health and safety but also as an aircraft structural corrosion control method.
Not enough moisture in the cabin air can be detrimental to passengers and crew. However, too
much humidity can lead to corrosion in aircraft structures, especially in areas which are poorly
ventilated.
Humidity control is primarily accomplished through two methods:
• Water/moisture removal from the air conditioning system

• Water/moisture being supplied at strategic points in the conditioned air distribution system
Water separation and removal from the conditioned air being supplied to the cabin is carried out
within the pack airflow. In the pack airflow, a water separator is located between the compressor
discharge and the turbine inlet.
Two primary types of water separators are in use on commercial airliners with air cycle systems.
One water separator unit uses swirl vanes at the inlet to spin the air as the airflow enters. Since
water is heavier than air, the centrifugal force takes the water to the outer part of the airflow
where it is absorbed by a cotton sleeve called a coalescer bag. Excess water is drained and
supplied to the pack ram air cooling airflow in front of the heat exchangers. A second type also
uses swirl vanes to spin the air with the water collected being supplied to the heat exchagers' ram
airflow. As the air enters either water separator, it is cooled by the cold air output of the ACM
turbine. Here is where the moisture in the airflow condenses. The airflow coming out of the
water separator has very little to zero humidity.
Most aircraft cabin altitudes are at about 8,000 feet during a normal cruise flight. This level of
cabin altitude has a very poor performance at retaining humidity. Remaining in an environment
with too little humidity for too long of a time period.can be very uncomfortable. Repeated
exposure to these long flight environments can have detrimental effect on human health.
Increasing the cabin pressure thereby lowering the cabin altitude will help the air to retain more
humidity but since the conditioned air being supplied is very dry, the humidity will remain very
low.
A specifically controlled humidification source must be introduced into the distribution ducts to
raise humidity levels in passenger and crew areas. Potable water is added to a sponge like
material installed in designated distribution ducts. The dry airflow passing over the sponges will
pick up moisture and carry it into the cabin and crew areas as humidity. Sensors in the ducts and
cabin areas will provide a signal to a controller which will control the potable water to the
sponges.
With a very good airflow in the crew and passenger areas of the cabin, the humidity levels can be
easily controlled. In areas with poor air circulation, such as above the cabin ceiling panels in an
area of the structure known as the crown, special dehumidifiers, called zonal dryers, are installed
to prevent and remove the excess humidity which will help prevent corrosion. The crown
dehumidification system helps to reduce the amount of moisture accumulation in the colder
crown area of the fuselage. The system also reduces the amount of particles in the air in the
crown area.
Each zonal dryer has a controller and these other components:
• Inlet air filter

• Fan and motor controller
• Internal heater
• Desiccant wheel and rotor motor
• Zonal dryer controller
• Dry air outlet
• Regeneration air outlet

Air in the crown area gets pulled through a filter by the internal fan. Inside the dryer the air goes
in two paths. The air in one path passes directly through the upper section of the desiccant wheel
and out the dry air outlet. This drier air is 80% of the air that goes out of the zonal dryer. This air
goes directly back into the crown area through piccolo tubes.
The remaining air goes through the internal heater before going through the lower part of the
desiccant wheel. This is 20% of the air that goes out of the zonal dryer. This air is called
regeneration air.
Regeneration air goes through ducts, down the sidewall of the passenger cabin. It then flows to
the mix bay behind the forward cargo. The regeneration air continues by flowing through the
recirculation systems which mixes the warm, moist air with the colder and dryer air conditioning
system pack discharge air. The newly mixed air is now ready to go into the passenger cabin
distribution system.
Pressurization
To gain a good understanding of cabin pressurization, lets first review some basic knowledge of
the physics of the earth's atmosphere.
The gases of the atmosphere (air) have weight. This weight is referred to as atmospheric pressure
which at sea level is measured at 14-7 psi. Human life has adapted to the atmospheric pressure
on the earth's surface. The health and safety of humans is threatened when exposed to the hostile
conditions of the upper atmosphere where pressures are too low to sustain life.
Atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude. Without systems to maintain cabin
pressurization, airplane flights would be limited to a very low level altitude, usually below 8,000
feet. In order to ensure passengers and crew have enough oxygen for breathing, the cabin of an
airplane must be pressurized and the cabin altitude limited to 8,000 feet.
During normal operation of the air condition packs, the volume and airflow entering the cabin is
more than enough to maintain cabin pressure within an acceptable range. The Cabin Pressure
Controller (CPC), one for active control and one for redundancy, will work independently of the
air conditioning system. Cabin pressure is continuously measured in at least one location. The
signal provided to the CPC will be used to drive an outflow valve which will release excess
cabin pressure.
Additional safety valves installed to the fuselage will prevent an underpressure or overpressure
condition.
Controls and indications for the cabin pressurization function are located within easy reach of the
pilots in the cockpit. With the exception of manually setting some parameters during preflight
procedures, the normal operation of the cabin pressure control system is fully automatic.
In order to pressurize a fuselage, all doors and windows must be closed. In addition, all exterior
access panels and doors leading into a pressurized area of the fuselage must also be closed and
locked. Doors, which are routinely opened and closed will normally have one of two seal types.
A compression seal which will fill any gaps when the door is closed and locked and a pneumatic
type seal which will use a pressurized air source to inflate and fill the gaps between the door and
door frame when the door is closed and locked.
The lavatories must be properly serviced and the closure of the valves ensured. Ensure a proper
Walk around before departure checking for aircraft damage and any debris or foreign objects
which would obstruct the ability of the pressurization system to properly function.
Some very important terms to remember as part of the cabin pressurization process:
1. Cabin altitude - the air pressure inside the cabin which is equivalent to an actual altitude
given in feet. A cabin altitude of 8,000 feet is equivalent to an atmospheric pressure of
10.92 psi.
2. Cabin differential pressure - the difference of the air pressure between the cabin interior
and the exterior air pressure outside of the aircraft. An easy way to calculate the
differential is as follows; cabin pressure (psi) - exterior air pressure (psi) cabin
differential pressure (psid).
3. Cabin rate of climb - the rate of change (increasing or decreasing) of the air pressure
inside the cabin, expressed in feet per minute and referred to as cabin altitude change.
The design of the airframe structure and materials used in construction are also a critical aspect
in designing an aircraft pressurization system. The fuselage must be able to withstand many
thousands of repeated pressurization and depressurization cycles under normal operating
conditions with no defects related to the pressurization cycles. This type of damage is often
hidden under paint and other layers of skin therefore is unable to be detected without extensive
and complex preparation and procedures. EASA, the FAA and other aviation airworthiness
authorities have special regulations and programs in place, such as the FAA Aging Aircraft
Program, which gives guidelines and rules for inspection of older aircraft.

Control and Indication
There are two modes of operation for the control of aircraft cabin pressurization. They are:
• Isobaric
• Constant Differential
In the isobaric mode, cabin altitude is controlled at a constant single pressure even though the
aircraft altitude may be varying such as climbing and descending. This is the mode used during
normal operations but will be ineffective at altitudes beyond a certain limit as defined by
structural capabilities.
In the constant differential mode, cabin pressure is maintained at a constant pressure differential
(PSID) of cabin air pressure to aircraft exterior air pressure. The PSID will remain constant even
as the aircraft altitude changes. At very high altitudes, this mode must be used to prevent the
structural limits of the fuselage from being exceeded.
The pressurization system will operate in either an automatic mode (normal) or manual mode in
which the pilots must constantly monitor indications and make inputs to control the pressure
outflow valves. The primary components of the cabin pressurization system are the cabin
pressure controller and the outflow valve.
There is a third mode of operation applicable to aircraft with pressurization systems but limited
to flights with only a minimum crew including maintenance engineers onboard. This is operating
the aircraft in an unpressurized flight in which the cabin altitude remains equal to the flight
altitude. The outflow valve remains open and flight levels are severely limited and depending on
the aircraft type, up to 10,000 feet.

A cabin pressure regulator will maintain a cabin altitude at the selected level in the isobaric range
and will limit the cabin pressure differential range to a pre-set pressure by controlling the
position of an outflow valve (regulating).
When the airplane arrives at the altitude at which the difference between the interior cabin
pressure and the exterior pressure outside the aircraft are equal to the highest differential pressure
for which the fuselage structure is engineered, any continuing increase in aircraft altitude will
result in a proportionate increase in cabin altitude.
Differential control is designed to prevent the maximum differential pressure of the fuselage
structural capability from being exceeded. The maximum differential pressure limits are
determined by the weakest points of the fuselage. Weak points are usually found at doors,
windows and attachment point of exterior components such as antennas and lights.
A modern cabin pressurization system is controlled electronically. A Cabin Pressure Controller

(CPC) will sense actual cabin pressure by converting the pressure into an electrical analog signal.
Cabin pressure is sensed directly at the controller or at different points in the cabin. The
controller takes the converted signal, digitizes it, and supplies it to an internal computing circuit.
A digital signal input from the air data computer will also supply outside static pressure, altitude
and airspeed to the CPC. The CPC will then calculate the necessary position of the outflow valve
to maintain or achieve the commanded cabin pressure. The output command signal is sent to the
outflow valve which is modulated anywhere between full open and full closed. A feedback
signal to the CPC from the outflow valve will advise the CPC of the valve position at all times.
This is also useful for fault monitoring and troubleshooting.
Cockpit Controls
Pilot input controls for the cabin pressurization system are within easy reach of both pilot seat
positions. Normal inputs to an automatically controlled cabin pressurization system simply
consists of entering the field elevation of the destination airport. The CPC will be able to ensure
a smooth ramp up and ramp down of cabin pressure from the point of takeoff to the point of
landing.
A switch will give the pilot the option of automatic operation of the pressurization system or
manual operation. In the event of manual operation, a fault has occurred preventing safe
operation of the automatic mode. When in manual, the pilot will use a separate switch to
manually operate the electric outflow valve repositioning it when necessary while monitoring the
actual cabin pressure and also the indicated pressure differential (psid).
Indication
Pressurization indication and warning describes the components and equipment provided for
monitoring cabin pressure and cabin pressure rate of change as well as for cabin altitude
warning.
Most aircraft cabin pressurization systems will have three basic indicators in the cockpit; the
cabin altitude, cabin rate of climb and the pressure differential indicator. Indicators can be analog
stand alone components or part of a digital electronic display.

Cabin Pressure Indications
The method of how the indications are driven will vary depending on aircraft age and
technologies as well as the type of systems installed in the aircraft.
Dial type gauges will usually have a reference pressure inlet on the back side of the indicator
panel and a second reference pressure inlet coming from a remote location such as a static port
on the exterior of the aircraft. Electronic indications are derived from the various sensors which
feed their signals to a Cabin Pressure Controller (CPC). The CPC will use these signals for
control of the system as well as sharing the data with the electronic display controllers which will
put the data into a readable format on the proper display unit.

Pressure Driven Mechanical Gauge

The cabin altitude gauge measures the actual cabin altitude directly at the gauge. Cabin pressure
is reference directly at the gauge. A sealed bellow or aneroid diaphragm will contain an internal
pressure which is equal to standard atmospheric pressure. The changing pressure differential will
drive the mechanically linked indicator. The cabin altitude is almost always much below that of
the aircraft, except when the aircraft is on the ground. An example would be an aircraft cruising
at 40,000 feet would normally have a cabin altitude of about 8,000 feet.
The cabin rate-of-climb indicator shows the rate of cabin altitude change, climbing or
descending, and allows the pilot to adjust the rate of change to levels that are comfortable for the
passengers. This can be done by modulating the position of the outflow valve or by modifying
the rate of climb or descent of the aircraft. Normal climb rate for the cabin is 500 feet per minute
and normal descending rate is 300 feet per minute. The cabin rate-of-climb function is normally
automatic but may also be a manual function according to the type of aircraft.
The differential pressure gauge indicates the current difference in pressure between the aircraft's
cabin interior and the outside air. Most aircraft cabins are limited to 8,000 feet cabin altitude.
Some newer aircraft, particularly those with composite structures, can be controlled to 6,000 feet
cabin altitude.
Electronic displays allow for additional indication options. Different colors are used to indicate
different conditions as indicated on the displays. Using the Boeing 777 cabin pressure
indications;
Cabin altitude shows these colors for these conditions:
• White for a cabin altitude of 8,500 feet or lower

• Amber if cabin altitude is higher than 8,500 feet
• Red if the cabin altitude warning message shows
Differential pressure shows these colors for these conditions:
• White if the —P is less than 8.8 psid

• Amber if the —P is more than, or equal to, 8.8 psid
• Red if the —P is more than, or equal to, 9.1 psid
The exact parameters can vary between different aircraft types.
The modes of operation of the pressurization system are generally automatic and manual control.

In the manual control mode, the pilots can control the outflow valves directly through switches
and indicators that are used to position the outflow valves if the automatic mode fails. If the
cabin altitude exceeds 10,000 feet, an alarm (intermittent horn) will sound, alerting the flight
crew to take action.
Cabin Altitude Warning Message
A warning indication will be given if cabin altitude is higher than a safe limit. The cabin altitude
at which the warning message shows is related to the selected landing altitude:
• If the landing altitude is 9,650 feet or lower, then the warning message shows at 10,000 feet
• If the landing altitude is higher than 9,650 feet, then the warning message shows at 14,200
feet
• If the landing altitude data is not valid, then the warning message shows in the range of
10,000 to 15,000 feet, depending on aircraft type
On some aircraft, the cabin altitude warning message is linked to the automatic activation of the
passenger emergency oxygen system. Ensure maintenance procedures and tasks are followed
according to the aircraft maintenance manuals in order to prevent inadvertent deployment of the
oxygen masks.
In addition to the three cabin pressure related indications on the cabin pressure control panel,
outflow valve positions are also indicated whether in the automatic or manual mode of operation.
Aircraft electronic display systems will also be able to show the normal and non-normal status of
the air conditioning and pressurization system which aids in effective troubleshooting.
Control Valves (Level 1)
In pressurized aircraft cabins, there is always a way for the airflow entering the cabin to vent to
the outside atmosphere. Ideally, this loss is completely controlled with the use of an outflow
valve which is controlled by the cabin pressure controller.
The outflow valve modulates the cabin pressure discharge in both automatic and manual modes
of operation. Large aircraft with large cabin volumes may have more than one outflow valve.
From takeoff to cruise levels, the outflow valve is designed to regulate the cabin pressure. The
outflow valve actuator is assembled with the outflow valve frame. The automatic motors are
usually a brushless DC type controlled by the cabin pressure controller. The manual motor is
directly connected to a toggle switch on the cabin pressure control panel. The manual feedback
potentiometer provides feedback to the cabin pressure controller and the indication panel for
valve position indication. Outflow valve position indication is provided as analog signal for
manual backup operation to flight deck indications.
In addition to the outflow valve, there are other engineered, non-controlled pressure losses from
the fuselage. Galleys may be vented by using specially sized tubing from the galleys which lead
to an exhaust port on the outside of the aircraft. Cabin pressure is always flowing and will draw
in any contaminants and odors which are in the galley area.
Lavatories are also another area of engineered pressure losses. Like the galley areas, cabin
pressure enters vent tubes and draw in odors before being exhausted to the outside of the aircraft,
usually through a drain mast on the bottom of the fuselage. This will prevent unpleasant odors
from entering the passenger cabin area.
Cabin pressure pneumatic regulators use variations in air pressure to activate the outflow and
safety valves. Like the outflow valve, safety valves are normally located in the pressure bulkhead
at the rear of the aircraft cabin. Large aircraft cabins may require more than one safety valve
which can be placed towards the front cabin area or also to the rear. The safety valve is normally
closed and is used primarily as a backup in case of a malfunction of the outflow valve. Safety
valves are usually held in the open position on the ground with an electro-pneumatic solenoid.
This is done to ensure that the aircraft is not inadvertently pressurized even with only a
conditioned air source connected.
Safety valves can incorporate both positive pressure relief and negative pressure relief functions
into a single assembly or they can be two separate components installed at different locations.

Positive Pressure Relief Valve
Positive pressure relief valves bleed air overboard if the internal cabin pressure increases above a
safe limit referenced to the ambient (static) air pressure. This limit is above the normal pressure
in the airplane. The positive pressure relief valve acts as a fail-safe device to bleed fuselage air
pressure overboard if the normal outflow valve fails in the closed position.
The positive pressure relief valve is a mechanical device. It has an air filter and two ambient
(static) pressure sensor connections, one integral and one remote. The air filter supplies cabin
pressure to the valve. The ambient pressure connections supply ambient pressure to the valve.
When cabin pressure differential at the remote ambient pressure sense port increases to 8.95 psi,
the relief valve opens. This permits air to go out of the airplane. If the remote pressure sense port
does not function, the positive pressure relief valve opens when cabin pressure differential at the
integral ambient sense port increases to 9-42 psi. When cabin pressure differential goes below
the limit, the positive pressure relief valve closes.
Negative Pressure Relief Valve
A pressurized aircraft is designed to operate with the cabin pressure higher than the outside air
pressure. Too much negative pressure can cause damage to the aircraft structure.
Negative pressure relief vents bleed air into the airplane if ambient pressure is higher than the
pressure in the airplane. This can occur during rapid airplane descent.
A negative pressure relief valve can be constructed similar to a positive pressure reliefvalve but
operate in the reverse direction. A common and simple construction design of a negative
pressure relief valve is a spring-loaded door. The door starts to open at a differential pressure of
0.2 psi. It is full open at a differential pressure of 0.5 psi. Regular maintenance checks will verify
the ability of the spring tension to function as it is designed.
Dump Valve
This is a separate solenoid actuated valve or a function of the outflow valve controlled by a
cockpit switch. Energizing the solenoid causes the dump valve to open releasing all cabin
pressure to the atmosphere.

Cabin Pressure Controllers
The pack system is controlled by the air conditioning pack controllers and the cabin zone
temperature controllers. The pack controllers are also responsible for controlling the aircraft
pneumatic system on many aircraft.
The Cabin Pressure Controller (CPC), one primary and one for backup, operates independently
of the pack controllers but does maintain a data exchange between the two systems. The CPC
knows the status of the air conditioning system and monitors cabin pressure. The data source
sensing point for cabin pressure is usually directly part of the CPC but may also be sensed at a
remote location. Other data input to the CPC includes outside ambient air pressure, altitude and
airspeed. An additional input during the pre-flight procedures is the landing altitude of the
destination airfield. The CPC process this data and ensures a proper cabin pressure is maintained,
cabin pressure differential and a smooth pressurization schedule including a ramp up during
climb and ramp down during descent. These functions depend upon the destination airfield
elevation data input during the preflight.
The CPC, when operating in the automatic (AUTO) mode, uses cabin pressure outflow valves as
the primary method of controlling cabin pressure. Of the two CPCs installed on an aircraft, one
always has primary control of the outflow valve with the other CPC maintaining readiness in a
standby mode.
Control of Cabin Altitude
Both CPCs are receiving the exact same data at the same time. This is to ensure that the standby
CPC can assume immediate control of the outflow valve in case of a failure of the primary CPC.
The two CPCs will alternate the command control and standby duties after each flight. Many
cabins can be pressurized on the ground initially to facilitate pressure equalization in passengers'
ears during flights that include long climbs.
Operating Principle of a Pressurization System
The operation (operating principle) of a cabin pressurization system generally depends on the
continuous flow of pre-cooled bleed air from the engines and on the flow of cabin air through the
outflow valve controlled by the cabin pressurization system. The outflow valve opens or closes
to maintain the pre-set air pressure. During a constant flow of incoming air, a closed valve means
that the pressure will increase. Conversely, an open valve means that the air pressure will
decrease.
In modern airliners and corporate aircraft, the amount of air required for the pressurized cabin no
longer needs to be obtained from the outside through the engine's bleed air system. A large
proportion (up to 50%) of this air can be obtained from the cabin itself through the use of filters
that purify re-circulated air. This permanently reduces the load on the cooling turbines, maintains
humidity at comfortable levels and, last but not least, also saves on fuel.
The air flow through the cabin originates from air outlets in the overhead bin. The air is then
directed to the cargo area via holes in the cabin floor. From there the air either exits the aircraft
via the outflow valves or enters the cool packs which recycle and mix it with fresh air. The
cockpit is always supplied with fresh air via a separate air circulation.
In the event of a malfunction of the cabin pressure control system or when the cabin pressure
needs to be equalized during an emergency descent, the emergency outflow valve can also be
operated manually. This often has two redundant power sources so that it can still be operated
when battery power is low. Once the switch is activated in the cockpit, the cabin pressure rapidly
adapts to the prevailing external atmospheric pressure. In some aircraft, this process is
irreversible. This means that the valve can only be reset again by maintenance technicians on the
ground. Therefore, due care should be taken before this valve switch is used.
Working Principle of an Electronic Cabin Pressure Controller
The cabin pressure regulator is a subsystem of the automatic cabin pressure control system. This
is mainly used to control the flow of air required with the outflow valve. Nowadays, most
passenger airliners and corporate aircraft use fully electronic pressure controllers (electronic
cabin pressure controllers). These controllers receive the pressure setpoint signal from the
automatic cabin pressure control system when the cabin altitude is selected (using the cabin
altitude selector), and transmit the actual value through a network of pressure control sensors in
the cabin. The electronic pressure regulators are designed according to the redundancy
requirements of the design regulations.
In aircraft used for passenger transport, the maximum cabin altitude is limited to 8,000 feet.
Composite airframe structures may allow the cabin altitude to go as low as 6,000 feet. These
altitudes allow for a significant reduction in cabin differential pressure and at the same time
provides cabin conditions of sufficient comfort for passengers. The maximum rate of change in
the cabin altitude is also limited by the passengers' margins of comfort. The human ear is
particularly sensitive to high changes in cabin pressure.
In addition to the aircraft's flight performance limitations, the maximum operating altitude of an
aircraft is primarily determined by the strength of its pressurized cabin structures. The weakest
points such as doors and windows will usually set the parameters for the maximum pressure

differential allowed.
Based on the requirements stipulated by the design regulations of commercial airliners and
corporate aircraft, in emergency situations, aircraft must be able to descend from the maximum
certified operating altitude to a physiologically safe flight level of less than 10,000 ft within a
very short period of time. In the event of a rapid emergency descent being required, the flight
crew is permitted to deploy resistance-generating devices (high-lift devices) around the aircraft
(i.e. landing gear, flap, slats and spoilers). This also means that any corresponding high speeds
should be carefully considered in view of the structural damage they can cause. The effects
caused by gusts of wind should be taken into account in particular.
In order to alert the flight crew when a cabin pressure altitude of 10,000 ft is exceeded, aircraft
are equipped with a visual and audible warning indicator which is automatically activated when
such a case occurs. The system operates separately from the CPC but provides redundant signal
to a cabin pressure warning indicator as well as to the CPC.
CPC Faults
If a malfunction occurs in the pressurization system, a FAULT indication will illuminate in the
cockpit. Additionally, aircraft with electronic messaging display for the pilots will see a message
displayed on one of the display units. The aircraft manufacturer's maintenance and fault isolation
manuals should always be used to troubleshoot and repair the system. Experience is a valuable
tool but should never be totally relied upon.
Safety and Warning Devices
Proper functioning according to designs of the air conditioning and pressurization systems are of
critical importance to the safety, health and comfort of passengers and crew. Aural and visual
warning and protection devices are used to inform the crew of any condition that requires
attention to ensure continued safety. The same consideration is given to maintenance personnel
who will find various protective devices around the aircraft for their protection and safety while
performing assigned tasks.
The pneumatic systems which supply the air conditioning packs and other systems on the aircraft
can be extremely hot. Overheating is a major concern. A leak anywhere in any of the systems
can pose a potential danger of fire and structural damage to the aircraft. Heat sensors and thermal
switches are used extensively to be able to give the crew warning and information about the
potential dangers.

Generally, an overheat condition is alerted to the crew who will take appropriate action before
any damage is done. Shutting down a system can be a manual action or automatic depending on
system design. In the event of an overheat, a system function can possibly be restored by shutting
down the affected system, allowing it to cool and turning the system back on. If the condition
that caused the fault is no longer present, normal operations will resume however, the fault
should be logged for follow-up by maintenance personnel.
Instruments/Avionic Systems
28-fuel
29-hydraulic
Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 30-ice and rain protection
Operating Principle
Altitude is given in feet (ft) in most countries. In some countries, meters is used as the altitude
reference instead of feet.
• 1 m 3.280948 ft ≈ 3-3 ft
• 1 ft— 0.30479 m ≈ 0.3 m
A barometric altimeter contains one or more aneroid capsules in an airtight casing. Static
pressure obtained at the static ports of the aircraft is fed into that casing. The higher that
pressure, the more an aneroid capsule is compressed.
are use to measure absolute pressure
The travel (contraction or expansion) of the capsule is then displayed on a scale. It does not give
the currently measured pressure but directly converts it into an altitude readout.

For the display of altitude information the altimeter assumes International Standard Atmosphere
(ISA). The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA), as defined by the International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO), is a collection of meteorological data such as air pressure, air
temperature, moisture content and reduction of pressure and temperature with height. The ISA
values correspond to the global average over a year.
ISA is not intended to be an accurate description of the current atmospheric conditions but serves
as a uniform reference. ISA data are used for example to demonstrate the performance capability
of an engine, or to calibrate air data instruments like the altimeter.
The following ISA values are relevant for the altimeter:

MSL-moisture sensitivity level
hPa-hacto pascal
This means that if the measured pressure decreases by 1 hPa, the altimeter indicates an altitude
gain of 27 ft; if pressure increases by 1 hPa, it indicates 27 ft of altitude loss.
As the altimeter is only supplied with one piece of information - namely the current air pressure -
it has to be given a reference to which it can compare the measured pressure. This reference
pressure can be set with a rotary knob on the altimeter. Different values are commonly used.
QFE ---------altitude between airplane and earth surface
The term QFE refers to the pressure in hPa that is at that moment measured at the airfield
(mnemonic: FE Field Elevation). If the altimeter subscale is set to this value using the knob, it
indicates the vertical distance of the aircraft from the airfield (zero feet during takeoff and
runway
landing).
The vertical position of an aircraft using the aerodrome elevation as a reference is called aircraft
height.
QNH -----Altitude from sea level according to atmospheric pressure
The QNH of an aerodrome is calculated by "reducing" the actual air pressure measured at the
airfield to sea level (mnemonic: NH Nil Height). For that purpose it is assumed that the air

pressure changes by 27 ft/hPa according to ISA. If, for example, an airfield is located 270 ft
above MSL and at that airfield a QFE of 1,002 hPa is measured, then the QNH of the airfield is
higher by 270 ft : 27 ft/hPa 10 hPa, which is 1,012
0 hPa.
sea level
An altimeter set to QNH indicates the vertical distance of the aircraft from MSL, which is equal
to the field elevation during takeoff and landing.
The vertical position of an aircraft using MSL as a reference is called QNH altitude.
1,013.25 hPa (Setting 1013)

At a certain altitude - in Germany, for example, 5,000 ft MSL or 2,000 ft above ground,
whichever is higher - the altimeter is reset to the pressure that should prevail at MSL according
to ISA, meaning 1,013 hPa. It then no longer shows the vertical distance from the ground or sea
level, but that from the altitude at which the air pressure is 1,013 hPa, called the "standard
pressure level".
The altitude of an aircraft that uses the standard pressure level as a reference is termed "pressure
altitude".
The main advantage is that every aircraft is operated with the same altimeter setting, so that the
actual vertical distance between two aircraft corresponds to the difference of their altimeter
indications. Dangerous near-misses of aircraft can thus be avoided.
However, the indicated altitude then no longer provides direct relation to terrain elevation. If the
QNH is higher than 1,013 hPa, the QNH altitude is greater than the pressure altitude and the
obstacle clearance is increased. With a QNH lower than 1,013 hPa, the QNH altitude is lower
than the pressure altitude and obstacle clearance is degraded.
The following image illustrates the interdependence of height, QNH altitude and pressure
altitude. For the calculation of pressure altitudes from QNH a lapse rate of 30 ft/hPa has been
assumed, a value that is often used for rough calculations.

Independence of Height, QNH Altitude And Pressure Altitude
As we can see, for a given pressure at the flight altitude, the altitude indication is greater if the
preset reference pressure is higher, meaning if the selected reference pressure level is lower.
All altitudes mentioned before are "indicated altitudes". That means these values are actually
displayed on an altimeter if the corresponding subscale setting is selected. There are two other
altitudes relevant in aviation that cannot be displayed on an altimeter, density altitude and true
altitude.
True Altitude is the actual vertical distance of an aircraft from MSL. It is therefore the
determining altitude with respect to obstacle clearance. The true altitude can be calculated from
the QNH altitude by correcting for the temperature deviation from ISA. One degree of deviation
changes the thickness of an air column by 0.4%, at which warmer air expands.
Example
An airplane flies in an air mass that is 100C warmer than ISA at any altitude. Its altimeter is set
to the actual QNH and indicates 4,000 ft. is the true altitude of the aircraft?

1. The vertical extent of the air column deviates from the ISA value by 100C x 0.4%/0C = 4%.
2. The true altitude of the airplane is therefore 4,000 ft + 1.04 = 4,160 ft.
In consideration of the aerodrome elevation (1,000 ft) the following image shows 4,160 ft - 1,000
ft = 3,160 ft above ground.
Altimeter
Density Altitude is not an actual vertical distance related to some reference altitude; it is rather a
definition of air density. The density altitude of an aircraft corresponds to the altitude at which
the air density the aircraft currently experiences would be found in ISA conditions.

To demonstrate, for example, the performance capability of an engine in a reproducible way, the
air density at which the stated value can be achieved has to be defined. This specification is
given by a density altitude.
Density altitude is calculated by correcting the pressure altitude for temperature variations from
ISA.
Types of Barometric Altimeters
The simplest of the altimeters contains a single aneroid wafer. The amount of compression or
expansion is transmitted through mechanical linkages to a pointer on the front of the instrument.
Sensitive Altimeter
In contrast to the simple altimeter, the sensitive altimeter has several aneroid capsules arranged
in a stack so that their individual travels add up. Thus a greater total travel results for the same
variation in air pressure; the gear ratio can be smaller. The indication of the altimeter reacts more
sensitively and can also precisely reproduce small changes in altitude.
Like with the simple altimeter, the travel is mechanically transmitted to the pointer. When

mechanically transmitting pressure information, friction will inevitably occur, which can lead to
significantly incorrect indications due to the very small travel of the capsules. To reduce the
effect of friction the altimeter features a vibration device.
Servo-Assisted Altimeter
Servo-assisted altimeters have no mechanical transmission of altitude information. The

compression or expansion of the wafers is measured by an inductive pickoff device before being
processed mechanically or digitally and then shown on the altimeter. In contrast to the other
altimeters, this data can be processed by the ADC and portrayed on digital systems. This system
is not susceptible to the mechanical errors from the gearbox assembly.
Display of Altitude Information

The data obtained by an altimeter can by displayed in different ways the most common of which
are briefly explained in the following.
Three-Pointer Altimeter
Some altimeters feature a second knob, where an altitude reference bug can be set. This is a
marking which can be moved to a desired flight altitude as a reminder to the pilot. It is
represented as an orange or yellow triangle on the outer peripheral of the altitude scale.
However, research has suggested that the three-pointer altimeters are complex to read in stressful
situations and could be interpreted incorrectly. For this reason, the three-pointer altimeter is only
used in conjunction with a drum when fitted on a commercial aircraft.
The rotary knob to the lower right can be used to set the subscale (on the right between 3 and 4)
to the current QNH in hPa and HG (inches of mercury)
Some altimeters also feature an "altitude bug". That is an indicator marking that can be moved

using another knob and set to the desired flight altitude so that the pilot does not have to keep it
in mind. In the presented example the altitude bug is a simple orange triangle.
Aircraft traveling only in lower altitudes sometimes have altimeters with only two pointers that
do not indicate 10,000 ft.
Drum Altimeter
This kind of altimeter has only one pointer indicating 100 ft. The altitude is displayed in a drum
resembling a water meter. QNH selection is done in the same way as for the three-pointer
altimeter.

Linear Altimeter on a Display
In glass-cockpit aircraft the altimeter is often presented as a vertical scale to the right of the
horizon on the Primary Flight Display (PFD). The entire PFD is explained in the relevant topic.
The vertical scale of the altimeter ("altitude tape") moves behind a fixed "pointer" (white-framed
window). The actual altitude accurate to 20 ft is given in the window.
A magenta number above the scale gives a pre-selected altitude. It is also highlighted on the
scale by a magenta altitude bug, however, this bug disappears if the selected altitude exceeds the
displayed altitude range.
The green box in front of the altitude indication in the window implies that the aircraft is close to
its bugged altitude.
Below the altitude scale, the QNH to which the altimeter is set is indicated. The selection knob
cannot be seen in this image as it only shows part of the display.

Different indication errors resulting from the operating principle of the barometric altimeter will
be explained in the following.
Pitot/Static System Error
The altimeter is supplied with the static pressure from the static ports placed laterally on the
aircraft. Although a place is selected at which the airflow is relatively undisturbed, the aircraft
creates slight turbulence which means that the altimeter does not receive the true static pressure
of the altitude but a slightly different one. It then converts this deviating pressure into an altitude
reading.
This deviation, also referred to as the position error, changes with the aircraft speed and angle of
attack. The higher the speed the greater the error.
The position error can be decreased by instrument calibration. It is then adjusted so that it
displays the altitude corresponding to the real static pressure for the measured pressure in defined
conditions (speed and angle of attack).
Temperature Error
As was already mentioned, the barometric altimeter is calibrated to the barometric pressure lapse
rate of the standard atmosphere. That means that for a pressure decrease of one hectopascal, it
will indicate an altitude increase of 27 ft and vice versa.
Air, like any gas, expands when heated and contracts when cooled. The vertical distance within
which the pressure changes by one hectopascal therefore depends on temperature; the value of
27 ft/hPa is only correct in ISA conditions.
If the true altitude is required by the pilot, for the verification of obstacle clearance, for example,
then the indicated QNH altitude has to be corrected for the temperature deviation from ISA by
0.4% per IOC as explained above.
For temperatures above the standard value, the true altitude is greater than the indicated altitude
and for lower temperatures it is less.
However, the above-mentioned formula can only be used at the flight planning stage. During the
flight a pilot is busy doing other things besides permanently converting his or her indicated
altitude into a true one.
However, since the true altitude is of utmost importance during approach - namely to avoid
airport improvement plan
ground contact - the AIP contains an altitude correction table from which a correction can be
derived. This then has to be added to the minimum altitudes from the approach plates in order to
receive the value that the altimeter indicates at the respective true altitude. The positions then
have to be passed with that reading.
The following image shows the altitude correction table from the Canadian AIP as an example.
As it is possible that the outside air temperature in that area is as low as -500C in winter,
corrections are given down to that value in 100 increments.
Note that it is not the QNH altitude of the aircraft that is relevant for the correction but its height
above ground. The reason for this is that only the air column above the surface contracts at low
temperatures, the elevation remains unchanged.
Time Lag (Hysteresis Error)
Scientifically, hysteresis means "the lag of a reaction behind the respective state of the inducing
variable force". With respect to the altimeter, it means that during a pressure decrease (climb),
the capsule reacts belatedly with expansion; during a pressure increase (descent), it compresses
with a delay.
If the travel of the capsule is plotted over the pressure change in a coordinate system, therefore, a
different curve results for descent than for climb.

For altitude changes that are conducted at a rate of less than 1,000 ft/min, hysteresis is negligibly
small. an aircraft stops its climb or descent, the hysteresis error disappears after a short
while as the pressure ceases to change.
Damages to the Static Pressure System
The errors addressed so far result from the operating principle of the barometric altimeter and
therefore also exist for a properly functioning device. If the pressure lines that direct the static
pressure from the static port into the casing of the altimeter are damaged, it results in other
errors.
Dirt or insects that have crawled into the openings whilst on the ground can block the static
ports. The pressure within the system can then no longer equalize with the outside pressure but
remains instead at the level that was accurate when the blockage occurred. The altimeter then
indicates the altitude at which the static ports were blocked.
This error can be corrected by opening the alternate static source. However, the altimeter then
abruptly indicates a slightly greater altitude due to the lower static pressure (Venturi effect). It
will subsequently correctly reflect any change in altitude, but will always read slightly high.
A leak in the pressure line causes the pressure in the system to change towards the pressure
surrounding it or become equal to it if the leakage gets too severe. The pressure inside an aircraft
cabin is lower than the outside static pressure due to the Venturi effect. So if a leakage occurs in
the pressure line, the pressure within it and thus within the altimeter casing reduces. The
altimeter consequently indicates a higher altitude.
Air Speed Indicator
Speed is the distance traveled per unit time and can be given in different units of measurement.
Most common in aviation is the indication of speed in nautical miles per hour, otherwise known
as a knot (kt). One nautical mile thereby corresponds to one minute of arc along a great circle
track.
However, airspeed indicators calibrated in kilometers per hour (km/h) or statute miles per hour
(mph) can also be found.
The conversion between these three units is simple. All three give the distance traveled per hour,
so only the unit of distance has to be converted.
• 1 NM = 1.852 km => 1 kt = 1.852 km/h 1.knot =1.852m/h , 1 knot = 1.15 mile
• 1 NM = 1.15 statute miles => 1 kt= 1.15 mph
Example
A small single engine piston airplane is supposed to climb at 75 kts. What is displayed on an
airspeed indicator calibrated in km/h?
75 kts x 1.852 km/h = 138.9 km/h ≈ 139 km/h
Operating Principle of an Airspeed Indicator

The airspeed indicator consists of a diaphragm capsule in an airtight casing. The total pressure
coming from the pitot probe is directed into the capsule; the casing is connected to the static
pressure from the static ports.
As the total pressure is equal to the static pressure plus the impact pressure, static pressure is
acting upon the capsule walls from both sides and does not cause any deformation. The
expansion of the capsule is therefore proportional to the impact pressure q.
As we already know, the impact pressure depends on the square of speed (q p/2 * v2). If for
example the speed is doubled, the impact pressure increases by a factor of 4. It thereby causes
the capsule to travel a certain distance, which is transformed into a movement of the pointer by a
gear mechanism.
Construction and Operating Principal of ASI
The instrument scale is calibrated in units of speed. This way, it is not the measured impact
pressure that is displayed, but the speed associated with that pressure. This speed is referred to as
the Indicated Airspeed (IAS).
IAS Corrections
It is not possible to accurately measure the static pressure at the static ports, as they are located

within an area influenced by the aircraft and thus have a position error. The same applies to the
pitot probe. The position error of the pitot probe becomes most noticeable at low airspeeds, when
the angle of attack is high and the probe is not directly pointed into the oncoming airflow. It then
does not measure all of the impact pressure.
Other errors of pressure measurement also affect the reading. They are all subsumed under the
term "System Errors". The Flight Manual contains a graph or a table to be used for system error
correction.
If the instrument reading is corrected for the system errors, the Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) is
obtained.
Compression waves form in front of the pitot probe whose magnitude is proportional to the total
pressure pt and which propagate with the speed of sound. The oncoming airflow evades those
compression waves laterally.
At a constant speed, constant pressure is measured within the pitot probe. Up to an airspeed of
0.3 and 200 kts the CAS corresponds to the term p/2 x v2. At speeds above Mo.3 the evasive
Mo.3
lateral movement of air molecules is too small as they are approaching too fast. The pressure
within the pitot probe increases. As that also increases the magnitude of the pressure waves, a
state of equilibrium is reached again at constant speed, but the pressure within the pitot probe is
higher resulting in a higher reading on the airspeed indicator.

This behavior is called the Compressibility Error. The indication increases the higher the Mach
number and the higher the aircraft altitude. If the CAS is corrected for the compressibility error,
the result is the Equivalent Airspeed (EAS).
The EAS corresponds to the term p/2 x va for all speeds and therefore is the relevant speed for
the aircraft aerodynamics. For a constant mass and configuration, the stall speed expressed as
EAS is always constant, and thus all speeds relate to the stall speed such as lift-off (VLOF) and
reference approach speeds (VREF).
The airspeed indicator is calibrated for ISA conditions, which means that its indication is only
correct for an air density of p 1,225 kg/m3, which should be encountered at MSL in ISA
conditions, these being 150C and 1,013.25 hPa.
Deviations from the standard air density (Density Error) cause an indication difference that can

be compensated for by applying the density correction. To determine the air density p, static
pressure and air temperature (OAT) must be known.
If the EAS is corrected for the density error, True Airspeed (TAS) is obtained. It corresponds to
the actual aircraft speed relative to the surrounding air mass in any situation.
TAS can be roughly calculated from IAS when within the incompressible speed and altitude
range.
This picture below summarizes the necessary corrections in order to determine certain speed
value
Indication Errors of the Airspeed Indicator
The procedure to obtain TAS from IAS by correcting for all errors inherent in the measuring
method has already been explained. We will now consider false indications, resulting from
leakages or blockages of pressure lines.

Static Pressure Line
We will first consider the static pressure line whose influence is already known from the
altimeter and the vertical speed indicator. If it becomes blocked, the pressure that was prevailing
at the corresponding altitude when the blockage occurred is "trapped" within the casing. As long
as the aircraft stays at that altitude, the indication is correct.
If the aircraft then climbs, static pressure decreases. The total pressure is equal to the static
pressure plus the impact pressure; at constant speed (constant impact pressure), the total
pressure, therefore, also decreases.
The effects of the pressures within the diaphragm capsule and its casing can be thought of as a
subtraction of static pressure from total pressure. If the static pressure within the casing is now
higher than the static pressure within the capsule that is part of the total pressure, too large of a
value is subtracted. The result is a lower indicated impact pressure, meaning a lower IAS.
Conversely, during a descent, the static pressure of the outside air, which is part of the total
pressure in the capsule, increases. The static pressure within the casing cannot change and
remains at the lower value. This neutralizes an insufficient part of the total pressure increasing
the indicated airspeed at a constant actual speed.
If a leakage occurs in the pressure line, the static pressure delivered to the casing will be too low.
Therefore a slightly low portion of the total pressure is subtracted and a slightly high airspeed is
displayed at any time.
The same happens if the alternate static source is opened due to blocked static ports. The static
pressure within the casing then decreases, because the pressure within the aircraft cabin is always
slightly lower than the ambient pressure due to the Venturi effect. Just like the altitude, the speed
is then indicated higher than it ought to be.
Total Pressure Line
If the total pressure line becomes restricted, the pressure within the system is critically affected.
The instrument can become blocked to the point of unusability in three varieties. These are icing
of the pitot tube, trapped water in the lines and system integrity becoming compromised, the
latter being leaks in the pressure lines, kinks in the lines, obstructions or blockages.
If the pitot tube becomes blocked, but the pitot drain and static pressure line are free, the airspeed
will gradually bleed off to zero.
If the pitot tube and drain hole are blocked and the static port is free, the airspeed indicator will
freeze and act as an altimeter because the total pressure is trapped in the lines. When the aircraft
descends, the static pressure entering the casing through the static pressure lines increases. This
value is subtracted from the trapped pressure in the diaphragm. This will cause an apparent
decrease in airspeed. the aircraft climbs the opposite happens and an increase in airspeed
will be apparent.
If there is a leak in the total pressure line, the indicator will read consistently slow.
Vertical Speed Indicator
The vertical speed is usually given in feet per minute (ft/min). For gliders the unit meters per
second (m/s) is common, which is also used for powered aircraft by some countries.
Conversion between both units of measurement is simple. A meter corresponds to about 3-3 ft, a
minute has 60 seconds.
Basically, two types of vertical speed indicators exist: inertial ones and barometric ones.
Inertial vertical speed indicators display climbs and descents by analyzing the vertical
acceleration data of an Inertial Reference System (IRS) and calculating vertical speeds from
those.
Let us first only consider the design of a barometric vertical speed indicator. It senses the rate of
a pressure change and converts it into the rate of the corresponding altitude change.
The vertical speed indicator consists of a diaphragm pressure capsule in an airtight casing. The
inside of the capsule is connected to static pressure. The casing is also connected to static
pressure, but only by a "capillary'. It is a ceramic block with hairline cracks through which
pressure can only equalize slowly. The higher the rate of altitude change, the greater the
differential pressure between capsule and casing since the rate of equalization is predetermined
by the capillary.
During a flight at constant altitude, the pressure inside the capsule and the casing is the same,

namely the static pressure ps at the respective altitude. If the differential pressure is zero, the rate
of altitude change is also zero.
When the aircraft starts to climb, static pressure decreases. The pressure in the capsule
immediately decreases to the current outside value; a slow equalization starts in the casing as air
escapes into the static pressure line through the capillary. The pressure in the casing is higher
than that in the capsule during climb, hence the capsule is compressed. Its travel is displayed on
the instrument as a climb via a gear mechanism and pointer.
After completion of the climb, the differential pressure reduces to zero and the vertical speed
indicator shows horizontal flight.
The opposite occurs during descent. The pressure in the diaphragm capsule increases instantly;
within the casing it increases more slowly while air diffuses into it from the static pressure line
via the capillary. Since the pressure in the capsule is higher during descent, it expands, which is
indicated as a descent on the instrument.
When descent is stopped at the desired new altitude, the pressures equalize. At a differential
pressure of zero the vertical speed indicator again displays horizontal flight.
\

VSI Indication Errors
One error which is instantly obvious from the description of the operating principle of a
barometric vertical speed indicator is the lag.
When climb is completed, the outside pressure and thus the pressure in the diaphragm capsule
cease to decrease. However, the pressure in the casing has not yet reached this new lower value
because the equalization through the capillary takes time. Therefore, the VSI indicates a
decreasing rate of climb during level-off until the pressures have adapted and the VSI recognizes
the level flight.
The same goes for descent. When leveling off, the indicated rate of descent gradually reduces to
zero. Level flight is only then indicated with a certain amount of lag.
The beginning of an altitude change is also displayed with a degree of lag, although it is not as
significant. While the differential pressure is immediately available, the hysteresis effect already
known from the altimeter leads to a belated reaction of the diaphragm capsule, so the indicated
rate of altitude change slowly increases to the actual value.
If the aircraft is brought into level flight this can be instantly seen from the altimeter, so the pilot
should concentrate on this instrument during level-off. After a short time (usually less than two
seconds) the vertical speed indicator has completed its pressure adjustment and delivers reliable
readings again. After this, a slight residual climb or descent that can hardly be detected on the
altimeter can be recognized and corrected.
Remedy is also provided in the form of the "Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator" (IVSI). In
an extension to the design of the "normal" VSI, it features a piston in a cylinder that is suspended
by steel springs. This piston serves as an accelerometer.
If the aircraft starts to climb the piston lags behind due to its inertia, meaning that it moves
downwards in relation to the cylinder. That reduces the volume of the casing and the pressure
inside it increases. An immediate pressure difference between the casing and the capsule is
displayed by the instrument as a climb.
When the aircraft is in non-accelerated climb, the piston returns to its idle state and climb is only
indicated via the rate of pressure change.
When leveling off after a climb, the piston continues to move upwards due to its inertia and
thereby increases the volume of the casing. The pressure instantly reduces to the value within the
capsule and the instrument indicates level flight.
During descent the same effects occur.
However, the IVSI also induces a new error: maneuvering error.
If a coordinated turn is flown, the apparent vertical points in the direction of the aircraft vertical
axis. The resulting force R is then equal to the mass of an object times the load factor l/cos 13,
where 13 is the bank angle of the aircraft.

When initiating a turn, the force acting upon the piston increases whilst the bank angle and
therefore the load factor increases. The piston moves downwards. The air in the casing is
compressed, the capsule contracts and the IVSI indicates a climb.
When the aircraft is in a stable bank the piston remains at its temporary idle position and the
vertical speed indicator displays horizontal flight.
When rolling out of a turn the resulting force reduces again whilst the bank angle is reduced. The
piston moves back down into its original idle position, the pressure in the casing decreases. The
vertical speed indicator shows a descent.
Again, the solution is to look at the barometric altimeter, which does not have this error.
As the VSI analyzes the static pressure, it is affected by erroneous measurements due to
turbulence in the vicinity of the static ports just like the altimeter. For the altimeter, however,
these errors can be eliminated by instrument calibration.
If the static port becomes blocked, the pressure in the static lines cannot change any more. The
pressure inside the capsule is always the same as in the casing. With blocked static ports, the
vertical speed indicator always suggests level flight.

If the alternate static source is then opened in level flight, the vertical speed indicator will briefly
claim the aircraft is climbing. The new static pressure in the capsule is then lower and the
equalization with the casing will take some time.
Display of Vertical Speed
The vertical speed is shown on the right side of the instrument cluster and can be displayed either
analogously or digitally.
An analogue indication is most common in small aircraft. It has its zero reference in the left
horizontal position and deflects upwards for climb and downwards for descent. Additionally the
directions are often labeled with up/down or climb/descent. The magnitude of deflection
represents the vertical speed. The indication can be subdivided into 100 ft or 1,000 ft increments.
A digital display states the direction of altitude change (climb or descent) on the left with an
arrow pointing upwards or downwards; on the right the corresponding speed is indicated, often
prefixed by "+" or “-” If the unit of measurement is altered, the current setting is also noted, in
our case ft/min.

Glass-cockpit aircraft have their VSI displayed on the Primary Flight Display (PFD), right of the
altimeter, as a vertical scale.
vertical speed indicator
altimeter

Without visual reference, a pilot is unable to determine his or her spatial orientation. Therefore,
every aircraft has an attitude indicator as a replacement for the natural horizon that is used to
determine aircraft orientation during a visual flight. The attitude indicator is also referred to as
artificial horizon.
Attitude Indicator Construction X&Y not Z
The attitude indicator consists of a gimballed gyro (mounted in two frames). It has two degrees
of freedom of rotation and two degrees of freedom of precession. Its spin axis is vertical to the
surface of the earth. The gyro is electrically or pneumatically driven as explained above.
To prevent apparent topple from the earth's rotation or relocation of the aircraft, the attitude
indicator has an erection system that uses earth gravity to keep the gyro axis in the local vertical.

However, the gravity-induced erection also causes indication errors, which will be discussed
later.
The electrical erection system of an electrically driven gyroscope consists of a curved tube filled
with mercury. As long as the gyro axis is aligned vertically, the mercury is centrally located
within the tube. If the axis is tilted in relation to the local vertical, the tube is also no longer
vertical; the mercury within it is no longer centered due to gravity. By its deflection it closes an
electrical circuit and this way engages a servomotor at the gimbal mount.
Pneumatically driven gyroscopes use a pneumatic erection system. Part of the airflow driving the
gyro is directed through four jets that are mounted as a pendulum below the gyro. Within the
jets, a set of flaps is arranged such that it portions the airflow. As long as the gyro axis is vertical,
the airflow is evenly split. If the gyro axis is tilted, the jets direct the airflow in such a way that
the jets produce a restoring moment that re-erects the axis
Attitude Indicator Information
A gimballed gyro maintains its orientation within space independent of the movements of the
aircraft. The aircraft can be said to turn around the gyroscope. The instrument maintains
reference to the horizon while the aircraft pitches or banks.
The indication of the artificial horizon is consistent with the picture a pilot would see ifhe looked
out of the cockpit window in good visibility. The representation of the environment is plotted on
a rotational and slidable disk whose movements are guided by information from the rigid gyro
via a gearing mechanism.
In level flight, a white line runs horizontally through the display. It represents the true horizon
line. Above that, the sky is illustrated by blue colour; the ground below is coloured black or
brown.
Horizontal lines in the sky and ground areas that resemble a tape measure are used to indicate the
aircraft pitch attitude while radial lines around the sky indicate its bank angle.
An aircraft symbol rigidly fixed to the instrument casing and a similar reference marking for
bank angles are placed in front of the environment disk and thus indicate the rolling and pitching
movements of the aircraft. In the following image, the aircraft has a bank attitude of 100 to the
right and a 100 nose-down pitch.

The position of the aircraft symbol can be varied using a rotary knob below the display so that
the aircraft symbol is located on the horizon line at 00 of pitch independent of the pilot's eye
level.
Another knob (labeled "pull to cage") allows for a fast erection of the artificial horizon after
engine start-up or during flight in case the gimbals get stuck in a fixed position and do not permit
an indication.
Indication Errors
Erection systems for attitude indicators operate using gravity. However, in flight, accelerations
and centrifugal forces are added to the gravitational pull. As the erection system cannot
differentiate between gravity and other accelerations, it aligns the gyroscope with the apparent
vertical.
Maneuvering Error
During a turn, the apparent vertical is pointing outwards, due to the centrifugal force. The
attitude indicator thus displays a lower than actual bank. As the maximum erection rate of the
artificial horizon is limited - in most instruments to 30/min - the indicated bank decreases slowly,
until the greatest deviation is reached after a turn of 1800. Thereafter, the indicated bank will
increase again and is correct after a full circle (3600).
The erection system design also causes a fluctuating pitch indication in a turn. The gyro axis
only follows the apparent vertical with a time lag due to the limited erection rate. It is deflected
to a position where the outside of the turn was some time ago, which, at the beginning of a turn,
means backwards. This causes an increased pitch indication that reaches the maximum positive
deviation from the true aircraft attitude after a turn of 900 and thereafter reduces again; the
indication is correct when a 1800 turn has been completed. However, the indicated pitch attitude
will decrease further and the largest negative deviation from the actual attitude is achieved after
2700. When a full circle has been completed, the indicated attitude on the artificial horizon is
again entirely correct.
Todays instruments actually no longer react this way. Their erection systems are often limited. If
a deviation of more than 100 occurs between the gyro spin axis and the apparent vertical, as is
the case during a turn, the erection is switched off.
Acceleration Error
During acceleration, especially during takeoff, the apparent vertical is tilted backwards.
Therefore a higher pitch is indicated. Conversely, during deceleration, a lower pitch is indicated.
Attitude Director
One integrated instrument is the Attitude Director Indicator (ADD. Primarily, it replaces the
artificial horizon for the indication of aircraft pitch and bank.
The flight director bars are integrated into the artificial horizon and become visible when the
system is switched on. They provide the pilot with steering commands to put the aircraft in an
attitude that will optimally reach the desired flight path.
Below the artificial horizon, the deviation from an ILS localizer is displayed, and to its right, the
glide slope deviation. A light illuminates when the decision altitude is passed.
Many ADIs also contain the ball from the turn and slip indicator.
Direction Indicator
The flight direction indicator is a component of the horizontal situation indicator described
below. This is an instrument used to determine location and has a compass rose, a moving
pointer and a "to/from" display. If the pilot enters the frequency of a VOR ground station, they
can fly to this ground station.
The pilot can enter a desired VOR localizer beam on the rotating horizontal situation indicator
compass rose. If the airplane approaches the localizer beam, the pointer needle moves to the
middle of the instrument.
Horizontal Situation Indicator
Another integrated instrument is the Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI). Its main component is
a remote reading compass system, meaning a directional gyroscope whose drift is compensated
by a flux valve. Through this, the instrument does not have to be manually corrected. The
heading is indicated by a yellow lubber line.
A heading bug can be moved along the compass rose using a rotary knob to mark the assigned

heading. If the autopilot is engaged in heading mode, it will maintain the heading selected with
the heading bug.
An orange aircraft symbol is located in the center of the instrument face.
The yellow needle in the instrument is the Course Selector and can be used - amongst other
purposes - for GPS or VOR navigation and for ILS approaches. It is rotated to the desired course
with the course selector knob. Head and tail of the needle are rigidly fixed to one another.
The inner part is known as Course Deviation Indicator (CDI). It moves left and right in relation
to the needle head and tail if the aircraft is not on the desired course.
The deviation can be determined using the dots and is given in degrees for VOR and ILS modes;
in GPS modes they represent Nautical Miles.
To intercept the desired course, the aircraft has to be turned such that the aircraft symbol in the
center of the 1--ISI points towards the needle.
In VOR mode a TO/FROM indication is visible that informs the pilot if he is approaching the
selected VOR or moving away from it.
If an ILS is selected the glide slope deviation can be seen left and right of the compass rose.
Mechanical Horizontal Situation Indicator

Turn and Slip Indicator
The turn indicator is a rate gyro (gyro with one degree of freedom of rotation and one of
precession) that is tied by a spring as described above. Its spin axis is horizontal and parallel to
the aircraft's lateral axis. The frame is mounted such that it can rotate about the aircraft's
longitudinal axis, allowing the gyro to sense rotation about the vertical axis (yaw).
The turn indicator displays the rotational speed around the vertical axis (yaw), which is the rate
of change of direction. It can indicate the rotational speed even for very low angles of bank.
The indication of a conventional turn indicator is a vertical needle. The instrument is calibrated
so that the needle hits the left or right marking in a standard turn (30/s).

Turn indicator information is only correct in a coordinated turn - meaning with the apparent
vertical parallel to the aircraft vertical axis - and within the speed range for which the turn
indicator has been calibrated.
The apparent vertical is the vector sum of gravity (real vertical) and centrifugal force. The
centrifugal force in turn depends on the aircraft's forward speed and its rate of turn. The rate of
turn in a standard turn is defined as 30/s.
If an aircraft has the same rate of turn at a higher TAS, the centrifugal force increases. The
direction of the apparent vertical is altered towards the outside of the curve. To fly a coordinated
turn, the aircraft bank angle has to be increased.

The required bank angle to fly a coordinated turn can be calculated from the TAS using the
following formula.
Example
An airplane with a TAS of 120 kts is to fly a coordinated turn. Its bank angle would have to be
equal to (120/10 + 7o) = (12 + 7)o = 19o.
Note: The bank angle of an airliner is limited to 250 for passenger comfort. The Concorde, for
example, featured a turn indicator for "four-minute turns", meaning turns with half the standard
rate, namely 1.50/s. The bank angle for a coordinated turn at the same speed is then lower.
In a standard rate turn with 30/s and the corresponding bank angle (coordinated turn) the turn
indicator points to the marking in the direction of turn; the ball of the slip indicator lies between
its lines.
If the rate of turn is too low, the turn indicator will not be deflected as far as the marking; if the
rate is too high, it will travel past the marking.

If a turn is flown with the correct rate of turn but insufficient bank, the apparent vertical points
outwards if compared to the aircraft vertical axis. The ball will then no longer be between the
lines, but will travel towards the outside of the turn (direction of the centrifugal force). This is
called a skidding turn.
If the bank angle is too high, the apparent vertical will point further downwards, meaning to the
inside of the turn. The ball will then also travel to the inside of the turn (downwards, following
the gravitational pull). Such a maneuver is referred to as slipping turn.

If the ball is displaced, the rudder is used to achieve a coordinated turn while maintaining the
current bank. It alters the radius of the turn and therefore the magnitude of the centrifugal force.
In a skidding turn (ball on the outside) the outer rudder pedal is pushed. The turn radius becomes
wider, the rate of turn decreases and the bank angle that was insufficient before is thus corrected.
In a slipping turn (ball on the inside), on the other hand, the inner rudder pedal is pushed. The
turn radius becomes tighter; the rate of turn increases and the formerly excessive bank angle is
then correct.
Remember:
Caution: As the rate of turn is not 30/s, the aircraft is no longer flying a standard rate turn. To
maintain the rate of turn, the bank angle has to be varied for coordination.
Obviously the bank angle will always be low for an aircraft taxiing on the ground, so the ball
will be displaced towards the outside of the turn.
Turn Coordinator
In todays powered aircraft, the "turn coordinator" has all but replaced the turn and slip indicator.
Just like its predecessor, the turn coordinator can indicate the rate of turn and the apparent
vertical in a turn. The slip indicator for the apparent vertical is identical in both instruments.
Instead of the vertical needle of the turn indicator, the turn coordinator features a horizontal
aircraft symbol. In level flight the wings of the symbol point to the appropriate markings; in a
turn with a rate of 30/s, the inner wing points to the marking below the horizontal.

In contrast to the turn and slip indicator, the gyroscope of a turn coordinator is not parallel to the
aircraft lateral but is inclined by 300. Therefore it does not only indicate yaw but also roll. The
roll rate is added to the yaw rate with a certain factor.
Due to the additional roll indication, the turn coordinator can detect the beginning of a turn much
more sensitively than the older turn and slip indicator in a powered airplane, as a turn is first
initiated by a roll movement.
However, the turn coordinator is not suitable for gliders and helicopters, so these aircraft have a
classic turn and slip indicator.
Slip Indicator
Whether the bank angle calculated with the above formula indeed leads to a coordinated turn can
be monitored on the slip indicator which is most commonly located on the same instrument
below the turn indicator.
An arced glass tube filled with a dampening liquid is located behind a sight glass. Within this
tube a steel ball aligns with the apparent vertical, the sum of real vertical and centrifugal force,
during maneuvers due to the curvature of the tube. The liquid prevents the ball from trembling,
which can result, for example, from vibrations of a piston engine.

In a stationary aircraft, the ball points in the direction of gravity and lies in the center of the sight
glass framed by two lines. The ball's movement is caused by the force of gravity and the
aircraft's centripetal acceleration. When the ball is centered in the middle of the tube, the aircraft
is said to be in coordinated flight. If the ball is on the inside (wing down side) of a turn, the
aircraft is slipping. And finally, when the ball is on the outside (wing up side) of the turn, the
aircraft is skidding.
AIR DATA INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM

Direct Reading Compass
A magnetic compass is deflected from the magnetic north direction by large deposits of iron ore
(natural and artificial) as well as metallic and current-carrying aircraft components. A direction
indication that is independent of these disturbances can be generated by a directional gyroscope
or gyro compass.
Construction of a Directional Gyroscope
The directional gyroscope is gimbal-mounted, which means it has two degrees of freedom of
rotation and two degrees of freedom of precession. The spin axis is horizontal to the earth's
surface. The gyro is driven electrically or pneumatically as described above.

An erection system similar to that in an artificial horizon keeps the gyro axis horizontal; it
compensates for apparent topple. However, no erection system exists that can prevent drifting.
A directional gyroscope is therefore aligned with the magnetic direction of the runway before
takeoff and must also be re-aligned during flight using the magnetic compass at least every 30
minutes. However due to the errors inherent to the magnetic compass, this can only be done in
non-accelerating, straight and level flight.

The "remote reading compass system" is automatically erected using information from the flux
valve. This system is examined more closely in "Remote Reading Compass System".
Drift of a Directional Gyroscope
Drift
Drift is rotor axis wander in the horizontal plane. Drift can be subdivided into two categories:
• Real Wander due to imperfections such as bearing friction and system imbalance
The magnitude and direction of these effects depend on the individual gyroscope and cause
precession.
• Apparent Wander due to earth rotation (a gyro is rigid in space)
Apparent wander depends on the geographic latitude of the aircraft position and can be
calculated using the formula
In the northern hemisphere apparent wander causes a decrease of indication.
Example
A small airplane is parked on an easterly heading on the airport of Vienna (LOVVW; 480 6'
N). what does the gyro indicate after half an hour with the engine running if it was correctly
set when the aircraft was parked?
It therefore indicates
0900 - 60 = 084
• Transport Wander due to movement of the gyro over the earth's surface
The magnitude of transport wander depends on the average geographic latitude, the aircraft
True Course (TC) and its Ground Speed (GS) and can be calculated as follows:
When flying eastward, the GS has to be added to the earth rotation; on a westbound flight it
has to be subtracted from earth rotation.
Gimbal Error
Another error of the directional gyroscope is the gimbal error. This occurs during turns and
results from the construction principle of the gyroscope. It cannot be corrected.
Its erection system always keeps the spin axis of the directional gyro horizontal to the surface of
the earth; the resulting inclination of the outer gimbal causes the indication error. If the aircraft
banks, the angle of change of course is not entirely transmitted to the compass rose; the projected
course is incorrect (the change is too small).
The highest deviation results on the headings 0450, 1350, 2250 and 3150. With a bank angle
lower than 300, the gimbal error is smaller than 40. V%en rolling out of the turn the gimbal error
disappears.
Remote Reading Compass
Due to the mentioned drift, a directional gyroscope is inaccurate over a longer period of time.
However, for a short period of time, it is highly accurate as it does not seek a reference direction
but only maintains the direction of its spin axis.

A magnetic compass is accurate in the long term as it continuously aligns with the magnetic
north direction. However, it is quite easily deflected by various disturbances and therefore
inaccurate in the short term.
A remote reading compass system combines a directional gyroscope with a magnetic compass in
a way that eliminates the drawbacks of both systems and thus creates a more reliable common
direction indication.
Design and Function of a Remote Reading Compass System
The remote reading compass system consists of a flux valve for the determination of the
magnetic north direction using the magnetic field of the earth and a directional gyroscope with
an erection system. The flux valve information serves as a "reference" direction. The directional
gyroscope on the other hand, is the main component for direction definition which also generates
the indication in the cockpit.
The direction information from both systems is electronically sent to the compass coupler that
compares the reported angular values. If the gyro direction deviates from the flux valve direction
(gyro drift), the spin axis is automatically erected via a servomotor at the gimbal. The erection
speed of the automatic system is very low, maximum 30 per minute. This prevents the gyro from
being deflected by the anomalies of the earth's magnetic field for which it is meant to
compensate. A synchronizing indicator displays automatic erection signals in the cockpit.
Switches for manual gyro alignment are also provided, whose erection speed is much higher.
Close to the poles, the horizontal component of the earth's magnetic field becomes too low to
deliver reliable direction indications. In this case, the gyro can be separated from its reference. It
is then operated as a "free gyro" with a drift of 150/h x sin θ.

Schematic Construction of The Remote Reading Compass System
The direction that is ultimately determined by the gyro is electronically transmitted to the cockpit
and displayed there, either on a mechanical instrument or in aircraft equipped with glass cockpit
on the Primary Flight Display (PFD). It looks exactly like the "normal" directional gyroscope
indication; the only differences are that electrical switches are used for manual erection instead
of a rotary knob, and that the synchronizing indication displays operation of the automatic
system.
Advantages and Disadvantages
A flux valve alone is already a big improvement compared to direction-finding with a classic
magnetic compass. Due to the possibility of keeping the detection unit away from metallic and
current carrying aircraft parts, the deviation can be reduced to almost zero, the remaining
deviation can be electromagnetically filtered, as the flux valve does not turn like a magnetic
compass. Other errors of a magnetic compass, such as acceleration, attitude and turning error are
also eliminated in a flux valve.
The development of the remote reading compass system as a combination of flux valve and gyro
compass additionally eliminates the compass deviations resulting from anomalies in the earth's
magnetic field. The direction indication thus becomes more accurate and reliable.

The direction information of a remote reading compass system is available electronically and can
therefore be displayed not only on one instrument but can also be transmitted to other systems. It
can, for example, set the compass rose of an RMI or be used by a flight director/autopilot.
However, one significant advantage of a magnetic compass is that it only requires the earth's
magnetic field to generate a direction indication; hence it is independent of the on-board power
supply. It is therefore installed in all aircraft as a redundancy, especially since it does not require
much space. It is also not particularly heavy due to its simple design. In an emergency, a
functional system with many errors is still better than a perfect system that unfortunately no
longer works.
Angle of Attack Indication
While older instruments receive their data from angle of attack sensors on the outer skin of the
aircraft, modern angle of attack indicators have digital displays and interfaces to air data
computers.
Stall Warning Systems
Angle of attack sensors on the outer skin of the airplane measure the angle of attack with regard
to the air flowing past. This can be shown on a cockpit instrument and is used as information for
a special protective system in modern airplanes.
In modern aircraft, when a stall condition is detected, the stall management system will make
inputs to the elevators or horizontal stabilizer trim to lower the nose of the aircraft into an aircraft
level condition. In addition, leading edge and trailing edge high lift devices (slats and flaps) may
also automatically be commanded to extend. Some aircraft stall protection systems may also
feature an automatic thrust increase function. This can happen without input from the pilots and
is designed to act against an undesirable wing stall. Pilots will receive visual, aural and tactile
indications in the cockpit.
In a Boeing 737 NG, the angle of attack sensor system works as follows:
If a stall condition is detected, the autoslat system commands the leading edge slats to extend
from the mid-extended to the full-extended position for flaps 1, 2 and 5 when the speed is less
than a safe margin above stall. Autoslat operates at an angle of attack that is less than for stick
shaker speed.
If the angle of attack increases again, the control column vibrates. At the same time, a strong
artificial control feel is generated, which means the pilots are no longer able to pull the yoke
further.
When the stall management systems detects the stall condition has ended, the aircraft will return
to its previous configuration. Depending on previous flight control and engine power control
configurations, the pilot may have to make manual inputs to return to the configurations existing
before the stall.
Glass Cockpit
With the development of flight management systems and the introduction of all the necessary
sensors and systems, the requirements for the display of information in the cockpit have become
ever more complex. If analogue instruments were sufficient in earlier years, today electronic
flight information systems (EFIS) are installed. Other Aircraft System Indication
All the relevant information is shown on screens. In this way, the human-machine interface is
improved. The information on the screens is shown in combination. Therefore, in addition to the
engine parameters, pilots can also see warning messages and checklists.
A monitor fault is generated by a switch on the edge of the screen on a separate control panel.
If the monitor malfunctions, then the artificial horizon, the altitude sensor and the compass are
available as analogue instruments. They serve as back-ups in the event of an emergency and
enable a coordinated flight to the nearest airport.
These components show the most important flight parameters:
• Primary Flight Display (PFD)

• Navigation Display (ND)
• Display Management Computer (DMC) / Display Electronics Unit (DEU)
The PFD shows the flight data, such as the artificial horizon, flight speed, height and climb/ sink
rate. Information on the autopilot function can also be seen.
The ND shows the heading, navigational aids (ADF/VOR), the programmed flight route, TCAS
information and an image of the weather radar.

The DMC prepares the information from the individual systems and shows it on the
corresponding screens.
If the DMC fails, this is shown with a red cross on the monitor. If the monitor malfunctions, then
Other Aircraft System Indication
A radio altimeter is used to determine the vertical distance of the lowest part of the aircraft
(meaning the main gear) from the ground. In contrast to a barometric altimeter set to QFE it
always indicates the aircraft true height and is therefore used for precision approaches from CAT
Il upwards.
Design and Operation
The radio altimeter consists of a transmitter/receiver unit and separate transmission and reception
antennae. Its height information is directly displayed in the cockpit and processed in the
background by the autopilot/flight director, as well as the Ground Proximity Warning System
(GPWS) and the Traffic Collision Avoidance System (TCAS). it stays black.

The radio altimeter transmitter emits an SHF (Super High Frequency) signal between 4.25 and
4-35 GHz, which is 100 Hz frequency-modulated. The signal is reflected by the ground and
reaches the receiver at the same frequency it left the transmitter. However, the signal that is
transmitted at the time of reception of the reflected signal has a different frequency, since the
modulation frequency has moved on during the running time of the signal. The frequency
difference between the sent and received frequency is a measure for the running time of the
signal and therefore the distance it had to cover. Half of that distance is the aircraft height above
ground.
Using this technique a time interval of 0.1 nanoseconds can be measured, which corresponds to a
distance of three centimeters.
The radio altimeter indicates the aircraft height from 2,500 ft to o ft above ground.
The transmitted frequency already changes during the time the signal needs to travel from the
transmitter to the antenna through the cables and changes further while it travels from the
reception antenna to the receiver. To get an accurate indication of radio height these times have
to be taken into account. As the cable length is known and invariable, the time is constant and
can simply be subtracted from the measured running time of the signal before it is converted into
a distance.
Radio Altimeter Indication
A radio altimeter system measures the precise Above Ground Level (AGL) or distance between
the bottom of the aircraft and the ground. In aircraft with conventional instrumentation the radio
altimeter has its own indicator from o ft to 2,500 ft. At heights greater than 2,500 ft the pointer
disappears from view. To improve readability at low altitudes, the scale is increased in smaller
steps below 500 ft.
The radio altimeter has a rotary knob to move a marking on the indication to the decision height
for a category Il or Ill approach. passing through this height, a yellow lamp illuminates.
Glass cockpit airplanes integrate the radio height indication into the display of the artificial
horizon on the Primary Flight Display (PFD). At radio heights greater than 2,500 ft the
indication is removed. In addition to the digital display, the part of the altitude tape lying below a
radio height of zero feet is often colored brown as an "analogue" indication.
In this case the decision height can also be selected via a rotary knob. When passing the preset
height, the abbreviation DH flashes in the display.
As the Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) is supplied with the AGL data, its audio
output is used to announce arriving at the decision altitude and height above the runway during
landing. The operation of a normally functioning radio altimeter system is typically fully
automated and requires no pilot interaction.

Auto Flight (ATA 22)
Aircraft are constantly getting larger, faster and their operation more demanding. The ever-
denser air traffic situation also leads to an increased pilot workload. To counter this problem,
most aircraft are being equipped with more or less complex automatic flight control systems.
To gain more time for the crew to deal with tasks like radiotelephony, navigation, performance
of normal and abnormal checklists or fuel checks in calm phases such as enroute flight, these
systems can be used to maintain heading and altitude.
In busier phases of flight - for example, during an instrument approach in poor visibility - those
systems make it easier for a pilot to maintain situational awareness and to be able to quickly
make the right decisions in case unexpected events occur.
Beside the reduction of pilot workload, automated systems also provide for a more comfortable
flight, as the computer can detect deviation from the desired flight path much faster and react
more precisely than a human pilot.
In this topic we will only examine the autopilot and flight director, which directly help the pilot
with aircraft control and guidance.
In this context, "control" means monitoring and regulation of airplane movements around its
center of gravity. In contrast to that, "guidance" means the movements of the center of gravity
along its planned flight path.
A distinction is made between open and closed loop control. Open control loops are non-
feedback systems, as at the end of the process no feedback is provided to the input controller.
The operator must manually control the input value continuously in order to reach a desired
output value. Closed control loops provide feedback to the controller, allowing the control loop
to self-regulate input, until the desired output value is reached and/or maintained.
An example for such an open loop controlled process is the cabin heat in a small piston-engine
airplane. If the temperature is increased, a valve is further opened via a lever in the cockpit,
which increases the share of heated air in the airflow directed into the cabin. The current
temperature is not measured. If the aircraft is then additionally heated - for example, by direct
sunlight - the cabin temperature increases. To keep it constant, the valve has to be manually
moved towards the closed position.
Open Loop Control

In a closed loop controlled system, the actual value of the controlled variable is constantly
monitored and reported to the controller. It compares the actual value to the target value and
gives control instructions to the controlling element. A disturbance only briefly changes the
value of the output variable, as the controller reacts to that change by issuing different control
instructions and thus restores the desired state.
An example for such a closed loop control is the air conditioning unit in larger airplanes, where
the crew selects a target temperature via a rotary control, which is thereafter automatically kept
constant by measurement of the actual cabin temperature and the setting of the valve to the
required position at that time.
Closed Loop Control
All functions of the automatic flight control systems are closed loop controlled
Inner and Outer Control Loops
Automatic flight control systems have an inner loop for aircraft control (movements around the
center of gravity) and an outer loop for aircraft guidance (along the flight path).
Control within the inner loop involves recognizing and maintaining certain values, such as a
pitch or roll attitude. A special form of roll hold is the "wings level", where the holding of a roll
attitude of 00 is established.
To fulfill the outer loop guidance function, values do not only have to be kept constant, but are
altered in a way that makes the airplane's center of gravity move in the desired direction.
Examples for aircraft guidance include maintaining a specific altitude or vertical speed, or
following a selected heading or VOR radial.
Communications (ATA 23)
Communication between an aircraft and a ground station takes place on three channels:
• Very high frequency (VHF)

• Satellite communication
• High frequency (HF)
Very High Frequency (VHF)
The VHF frequency band ranges from 30 MHz to 300 MHz. In aviation, the frequencies between
108.0 and 117-95 MHz are used for radio navigation, while the range between 117-975 and
137.0 MHz is reserved for radio communication.
The ionosphere does not reflect VHF waves, which allows different stations that are far apart to
use the same frequency without interference. VHF communication therefore delivers very good
signal quality, which is why it is used for radio communication. It also facilitates a high data
transfer rate.
The ionosphere's characteristics also limit the range of VHF radio, as VHF waves spread like
light. In order to be able to receive VHF signal, there cannot be any obstacles between
transmitter and receiver. As VHF waves are not bound by the earth's curvature, they can only be
received at high altitudes when far away from the ground station.
The range of a VHF signal can be calculated from the heights of transmitter and receiver using
the following formula:
Satellite Communication (SATCOM)
Satellite communication uses geostationary satellites, which are positioned above the equator and
travel along their orbit at the earth rotation's angular velocity of 3600 in 24 hours (4.17-3
degree/s) . This makes the satellite seem stationary above the equator seen from the Earth.
In satellite communication, the signal first travels from the transmitter to the satellite, which
sends it back to the Earth without changing it. Although the partial distances are also traveled
along straight lines, satellite signals bridge substantially longer distances than VHF radio.
Obstacles between transmitter and receiver do not hinder communication as long as both devices
have a "line of sight" to the satellite.
Receiving Satcom Signals
Just like VHF communication, SATCOM provides good signal quality at even higher data
transfer rates. The waves are refracted by the atmosphere's layers, which has an influence on
GPS navigation but hardly any impact on communication.
Geostationary satellites can only be positioned above the equator. The further the transmitter or
receiver is away from the equator, the lower the satellite seems to orbit above the horizon.
Although the satellites' orbit is rather high, they disappear below the horizon in regions close to
the poles. Satellite communication networks therefore do not cover the extreme polar regions.
High Frequency (HF)
The HF range covers frequencies between 3 and 30 MHz. HF waves propagate differently to the
quasi-optic characteristics described above. HF signals follow the earth's curvature, (also known
as ground waves). The ionosphere reflects HF signals, (which are known as sky waves). At a
certain distance from the transmitter, this reflexion causes sky and ground waves to interfere,
compromising the signal quality. Signal quality depends on the following factors:
• Time of the day at the place of transmission and reception (dawn effect caused by the
ionosphere's altitude change)
• Season
• Activity of the sun and polar lights
The presence of sky and ground waves introduces the advantage of near-global reception at a
low transmission power if the atmospheric conditions are favorable. At low altitudes, HF
communication also does not require a line of sight to the transmitter, meaning that obstacles do
not shield the signal.
Design and Operation of Data Transmission Systems
Data transmission systems are used to share short text messages between aircraft and ground
stations. Messages from ground to aircraft are called uplink communication, messages from the
aircraft to the ground station are called downlink messages.
A typical downlink message could contain information about a delay sent from the aircraft to the
airline's ground station. Many modern aircraft automatically send downlink messages, for
example to the maintenance department if there are problems with the engines.
Common uplink messages include current meteorological information requested by the aircraft
via downlink. Uplink messages can be printed and replace conventionally monitoring ATIS on
its radio frequency. This allows pilots to save time and prevents listening and writing errors.
ATIS information received via uplink is called D-ATIS (the D standing for Datalink).
Data Transmission Services
Aeronautical data transmission is mainly offered by two service providers: ARINC and SITA.
Aeronautical Radio, Inc. (ARINC), a U.S. company, in 1978, were the first to offer a commercial
data transmission system, the "Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System'
(ACARS). The system was originally designed for transmitting messages between aircraft and
their airline's ground stations. In the early 1990's, air traffic control began to use ACARS to give
clearances. The ARINC system uses VHF, HF and SATCOM for data transmission. It is able to
decide automatically which channel is suitable in the current situation. ARINC keeps being the
most important Datalink provider in northern America.
For European air traffic, the Belgian company SITA (formerly Societe International de
Telecommunications Aeronautique) is the dominant provider of Datalink connections. The SITA
system does not use SATCOM for communication.
Users do not have to choose between the two companies for Datalink communication but can use
both networks to ensure continuous contact.
In addition to SITA and ACARS, there is a third data transmission system for aircraft, the Air
Traffic Service Unit (ATSU). ATSU is not designed for communication between aircraft and
airline ground station but for Datalink connections with the responsible air traffic control unit.
Some airspaces may only be entered by aircraft equipped with ATSU Datalink devices.
Navigation Systems (ATA 34)
The Flight Management System (FMS) is a computer system used to improve the crew's
situational awareness and reduce pilot workload by assisting in managing flight plan and flight
performance management.
For flight guidance, the FMS continuously determines the aircraft's position using different
sensors, such as IRS (Inertial Reference System), GPS (Global Positioning System) or ground
based radio navigation facilities. FMS systems can guide the aircraft in all three dimensions
along a defined flight plan. The FMS flight plan is displayed on the Navigation Display (ND).
If the FMS is provided with relevant performance data such as zero fuel mass and fuel mass in
addition to the planned flight path, it can calculate the aircraft's optimum performance at any
stage during the flight using data gathered by the engines' fuel flow meters. This data includes
optimum airspeeds and flight altitudes regarding fuel consumption and total efficiency defined
by a given weighting key.
In aircraft certified for two-pilot operations, there are usually two completely redundant FMS.
Each FMS receives input data from separate systems and makes the calculations independently.
The two FMS generate separate, independent output data.

In many cases, the two systems are connected, allowing one device to accept data entered into
the other device at the push of a button. After the data has been received, the two systems are
separated again, working independently.
In the normal mode of operation, "dual FMS", one of the two devices is the master device, whose
commands are used for flight guidance. The other system is slaved to it, its calculations being
compared to those of the master system. If certain difference margins are exceeded, the system
displays a warning message.
If one of the systems fails, the other keeps working independently. The "independent" mode only
delivers limited information of reduced precision.
The Flight Management Computer (FMC) calculates the optimal three-dimensional flight and
airspeed profile considering the flight plan and mass entered into the Control and Display Unit
(CDU). The required route guidance and aircraft performance data is saved in two memory units.
Based on the zero fuel mass, meteorological information and fuel mass entered before takeoff,
the FMS calculates the aircraft's current mass considering the given performance data.
The horizontal view of the FMS' flight plan is displayed in the Navigation Display (ND). The
distance to the next waypoint as well as the estimated flight times are also being calculated and
displayed.
The main position information is that of the inertial navigation system. This data is compared
and corrected with radio navigation data in order to improve and ensure precision during long
flights. The FMS automatically sets the frequencies of the required radio navigation facilities
without the pilot noticing (radio navigation auto tuning).
The pilot can influence the weighting of fuel and flight time cost by adjusting the cost index.
This allows the FMS to optimize the aircraft's speed considering economic efficiency.
If the aircraft is controlled manually, the pilots are given commands in the shape of flight
director instructions and power setting positions. V%en using the autopilot, the FMS controls the
autopilot, automatic thrust control system and, if available the FADEC (Full Authority Digital
Engine Control).
In order to fulfil all functionalities without any performance limitations, the FMS requires:
• Inertial navigation system position data (INS or IRS)

• Satellite navigation system position data (GPS)

• Ground-based radio navigation information
• Course above ground and airspeed (IRS)
• TAS from the air data computer and heading from the compass system
• Pressure altitude and temperature from the air data computer
• Zero fuel mass and fuel on board (pilot input)
• Cost index (pilot input)
• Fuel usage data from the fuel flow meters
•Two databases containing navigation and performance data
Navigation and Aircraft Databases
The FMS flight plan is composed of elements contained in the navigation database. It consists of
all information required for generating a flight plan in the aircraft operation area. This
information includes:
• Airports
• Runways
• Standard approach and departure procedures
• Instrument approach procedures
• Air routes
• Holding patterns
• Waypoints and crossings
• Radio navigation facilities and their frequencies
• Compass variation
All of this information is saved in read-only memory and hence cannot be edited by the crew. As
some elements change over time, the database is updated every 28 days. The FMS allows the
pilots to define custom waypoints in a separate memory.
The aircraft database contains the aircraft's performance data as well as the engines'
characteristics, such as:
• Thrust produced by the engines depending on density altitude and power setting
• Aircraft drag in different configurations
• Performance factor

Electrical Power (ATA 24)
An airplane's electrical system generates, distributes, and monitors the power required for the
operation and control of almost all aircraft systems. Most airplanes have a 28 V Direct Current
(28VDC) system that is supplied by the ship's battery or through a Transformer Rectifier Unit
(TRU).
In addition, airplanes use an Alternating Current system that is usually 115VAC but can also be
200VAC, or in the case of instrumentation, 26 or 28VAC. Alternating Current is normally
provided by an engine driven generator/ alternator or in an emergency, through a Static Inverter.
A typical electrical system is comprised of the following sections:
• DC Power Generation
• AC Power Generation
• External Power/Auxiliary Power
•Wiring, switches, relays, and connectors
• Circuit breakers and other protective devices
• Control and monitoring software (usually found within a control unit)
Batteries Installation and Operation
Airplanes are configured differently (single versus multi-engine) and manufacturers choose to
design their electrical systems to take advantage of their earlier design features. This makes it
difficult to identify specific details about airplane electrical systems, however, this section will
provide general information for a typical electrical power system.
Airplanes may have one, two, or in some cases, three 24VDC batteries. They can be connected in
parallel, in series, or they may operate entirely independently from one another.
The airplane's battery is normally used to:
• Provide DC power for essential instruments and lighting

• Provide DC power for electrical starters installed on Auxiliary Power Units (APU) and
sometimes on engines
• Provide control voltage for various systems
• Provide emergency power for a Static Inverter to power essential AC equipment
• Provide power for actuators and valves that require DC power in the event of loss of normal
power sources
A typical airplane battery consists of 20 nickel-cadmium (NiCad) cells. Each one of these cells
generates approximately 1.2 V and so the nominal voltage of the battery totals 24 V.
The voltage in a battery is generated by a chemical reaction that occurs between two metal plates
made of different materials within an electrolyte solution. The electrolyte solution is very
corrosive and care must be taken to avoid contact with the airplane's structure or with bare skin.
Burning, corrosion, and personal injury may occur if the electrolyte solution is not immediately
removed and the area flushed with clean water and a neutralizing agent.
Airplane batteries work best when they are fully charged. Therefore, most electrical systems
include a battery charger that maintains a full charge in the battery. If a separate battery is used
for the APU, it will normally have its own battery charger. Batteries are charged at different
rates, depending on their condition and the amount of use that has occurred. Typically, battery
chargers provide full charge, pulse charge, or trickle charge modes. During charge, battery case
temperatures rise due to the chemical reaction within the cells. The battery case temperature is
monitored to ensure that rapidly rising or excessive battery temperatures signal the battery
charger to stop charging as to prevent a thermal runaway condition.
At a defined point, normally after a certain period of operational hours, a battery must undergo a
shop inspection. A battery's lifespan can be significantly reduced by:
• Overheating through too many attempts to start the APU or engine (heavy electrical load) in
quick succession
• Discharging below 22 V (the polarity of the weakest cell can be reversed)
• Exposure to extreme cold or hot environmental conditions
A battery system is comprised of the following components:
• Battery with temperature switch

• Battery master box
• Fuse or current limiter
• Hot Battery Bus/ Battery Bus
• Battery charger
• 28VDC relays
• Battery switch(es)
• Wiring and connectors

A temperature switch is installed on the battery housing and when a temperature of

approximately 700C/1580F is reached the switch closes causing the Battery Charger to stop
charging the battery and activate a cockpit warning light or message.
A fuse, or current limiter, disconnects the battery from airplane circuits when it senses excessive
voltage flow. Performing a reset may be accomplished manually or the system may self-reset
when the reason for excessive current has been found and repaired.
When the airplane's battery cable is connected to the battery, the Hot Battery Bus (HBB) is
powered which in turn provides power to a few components on the aircraft. An example are the
squibs used to direct fire extinguishing agent to the engines or APU. As long as the battery is
connected, activating the APU fire handle switch in the flight deck will discharge the squibs.
Selecting the Battery Switch to ON will connect the battery to the Battery Bus where a greater
number of airplane components are powered. Under normal operation the battery strictly
provides backup or emergency power and most traditional DC circuits are powered from
associated Transformer Rectifier Units (TRU).
DC Power Generation
Aircraft generators produce alternating current as voltage which is induced through the rotation
of magnetic fields. The simplest example for this type of generator is illustrated by a bicycle
dynamo.
This type of generator is based on a conductor loop that rotates inside a magnetic field. In order
to use the electric current created by the rotating conductor loop, carbon brushes (or rods) bear
on the surface of commutator split rings through which current is transmitted.
There are several ways to rectify alternating current. Alternating Current (AC) can be converted
into Direct Current (DC) by using two half commutator rings. This will periodically reverse the
current direction at every half turn and the two half-waves of the sine-shaped voltage will be
aligned in the same direction.
In a DC generator, the split-ring commutator accommodates for the change in direction of the
current in the loop, thus creating DC current that travels through the brushes and out to the
circuit.
The following image demonstrates this.

This type of generator has the following disadvantages:

• The voltage magnitude is not constant (due to the sinus-shaped output voltage)
• The carbon brushes may produce sparks in the intersections between commutator rings, a

phenomenon that is also referred to as "commutator sparking". Commutator sparking

causes additional wear with corresponding maintenance issues
The commutator can be improved by using a higher number of conductor loops and additional
segmentation of these loops, which ultimately leads to increased voltage stability.
DC Alternator (Generator + Rectifier)
Generators that generate alternating power are called "alternators" (the term "dynamo" is
restricted to DC generators). The alternator supplies electrical energy to all electrical components
on board and stores it partially in a battery. The term "dynamo" results from the early days of
automobiles when generators powered vehicle headlights only.
The DC alternator shown above has in practical use two major disadvantages:
• The high output is distributed via slip rings (sparking)

• A constant flux is generated by the armature permanent magnet
Windings can be classified in two groups: armature windings and field windings. The armature
or stator winding is the main current-carrying winding in which the electromotive force (emf) or
counter-emf of rotation is induced. The current in the armature winding is known as the armature
current. The field winding produces the magnetic field in the machine. The current in the field
winding is known as the field or excitation current.
A small DC power supply is provided from the battery or other DC source to the field winding.
By controlling the amount of excitation voltage in the field windings, the voltage output from the
armature or stator windings can be very easily regulated. A fully discharged battery cannot
produce current in the DC alternator.
Components
Slip rings are positioned at the ends of the coil or armature. The current is transmitted through
these slip rings which rotate with the coil. Carbon brushes rest against the slip rings allowing for
continuous contact with the rotating coil.
Diodes are used to rectify the current. If only one diode is used, only one current half-wave can
be used. A rectifier bridge is installed to take full advantage of both current half-waves. Four
diodes are used for single-phase alternating currents. The conducting direction of the diodes
points toward the positive pole and its reverse direction points toward the negative pole.
A rectifier bridge with six diodes must be used when there are three alternating currents. The
rectifier bridge blocks the flow in one direction while allowing it to flow in the other direction.
The following circuit diagram illustrates the main DC alternator components and their
connections to the Voltage Regulator (VR) and excitation current as described above.

The Electromagnetic Field (EMF) Induced in a Rotating Coil
Generators and alternators produce electricity in the same way by moving a conductor coil
through a magnetic field, thereby forcing current to flow. Based on the principle of induction, the
amount of current, and therefore the voltage, of generators depends on the following:
• Number of conductor loops or windings

• Number of revolutions (RPM) at which lines of flux are cut
• Connected consumers or load (compound-wound generators are used)
• Magnetic field strength
This can be represented by the following:

Where:
• N is the number of turns

• ώ is the angular velocity
• A is the area of the coil turns
• B is the magnetic field
• t is time
A higher number of revolutions of the generator results in a higher output voltage, whereas a
greater number of connected consumers (higher load) results in a decreasing voltage. This can be
alleviated by using compound-wound generators. If the field is strong, then the induced EMF and
the output voltage are high, and vice versa.
The voltage must be regulated in a way that ensures the battery will not be completely
discharged.
Differences Between Generators and Alternators
Most aircraft use alternators rather than DC generators, including most piston engine types where
the 14 V AC output is converted to DC through the rectifier. This is due to the following:
• Voltage response of alternators is improved at low RPM
• Alternators have a better power-to-weight ratio
• Brush sparking will occur between the carbon brushes and commutator segment gaps; this
is reduced with slip rings
• In alternators, the load current is transmitted from the stator without using brushes or other
contacts
• In alternators, the rotating magnetic field is generated in the armature by means of
electromagnets. The output voltage of the alternator can be regulated easily by adjusting the
armature current
Many smaller regional and business aircraft use DC generators as they can double as engine
starter motors (starter-generators).

AC Power Generation
In principle, generators produce alternating current because voltage is induced through rotating
magnetic fields. No additional steps are required to generate alternating current. There must be a
means of transferring the current to the rest of the circuit. In order to transfer the current to the
electrical circuits, an AC Generator includes a ring at each end of the wire. A metal contact or
brush rubs or slides against each ring, allowing the electricity to flow through the circuit. An AC
generator uses two slip rings.
The following image shows a simple AC generator in action. As one side of the loop moves to
the other pole of the magnetic field, the current changes direction. The two slip rings of the AC
generator allow the current to change direction becoming an alternating current. In practice,
however, generators are normally used for generating three-phase alternating current.

Three-Phase AC Generation
Alternators capable of generating three-phase current are used in modern large aircraft. Three
conductor loops are arranged in a circle to ensure that they are each subjected to the rotating
magnetic field at an offset angle of 1200. The conductor loops are induced with current. Taking
one conductor as the reference, the other two currents are delayed in time by one-third and two-
thirds of one cycle of the electrical current (in graphical terms, 1200 represents one third of a full
circle).
Construction and Components
For practical purposes, AC generators differ considerably in construction from the simple
rotating coil. Practical alternators use a rotating magnet inside a stationary conductor loop that
makes it possible to absorb induced current directly.

Practical alternators are usually constructed without slip rings by keeping the coil stationary and
rotating the magnetic field. In practice, the rotating magnet is replaced by an electromagnet.
Since there are now two sets of windings, we distinguish between them by calling the rotating
electromagnet the "rotor" and the stationary armature the "stator".
The rotor of an AC alternator is a multipole electromagnet. A typical rotor has between four and
seven pole-pairs.
The stator of an AC alternator is made of several coils of heavy copper wire.

6pole Solid Rotor Alternator
In terms of construction, aircraft generators consist of these components:
• Three stator windings, shifted by 1200

• A rotor including the necessary exciting field windings
The main differences in construction between the DC and AC generator are:

The position of stator windings causes a phase shift of 1200 between the individual conductors.
In addition, an electromagnet (coil with core made of soft iron) with more than two poles is used
to generate the magnetic field, which consumes approximately 3-10% of the produced energy.

The alternator's main advantage is that no carbon brushes are required. The term "brushless" is
often used to describe alternators.
Aircraft use three-phase current because total power is distributed over three power lines that are
more lightweight. Three-phase alternating current is also referred to as "rotary current".
Field Current for Voltage Control
The control of the output voltage of a generator is influenced by several factors. The easiest
factor to control is the field circuit current, which in turn, controls the flux density. This control
can be affected by incorporating a variable resistor in series with the field winding. Adjustments
to this resistor vary the resistance of the field winding and the field current so the output voltage
changes depending on the amount of adjustment made to the resistor.
Transistorized voltage regulators act as a variable resistor (potentiometer) that ensures constant
voltage. The amount of resistance is determined by comparing a reference voltage to the
generator output voltage. If the output voltage increases, the internal resistance of the transistor is
increased as well. The increased resistance reduces the current through the excitation coil which
subsequently decreases the generator output voltage.
Relation Between Frequency, Number of Pole Pairs, and Number of Revolutions of a

Three-Phase Generator
In a conventional generator, the frequency is dependent upon the speed of rotor rotation within
its stator and upon the number of poles. Two poles of a rotor must pass a given point on the
stator every cycle. Generator frequency can therefore be calculated as follows:
In an aircraft where four pole-pairs, i.e. four north poles and four south poles, are used, a
constant number of 6,000 revolutions per minute must be maintained to give a frequency of 400
Hz.
With a 6-pole generator (three pole-pairs), operation at 8,000 RPM will also give a frequency of
400 Hz.
The output voltage and frequency is normally 115 V and 400 Hz respectively, which corresponds
to the regular alternating current on board the majority of large transport aircraft. As a
comparison, most domestic (household) power is supplied at 50-60 Hz. The higher frequency
allows aircraft designers to use smaller equipment and thus reduce weight.
Frequency-Wild AC Generator
The term "Wild" means that there is no control over the RPM. The output of such a generator is
208 V and 22kVA Advantages include the following:
Advantages
• Speed variation of drive is acceptable

• Minimal generator unit weight
• Simple conversion to other voltages and to DC
• Suitable for heating, anti-icing and lighting loads only
Disadvantages
• Not acceptable for the majority of types of loads

• Difficult conversion to fixed frequency AC
Connection of a Three-Phase AC Generation to an Electrical System
Star Connections
To connect three-phase alternators to their electrical services, a "star" arrangement is most often
used. The three stator windings in a star connection are joined at one end and are subsequently
connected to ground. This end is referred to as "neutral terminal N". The other ends are
connected to consumers as current lines A, B and C.

''i'' equal
Star Voltages
Two types of voltages are available in a three-phase circuit:

• Phase voltage UPH measured between one phase and the neutral terminal (live and return
line)
• Line voltage UL between two phases (two live lines)
Line voltage is greater than phase voltage. The following formula applies in general:
delta opposite
N√3 is also referred to as the "correlation factor".
In aircraft, the phase voltage is 115 V and the line voltage is 200 V (115 x 1.73). In the "delta"
method of connection, the line voltage is always equal to the phase voltage. However, their
respective currents differ by N√3. Delta connections are used in motors, rotary rectifiers and
transformers.
Permanent Magnet Alternators (PMA)
PMAs are only for use in small, low-output devices. They produce AC output without field
excitation by means of a permanent magnet.
In small machines, the constant magnetic field may be provided by one or more permanent

magnets. Such an application is used in the magnetos of piston engines or to power engine
FADEC units through a "Control Alternator" or similar device that is usually driven by the
engine gearbox.
Small vehicle alternators (such as in motorcycles) often use permanent magnet stators made with
rare earth magnets since they can be made smaller and lighter than other types of alternators.
Sources of Drive for an AC Generator
AC generators may be driven by:
• The engine, via the auxiliary gearbox

• APU (Auxiliary Power Unit)
Emergency operation may be provided by:
• Air driven Ram Air Turbine (RAT)

• Hydraulic Power (Hydraulically Powered Motor Generator or HMG)
Emergency Power Generation
In the event of a complete electrical system failure during flight, the battery (or batteries) enables
essential flight instruments and controls to be operated for a limited time so as to allow for a safe
landing as soon as possible. In some cases, the battery powers a Static Inverter that converts DC
power to AC power for limited distribution and duration.

In the event of a complete loss of the primary electrical power generating system, the battery
must be capable of providing 30 minutes of electrical power to those loads that are essential for
the continuation of a safe flight and landing. The 30-minute time period includes the time needed
for the pilot(s) to recognize the loss of generated power and to take appropriate load shedding
action. Most modern aircraft provide this load shedding action automatically.
Voltage Regulation
Voltage regulators, which are designed to maintain the output voltage of generators as constant
as possible, are necessary for providing electric systems with sufficient energy for all operational
states. The voltage regulator is often a solid-state device that senses the alternator output voltage.
For example, the voltage regulators of 14 V generators used in light aircraft must be carefully
adjusted to ensure that the optimum voltage of 13.8 V is supplied by the generator to the aircraft.
This component is therefore a voltage limiting device which is designed to prevent the battery
from trying to force electricity into the generator when the generator output falls below that
designed for the system.
The voltage regulator influences the field excitation, and thus the induced voltage, by altering the
series resistance of the coil.
The Voltage Regulator (VR) maintains the system voltage at the desired level. Three variants are
used in this context:

• Electromechanical voltage regulator

• Carbon pile voltage generator
• Transistor voltage regulator
1. Electromechanical voltage regulator
This is the primary form of voltage regulator where a resistor is connected in series with the
excitation coil. When the generator output voltage becomes lower than the target voltage, the
resistor is bypassed by a relay contact. If the generator output voltage exceeds the reference
voltage, the relay is energized and the bypass is released. The resistor reduces the current
through the excitation coil and the output voltage decreases. An additional capacitor is built
in to avoid the development of a strong spark which could damage the relay by burning the
contact points. Since the frequency of switching the relay on and off is very fast, the
electromechanical voltage regulator is also called a pulse or vibrator voltage regulator.
2. Carbon pile voltage generator
The carbon pile voltage regulator was used during the 1960's for large DC generators. A stack
of carbon discs is connected in series with the excitation coil. If the output voltage of the

generator is lower than the target voltage, the stack of carbon disks is pressed together by a
spring which reduces the resistance and increases the output voltage. The pressure of the
spring is compensated by an electromagnet. That force increases the resistance and current
through the excitation coil. Subsequently the output voltage of the generator will increase.
3. Transistor voltage regulator
The transistor voltage regulator was used in the 1960's with the introduction of DC
alternators. A transistor is connected in series with the exciter coil as a variable resistor which
is similar to the carbon pile voltage regulator. In this circuit, a reference voltage at the base of
the transistor is compared with the output voltage of the generator. If the output voltage
increases, the transistor internal resistance also increases. A higher resistance decreases the
current through the excitation coil and the generator output voltage also decreases.

Starter Generators
This variety of electromagnetic inductor highlights an important point with respect to the
similarities between generators and electric motors.
Generators convert mechanical energy into electrical energy while motors convert electrical
energy into mechanical energy.
Numerous types of smaller turbine powered aircraft use starter-generators as a single unit to
function in both capacities so as to save weight. Examples include the ATR42, King Air, Hawker
125-800, Jetstream and Saab SF340.
Starter generators are essentially compound-wound units with compensating windings and inter-
poles. The unit functions as a fully compound motor, the shunt winding being supplied with

current via a field changeover relay. When the engine reaches self-sustaining speed and the
starter motor circuit is isolated, the relay is de-energized and its contacts connect the winding to
a voltage regulator. This permits DC to flow through the winding to provide initial excitation of
the field.
Thus, the unit functions as a conventional DC generator.
• During start, the stator field winding (small number of turns and a large conductor cross
section) and rotor winding are connected in series. Since the same current flows through
stator and rotor windings, the result is a DC series-wound motor which is characterized by
high torque at low speed.
• In generator mode, the rotor speed is much higher. The excitation field is now realized by a
shunt winding in the stator with a large number of turns. The AC voltage induced in the
rotor winding is rectified by a commutator and the current is extracted by brushes.

Types of Excitation With DC Alternators
Generators are also classified according to the method by which their magnetic circuits are
energized. Because of the principles of electromagnetic induction, DC alternators require a small
voltage to produce the electromagnetic field required inside the alternator. That means that if the
battery is completely discharged or flat, the alternators will not be able to supply any power to
the electrical system. This is true even after the engines have been started by other means
because the alternators are not self-exciting.
Inducing current requires a magnetic field, which can be created in several ways:
• Separate excitation (permanent magnet or battery)

• Self-excitation (remanence or residual voltage)
• Self-excitation (second alternator or generator to create the magnetic field)

If an electromagnet, i.e. a coil, is used to create the magnetic field, it is always connected in
parallel to the generator.
Separate Excitation
• A permanent magnet is the simplest possible way to create a magnetic field. Due to the
homogeneity of the magnetic field, voltage only depends on revolution speed and the
connected load. The voltage itself, however, cannot be adjusted. A typical aircraft application
of permanent magnets is in the magnetos of AVGAS piston engines. They are only used in
small, low-output devices.
• When using a battery to create the magnetic field via an electromagnet, the induced voltage
is adjustable through the electromagnet's coil. One example is the Diamond DA42.
Self-Excitation or Shunt Wound (DC Dynamo)
The term "shunt wound" refers to the field coils that energize the electromagnet. Self-excited
shunt wound generators are employed in aircraft DC power supply systems.
"Remanence" refers to the iron core's capacity to maintain magnetic properties after being
subjected to a magnetic field (e.g. inside a coil). You may also see the term "residual voltage"
used with reference to this property and some older aircraft had cockpit meters with a selection
to display the amount of residual voltage.
Remnant magnetization induces a small voltage when switching on the alternator, which is
subsequently used again for creating a magnetic field inside the electromagnet's coil. This results
in an increased voltage, which also causes the magnetic field inside the electromagnet to
increase, and so forth.
Voltage regulators are necessary at this point due to the increased overall voltage.

Self-Excitation
A second, usually smaller generator or alternator (often with a permanent magnet) is used to
generate electric current for the electromagnet.
Power Distribution
Electrical power distribution can be direct from source to user or via a common electrical bus,
referred to as a "Busbar"
Since power sources are centrally located and the various consumers are located at different
positions inside the aircraft, manufacturers had to consider the question of how to distribute on-
board power. Electrical consumers (users) are usually arranged in groups and connected through
"busbars" or "buses" so as to reduce the number and weight of attaching cables. The aircraft's
structure is usually used as a "ground" or return line for the power.

In most types of aircraft, the output from the generating sources is coupled to low impedance
conductors, referred to as busbars. Busbars are usually situated in junction boxes or distribution
panels located at central points within the aircraft.
The power network is distributed through buses to increase the system's reliability, enable more
accurate troubleshooting, facilitate easier maintenance and to ensure that a consumer is closer to
its actual power source.

Bus Functions
Busbars are designed to distribute current under the following service priorities:
• Essential
• Non-essential
• Main bus
A main bus is directly connected to the generator(s) (via breakers) and provides power to
the consumers directly
• Tie bus
In parallel operation, multiple generators are connected to an AC tie or synchronizing
busbar
• Essential bus
The essential services that are needed for safe flight in an emergency situation are connected
to the essential bus in such a way that they can always be supplied by a generator, batteries
or alternate power source
• Emergency bus
In the event of an essential bus failure, the emergency bus is automatically supplied by the
emergency static inverter or similar unit

Essential and Emergency Buss Bar
Utility Bus
Some aircraft provide power to galleys, recirculation fans and other cabin convenience items
from utility busses. In a typical configuration, these busses provide power to fairly heavy users
and so they will "shed" during engine start and when the electrical system has been compromised
with a failure. Utility busses can normally be selected to either "On" or "Auto" or to "Off'.
Ground Service Bus
The ground service bus can be connected to External Power, APU Power, or to one of the main
aircraft busses. The Ground Service Bus is powered in both air and ground modes and often
provides electrical power to lighting, toilet motors and other functions associated with ground
operation other than cargo loading systems. Some aircraft power the battery charger from the
ground service bus as it can be selected on the ground without powering the main ship's
electrical systems. On some passenger aircraft types equipped with a ground service bus, the
switch used to apply power to the ground service bus is often found at the main cabin attendant
station.
Ground Handling Bus

The ground handling bus can be connected to either external or APU power. The ground
handling bus can be powered only on the ground and only from the APU generator or from the
external power source and not by the engine-driven generators. It is provided for loads such as
cargo doors, cargo handling equipment and to enable some internal or external lighting.
Battery Bus
This bus is connected to the main battery via a battery relay, which is normally controlled by a
'master switch". The battery bus can provide DC power to the main DC bus and where
applicable, to electrical engine starters.
Hot Battery Bus
The vital services are powered by the hot battery busbar, which is usually referred to as "hot"
because it cannot be disconnected. The "hot bus" is directly connected to the battery in order to
ensure that certain vital consumers remain operable even if the main power switch is turned off
or lost (i.e. fire extinguisher squibs).
The battery is protected by a relay in the following situations:
• Battery recharging
• Battery overheating
• Short-circuit in the system
The three phases coming from the generator are connected to busbars that are subsequently
grounded to the aircraft fuselage.

A simple bussbar layout
Multi-Engine Aircraft DC System
Multi-engine aircraft will have the same basic components as a single engine aircraft (above),
but naturally these components will be duplicated and there will be a more sophisticated busbar
network.

Loss of Generators
In the event of an internal generator fault, automatic protection is provided by a Generator
Control Unit (GCU) and control breakers (line contactors). The GCU sends a signal to
disconnect the generator from the busbar, remove the supply to the field coils and provide a fault
indication to the flight deck.

DC Bus Failure
Relevant information on the effects of loss of one or more DC busbars can be obtained from the
Aircraft Schematics Manual or for flight crew, from the Flight Crew Operating Manual (FCOM).
De-energizing a DC busbar has an immediate effect and in many cases, associated AC systems
are also affected as they use DC power for control, monitoring and indication.
Transport Aircraft - DC System
• The main DC electrical system uses two or more Transformer Rectifier Units (TRUs) to
produce 28 VDC power. The TRUs are powered by their respective main AC busses. Loss of
a single TRU is usually backed up through closure of a DC Tie Bus that enables another TRU
to assume the load of a failed unit. Indication of TRU loading is provided in the flight deck.
• One, two, or three 23Ah NiCad batteries are installed, together with their battery charging
systems (charger and monitor).
• There are two busbars: essential and non-essential.

Loss of DC Supply
In the event of a failure of all aircraft Transformer Rectifier Units (TRU's), the batteries can
provide DC power to essential loads and if required, they can also power a Static Inverter that
provides essential AC power.
The following services would still be available in case of a total failure of the TRU's:
• At least one of the VHF Nav/Comm units

• Basic navigation instruments
• Engine monitoring
• Main warning and protection systems
DC Power Electrical Consumers
When aircraft differ in their designs, typical examples of DC consumers include:

• Engine starter
• Battery charging
• Emergency power
• Fuel booster pumps (APU start pump)

• Electronic systems that do not require large amounts of power
• Cockpit instrumentation, magnetic devices
• Control circuits and drives
AC Distribution
Just like in a DC power supply system, AC power supply systems must be connected to each
other and the circuits arranged in such a way that the following conditions exist:
• Consumers can be supplied at a minimum power line length and weight

• Generators carry a well-balanced, constant load
• System reliability in case of interference or failure
Different AC voltages are required within the aircraft:
• 115/200 V and 400 Hz rotary current for engines and large consumer systems
• 28 V alternating current (AO for light sources
• 26 V alternating current (AC) for nav systems, autopilot, weather radar
The rotary current supplied by generators is produced through transformation and rectification of
all required voltages. Static inverters may be used to generate rotary current using the battery as
a power source.

Separate buses exist for each of the generated voltages (115, 200, 28, and 26VAC) and their
related consumers. In case of individual operation, the respective loads should be evenly
distributed over the generator's three phases A, B and C.
Transport Aircraft AC System Operation
When two or more generators are used, it is important that each generator output is
approximately equal. If the output voltage of one generator is significantly lower than the other,
there is potential for the efficient generator to take over the load of the one with lower output.
There are two ways to prevent this scenario:

• Keeping busbars separate (Split busbar operation)
• Load distribution (Parallel busbar operation)
When the busbars are separate (split) with each one supplied exactly from its own generator, a
load balance is not necessary.
Split Busbar Operation
In a split busbar system, each engine-driven generator feeds its own AC busbar. The generators
are connected to and disconnected from their busbars by operation of a generator circuit breaker
(GCB). A bus tie breaker (BTB) is fitted between the AC busbars. closed, it enables external
power or APU power to connect to the AC busbar. Some applications have a manual switch to
close the Bus Tie Breaker while others use automatic sensing to close the BTB.

The essential AC services can be fed from either the No. 1 AC busbar or from the battery
through an inverter.
Split AC BusBar System
Parallel Busbar Operation
In parallel operation, several generators feed a common busbar. Normally, the generators are
connected to an AC tie or synchronizing busbar. Multi-engine aircraft are designed with the
generators operating in parallel, thereby ensuring that in the event of an engine or generator
failure, there is no interruption of primary power supply.
Each engine generator is connected to its load busbar via a GCB and can then be paralleled
through BTB to a synchronizing or tie bus. In normal operation, the BTB's are closed and the
load is shared equally by all generators.

Distribution Consequences
APU and External Power Priority Switching

The APU will normally have priority. This is true even if both the APU and external power are
available. Some aircraft are designed to allow the last selected power to connect to the tie bus (or
main bus). Aircraft with two or more external power connections may allow external power on
one bus while the APU powers a separate bus.
Loss of One or Al Generators

In the event of a parallel system generator failure, the respective GCB and BTB would be tripped
to isolate the failed generator. In the event of the loss of all generators, battery power would take
over and only essential services would continue to be supplied.
Buss Failure
Relevant information on the effects of loss of one or more AC busbars can be obtained from the
Flight Crew Operating Manual (FCOM). De-energization of busbars disables or degrades the
connected components or systems and may also indirectly affect other systems.

AC Power Electrical Consumers
AC power is used to power all or parts of most systems in the aircraft. Consumers require
considerable amounts of power.
Examples of consumers include:
• Radio, lighting, heating, avionics systems (navigation and communications, autopilot,

weather radar)
• Fly-by-wire controls
• Hydraulic and fuel pumps
• Instruments
• Compass systems
• Cabin systems (i.e. entertainment systems, galley equipment, etc.)
Paralleling AC Generators
In practice, more than one AC generator onto a single bus is not a normal event due to the
extreme difficulty in matching the phases of the source generators. Remember, AC generators on
commercial aircraft usually produce a 3-phase power source. In theory however it is possible.
Before a generator can be paralleled, the voltage and frequency must be within limits. To parallel
generators, frequency must be adjusted by manipulating the CSD output torque to balance the
real load and then the reactive loads are trimmed by adjusting the energizing current from the
voltage regulator.
Load distribution is necessary when connecting several generators in parallel to one single
busbar. In this case, load distribution can be achieved by connecting the voltage regulators of all
generators to adjust the related exciting fields appropriately.
When using several generators connected in parallel, the generators must also be synchronized.

Generator Power Loads and Ratings
Real load is the actual working load output in kW and is affected by the rated output and the
reactive load; it is adjusted through CSD torque.
The sharing of real load between paralleled generators is determined by the real relative RPMs of
the generators, which in turn influence the voltage phase relationships.
Reactive load is the "wattless" load, which is the vector sum of the inductive and capacitive
currents and voltage in the system. It is affected by the frequency and by the rated output in
kilovolt-amperes reactive (kVAR), which in turn is affected by voltage and is balanced by
energizing current.
The work exerted to overcome reactance is wasted power and is called reactive power or reactive
load.
Cross-Currents
Cross-currents are currents that circulate between parallel generators when the internal voltage
(excitation) of one generator differs from that of the other generator. The generator with the
higher internal voltage supplies reactive power (kVAR) to the other generator. The amount of
cross current that flows is a measure of this reactive power. Cross-currents are 900 out of phase
(lagging) compared to the current that the generator would supply at 1.0 (unity) power factor.
Cross-Current Compensation
Cross-current compensation is a method of controlling the reactive power supplied by AC

generators in a parallel system so that they equally share the total reactive load on the bus
without significant voltage drop.
Inverters
An inverter is a device that transforms Direct Current (DC) into Alternating Current (AC).
Even in on-board power-supplied systems that exclusively use direct current (e.g. in small
aircraft), some consumers require alternating current. Examples include the following:
• Navigational instruments
• Radio, communications
• Control units
• Monitoring devices
There are two ways to convert direct current to alternating current:
• Rotary converters (moving parts), which is the older variety

• Static inverters (no moving parts)
Rotary converters consist of a DC motor connected to an AC generator, which means that one
generator is powered by one motor on the same electric wave (identical frequency). The overall
effectiveness of this combination is low and the mechanical wear and tear are very high.
A static inverter's parts consist of a transformer that inverts the direction of current with a solid-
state switch, thus creating alternating current on the transformer's output side. Today, transistors
controlled by a clock generator are mostly used as switches. Static inverters supply single-phase
AC output of 115 V 400 1--1z and usually provide only emergency AC power to maintain
essential services after a failure.
Example: B737NG
To illustrate this in actual terms, the electrical generation network of B737NG aircraft consists of
the following major components:
DC Generation
• Three TRUs nominal current 200 A (the main DC network supply)

• Two batteries, nominal capacity 48 AH each
AC Generation
• Two main generators (Integrated Drive Generators - IDG), nominal power 90kVA each
• One APU generator (without a constrant speed drive function) rated at 90kVA
• One static inverter single-phase, 1kVA
• One ground 115 VAC/400 Hz external power connector, 90kVA
Transformers
Transformers are used to increase (step up) or decrease (step down) alternating current at the
same frequency, which is achieved by connecting two electrically separated coils to an iron core.
The primary coil is supplied with power by a specific power source, whereas the secondary coil
distributes the transformed current.
Transformers use the principle of mutual induction to operate based on variable magnetic flux
generated through alternating current. Current flowing through the primary coil subsequently
induces a magnetic field in the iron core, which in turn induces alternating current and thus
voltage into the secondary coil. Both current and voltage depend on the winding ratio:

Example
220 V AC transformer with 10 primary coil windings and 100 secondary coil windings Output
voltage of 2,200 V AC.
This example demonstrates the step up version of transformers.

It is impossible to transform direct current because no variable magnetic fields are created.
Transformer Rectifier Unit
A transformer is combined with a rectifier circuit inside one casing in order to generate direct
current of higher or lower voltage. Transformer Rectifier Units (TRUs) are the main conversion
units in aircraft possessing rectified AC power systems. The normal DC power is generated by
two or three TRUs supplied by a standard three-phase AC input of 115 V 400 1--1z to provide a

continuous DC output of 26 V or 28 V. TRUs are also used for charging the battery. In
commercial aircraft, TRUs are used for supplying the DC network.
A warning light and/or message will illuminate when a TRU is faulty or when reverse current
occurs.
Circuit Protection
The electrical system is monitored with respect to voltage and current. Moving coil meters based
on the principle of induction are used in this context.
The movable conductor loop interacts with a permanent magnetic field. When the conductor loop
is pivotally mounted against a spring, the deflection is proportional to the actual strength of
current.
In addition, warning lights are used to indicate various critical states:
Examples of Illuminated Warning Lights
• Battery is not charging when required

• Overvoltage or undervoltage
• Generator failure (diode, bearing)
• Warning lights of fuses or breakers (CB)
System Control
A Generator Control Unit (GCU) is installed for each generator. It contains all the generator
system control logic circuits that monitor generator:

• System voltage and frequency

• Fault control and detection
• Sequence operations
• Initiation of action as required
Monitoring
The on-board power supply system can be monitored by the following instruments:
• Active power meter
• Reactive power meter
• Voltmeter
• Ammeter
• Frequency meter
It is also essential to monitor the CSD with respect to oil pressure and oil temperature as well as
the battery status.
Each DC alternator/ generator will have its own ammeter installed indicating output current in
amps.
Annunciators
Every amber light that illuminates on the electrical panel causes the illumination of an amber
"Status" type of light on the forward panel to identify the system with a fault. Many aircraft also
include a single chime warning to further draw the flight crew's attention to the malfunction. For
example:
• A "CSD" or "Drive" light indicates low oil pressure or high oil temperature
• A "Bus Off' light indicates that the Main AC bus is unpowered
• A "Gen Bus Off' light indicates that the Generator is not supplying the bus or is offline
In addition, each generator has its own ammeter that indicates the output current in Amperes.
The ammeter display may be on a separate indicator or as a display on a central display unit such
as EICAS or ECAM.
Example
The following tables and figures, taken from a Boeing 737's flight deck upper panels, illustrate
all the key electrical system control, monitoring and annunciator indicators available to the crew
in a typical transport aircraft.
System Controls, Monitoring and Annunciator Panels B737-800

Load Management System
This system maintains the supply of the maximum level of electrical load independently of the
number of power sources. This reduces crew workload in the event of failures of electrical power
sources. The load management system fulfills the following tasks:
• Management of the electrical load according to operational needs on ground and in flight as
well as electrical system capability
• Prevention of loss of electrical sources by monitoring generator performance and managing
load configuration
• Management of commercial loads and operational needs in the event of a departure with
one failed generator
Normal and Degraded Modes of Operation
Different levels of degradation of the electrical power supply are accounted for, down to the
complete loss of AC generation. The batteries will ensure power to the DC flight essential busbar
and emergency busbar resumes in such a scenario.
Automatic Generators
Automatic safety systems are in place to ensure system reliability in case one or more generators
are subject to interference of any kind. Their purpose is to do the following:
• Ensure stable power supply for the most important consumers

• Switch to alternative power sources
Generators and buses are safeguarded by the following:
• Generator breakers (GB): a switch that connects the generator to the busbar
• Bus tie breakers (BTB): used for connecting various generator busbars
• Field relays: field circuit of the auxiliary generator
These systems automatically disconnect defective generators or entire circuits in case of

interference or failures.
The Generator Breaker (GB) opens automatically in case of interference or overvoltage (e.g.
those caused by overexcitation).

The Bus Tie Breaker opens (BTB) automatically in case of generator overload, overvoltage or
asynchronous operation of generators.
The field relay interrupts the generator's field circuit in case of overvoltage.
Distribution and Bus Switching
The distribution busbars are managed by a bus power control unit, thus enabling the most
effective utilization of the electrical power system.
With only internal battery power available, the split busbars are isolated whilst the essential
busbar remains available. This arrangement is necessary in order to restrict loads on the batteries
until the generator comes online. With any generator online or with external power connected, all
busbars are available.
The presence of multiple busbars means that no one fault can cause a system failure.
In the following schematic example, if an AC bus is not powered, the AC essential bus can also
be supplied directly by an engine or APU generator by switching on a flight deck rotary selector.

Monitoring
Permanent monitoring in flight and on the ground is normal for commercial aircraft. The systems
also record degradation or failure at component and sub-system levels.
If generators fail and only battery power is available, non-essential consumers must be turned off
immediately. Depending on the circumstances and airplane environment, the flight crew should

consider turning off various components and systems such as:
Lamps
Including light bulbs, fluorescent lamps, and light-emitting diodes (LEDs) that are used in the
following:
• Cockpit overhead
• Instruments
• Position lights
• Cabin
• Cargo areas
• Taxi and landing lights
Heating Systems
• Anti-icing systems on some propellers, wing/tail leading edge mats (NG)

• Cabin (note: on medium and long-haul pax aircraft, up to 50% is consumed by the galleys)
• Cockpit
• Cockpit windows
• Instruments (pitot tubes, temperature sensors)
• Hot water supply (usually on the cabin utility bus)
Motors
• Starter motor (DC) for engines

• Flap motor
• Door mechanism power
Protection and Generator Control
A Generator Control Unit (GCU) is provided for each aircraft generator, where it monitors
power quality. A GCU measures frequency and voltage with sensitive relays, a voltage regulator,
protective circuits and system control logic circuits. It monitors for:
• Overloading
• AC overvoltage/undervoltage
• Incorrect frequency and if too high, monitor for overspeed

Load balancing is likewise necessary because both active and reactive power supplied to
consumers must be monitored and distributed evenly. There are several methods of balancing the
load:
• Constant Speed Drives (CSD) for balancing active power

• Voltage Regulator (VR) for balancing reactive power
When subject to interference, generators produce variable outputs:
• Incorrect frequency AC at 420/380 Hz. The generator with a higher frequency also
generates more active power (a higher RPM)
• AC overvoltage: from 115 V +15 or 200 V +20. The generator with a higher voltage produces
more reactive power
• DC overvoltage and undervoltage protection is also provided
In on-board power supply systems that operate based on several generators not connected in
parallel, relays can be used to provide power to a busbar of a defective generator. For example:
• The Generator Breaker (GCB) opens automatically in case of interference or overvoltage

(e.g. caused by overexcitation)
• The Bus Tie Breaker (BTB) opens automatically in case of generator overload, overvoltage,
or asynchronous operation of generators
• The field relay interrupts the generator's field circuit in case of overvoltage
Monitoring Parameters for Multiple Generators
If the correct parameters in an electrical system are monitored, then it is possible to identify
deterioration of components before a critical failure occurs.
Parameters monitored are the following:
• DC current and voltage

• AC frequency, voltage and load in amps
• Generator on/off
Parallel System Operation
In order to allow for several generators to operate on the same bus in a three-phase circuit, they
must be synchronized with respect to the following:
• Voltage
• Frequency
• Phase
Only synchronized generators can be connected to the same bus because otherwise, significant
reactive power would flow between the generators and overload the entire network.
The process of synchronization is internally monitored, and the Bus Tie Breaker (BTB) is
opened automatically if needed. In a parallel system, the BTBs are normally closed.
Split System Operation
Only frequency and voltage are usually monitored, as in a split system, the BTB is normally
open since the generators cannot be paralleled. If only one power supply is available, the BTB
automatically closes so that both left and right systems are powered.
External Ground Power
Power on the ground is required for the following:
• Starting of APU and engines

• Operation of services during turn-arounds, i.e. cargo
• Servicing periods including lighting
• Testing of systems during maintenance
Onboard battery capacity does not permit extensive use on the ground and running the APU will
consume fuel and create noise.
It is necessary therefore to incorporate a separate circuit through which power from an external
Ground Power Unit (GPU or EPU) may be connected to the distribution busbar.

A typical DC external Power supply socket 3 Pin
Various redundant power sources are used in aircraft. The most common are as follows:
• Generators (on every engine)

• Batteries
• APU
• Ground power unit
The purpose of the aircraft's power supply system is to provide all connected consumers with
sufficient power.
Aircraft designs differ but for most transport aircraft, while on the ground, the external power
source connection takes priority over on-board sources unless the APU is running, in which case
the APU takes priority.
In most cases, the battery is only used on ground to assist in APU starting although some aircraft
enable fuel valve operation through a separate Battery circuit that is energized when the fueling
panel door is open and power selected to the refuel panel.
In flight, the engine-driven generators take priority over all other sources unless there is a
generator failure, in which case the APU may come online. In cases of further failure, the Ram

Air Turbine (RAT) or Hydraulic Motor Generator (HMG) may be used as an emergency power
source.
Batteries are only used as a last resort when there is a total electrical failure.
Equipment and Furnishings (ATA 25)
Emergency Equipment Requirements
Emergency equipment is installed in an airplane to increase the safety of passengers and flight
crew. Depending on the size, configuration, and design of an aircraft, emergency equipment can
include things such as:
• Emergency escape hatches in the cockpit

• Emergency escape hatches in the cabin
• First aid supplies
• Emergency communications equipment (electronic megaphone)
• Medical equipment such as defibrillators (although these are often provided as a lease by a
vendor)
• Equipment for emergency evacuation into water
• Survival equipment
• Other emergency equipment depending on aircraft use, size, and design.
Even though other items may be used during an emergency, they are covered elsewhere in
technical manuals and in this document. Emergency Oxygen used for first aid is covered in a
separate chapter (ATA 35-0xygen) and fire extinguishing equipment, including smoke hoods, is
usually covered in ATA 26 (Fire Detection/ Protection) although some operators include use of
the Personal Breathing Equipment (PBE) in documents for ATA 25 (Equipment and
Furnishings).
Emergency Escape Hatches in the Cockpit
In an emergency, the flight crew can open the side sliding cockpit window and leave the airplane
using ropes that are stowed above the windows. On some aircraft, the side windows are not
openable so the cockpit will include a hatch for emergency egress. Typically, the hatch will
include ropes or reel-type devices that are exposed once the hatch has been removed. Flight crew
can exit the cockpit by holding on to the rope/lanyard and jumping through the hatch. In an effort

to avoid crew injury, the reel-type devices have an automatic spring cartridge that slows down
the crew member as they approach ground level.
Emergency Exit Rope
Emergency Escape Hatches in the Cabin
Transport category aircraft include evacuation slides on each main cabin door and provide a
means of egress through overwing exit doors as well. Some aircraft also include an emergency
exit through the tail cone area although that design is mainly used on smaller business jets and on
older transport category aircraft (for example, the Boeing 727 and Douglas MD-80). Cabin
doors, emergency doors, and overwing exits allow passengers and the flight crew to be evacuated
quickly in an emergency. Inflatable escape slides are fitted to all doors and emergency exits on
commercial airliners although some designs use the emergency escape slide to safely exit the
aircraft via the area aft of the wing. In that case, the slides are not directly attached to the
overwing exit door but are built into a fuselage housing (for example the Boeing 767).
Depending on the size of the airplane and the maximum number of passengers that can be
accommodated, emergency slides may have a multilane design. On large commercial aircraft, if
the doors are closed and the emergency mechanism is switched into active (armed) mode, lifting
the door handle will automatically trigger a nitrogen-powered actuator to drive the door to the
fully open position and inflate the emergency slide. As a backup, the door can be opened
normally and the emergency slide actuated separately if required. Smaller commercial aircraft do
not include a power assist system to open the door in an emergency but in most cases, the large
interior door handle provides sufficient leverage to ensure that the door is easily opened,
enabling the door-mounted escape slide to fall from the sill area.
Position of the Emergency Slides

Installation of the Emergency Slides
First Aid Materials
First aid equipment is located at various positions in the airplane to ensure quick access. It
includes first aid kits, blankets, thermal blankets, cushions and sick bags. Transport category
aircraft also carry defibrillators (AED) and these are usually installed and serviced by the vendor.
The technician and flight crew are responsible to ensure that they are correctly mounted and in a
serviceable condition for use.
Other Emergency Equipment
Other emergency equipment is stored in different positions around the airplane for quick access.
This may include:
• Emergency flashlights
• Emergency axe (only in the flight deck)
• Smoke masks
• Protective breathing equipment (PBE)
• Protective goggles
• Doctor's kit (for more extensive treatments by a doctor on-board)
• Megaphone
Equipment for Emergency Evacuation Into Water and Survival Equipment
Equipment for emergency alighting into water and survival equipment is stowed in the cabin and
easily accessible for cabin crew and passengers. This includes:
• Lifejackets (under every seat)

• Floatation devices (usually seat cushions)
• Lifeline (provides passengers with support when disembarking via the wing)
The slide assemblies that are attached to each cabin door can be used as life rafts in the event of a
water landing. After a water landing, the slides can be disconnected from the cabin door sill area
and will float for an indefinite period.
Life Jacket
Lifeline
Seats
A commercial airliner has seats with different designs:
• Pilot seats (manual and electric)

• Jump seats in the cockpit
• Flight attendant seats (with auto retract features since they would otherwise block
emergency exits)
• Passenger seats
Pilot Seats
Pilot seats are arranged symmetrically and have the same functions. They are fixed to the cockpit
floor structure with bolts or mounted to tracks that allow fine adjustment. Pilot seats have a
number of mechanical or electrical adjustments, including height, fore-aft, tilt, lumbar support,
and thigh support. Arm rests on the side of the backrest can be stowed or extended to increase
access and provide additional pilot comfort.

Pilot Seat
Jump Seats in the Cockpit
Jump seats in the cockpit are usually fold-out seats on the rear wall of the cockpit. It is possible
to move them laterally to change the sitting position in the cockpit. It is not possible to change
the position of the seat longitudinally. The seat is moved and locked mechanically.

Cockpit Jump Seat
Flight Attendant Seats
The flight attendants' seats are located near the passenger doors and crew doors. Each seat is near
a storage compartment for emergency equipment. The seats can be free-standing and attached to
the cabin floor with bolts or can be attached to the cabin wall. V%en installed in a door area,
they must include an auto-stow feature that ensures that the seat is not an obstruction during an
emergency egress from the airplane.

Flight Attendant Seat
Passenger Seats
The passenger seats are attached to the cabin floor via seat rails. Quick fasteners at the front and
back seat legs assist with ease of removal and installation. Many passenger seats include
electrical or communication system attachments that must be handled very carefully during seat
changes or cabin reconfiguration.
Each seat has a metal frame to which backrests, seat pans, seat belts, electrical/communications
boxes, and seating surfaces are attached. The backrest is shaped so that it offers the maximum
comfort and protects the upper body and neck in an accident. The seat covers are made from an
approved heat resistant material. The passenger seats have no protruding objects that could cause
an injury or damage to clothing.
Most passenger seats have a recline feature that uses hydro-lock cylinders for smooth and simple
operation. Depressing a button on the armrest relieves internal pressure within the cylinder and
allows the seat back to tilt aft to a comfortable position. Removing pressure from the seatback
while depressing the armrest control brings the seatback forward to the full upright position.
Some premium style passenger seats use electric actuators to position the seatback and footrest.
A number of passenger seat configurations are available for airlines.
Passenger seats that are installed near overwing emergency exits will have the recline feature
disabled so that the emergency egress path is not obstructed.
Passenger Seat

Harnesses and Belts
The harnesses for the pilot seats, the jump seats in the cockpit and the flight attendants' seats
have three or four attachment points. Two shoulder straps, a lap belt, and, if necessary, a belt
across the crotch are installed. The crew members insert the belt ends into the corresponding
harness buckles. They automatically click in with gentle pressure. The harness buckle is firmly
connected to the lap belt. The belt disengages with a 1/4 turn at the buckle. The length of the belt
can be adjusted to the person's physique. Automatic belt retractors can be mechanically blocked
with a lever.
The belt on the passenger seats consists of a lap belt with a simple buckle. The plug on the end of
the lap belt clicks into the buckle with gentle pressure. If the passenger pulls the lever on the
buckle forwards, the belt is released.
Pilot Seat Harness
Cabin Layout
The cabin of a commercial airliner is located in the upper section of the airframe, between the
cockpit and the rear pressure bulkhead. The cabin is divided into service and seating areas. The
service area is usually located near the passenger and crew doors. Service and seating areas are
separated from one another by walls (bulkheads) or curtains.

Service Areas
The following equipment and fittings can be found in the usage area:
• Galley
• Toilets
• Flight attendant seats
• Passenger Service Units (PSU)
• Curtains and partitions
• Plastic flooring (no textiles)
• Connections for vacuum cleaners
Seating Area
The following equipment and fittings can be found in the seating area:
• Passenger seats
• Flight attendant seats
• Cabin and overhead panels (decorative)
• Overhead luggage compartments
• Passenger service units
• Carpet flooring
Some aircraft include auxiliary cabin floor heating where there is a potential for cold air entering
the cabin at floor level (e.g. above large cargo doors in the lower fuselage area).
Cabin Layout

Equipment Layout
The operator must comply with equipment layout criteria that is specified in applicable
regulations and cannot install equipment without reference to these requirements. There are
regulations in the specifications (e.g. CS-25), that identify equipment that must be installed
"within arm's length of the pilot while seated in their seat". Adherence to these requirements
means that the layout of airplanes and the positioning of the equipment is often very similar.
Cabin Furnishing Installation
Cabin furnishing installations and cabin paneling are used for safety purposes and must be in a
functional state at all times. They must be made from materials that meet the flammability and
formation of combustion gases requirements.
Side walls, seat covers, curtains, partitions and all other panels must meet the requirements of the
design specifications (e.g. CS-25).
Cabin Entertainment Equipment
Cabin entertainment equipment is unique to almost every operator and while the principles are
similar, each vendor designs their cabin entertainment/cabin service systems with reliability,
clarity, and ease of maintenance in mind. Comprehensive cabin entertainment equipment helps
increase passenger comfort and offers commercial airliner operators a unique selling point.
Commercial companies offer appropriate system solutions for implementation in airplanes.
These include music databases, televisions, computer games and access to the internet.
Individual units underneath the passenger seats act as interfaces between the displays and the
main system components which can be located anywhere in the airplane (e.g. in the avionics
compartment).
Galley Installation
The galley installation is used for the preparation and storage of food and drinks for passengers
and the flight crew. The following equipment is installed in a galley:
• Oven
• Boiler
• Water tap (potable water)
• Heat compartment (warming cupboards)
• Coffee machine
• Trolleys
• Waste bins
Galley
Cargo Handling and Retention Equipment
The cargo compartments are located in the lower decks of commercial airliners. The cargo
compartments hold general cargo, pallets and containers. The cargo is fixed to the cargo
compartment floor with lashing straps and rings or with mechanical latches.
Roller systems in the cargo compartment floor enable pallets and containers to be manually
positioned. Cargo compartments can be divided into different sections with nets installed
between the ceiling and the floor. These nets can also provide protection for loose cargo in the
compartment. The cargo compartments are accessed via doors that operate manually, electrically,
or hydraulically.
Optional semi-automatic cargo loading systems enable the load, particularly pallets and
containers, to be loaded and moved easily. The cargo compartment doors have control panels
that are used to operate the cargo loading system. Cargo can be moved into position via powered
rollers on the floor that are controlled by a joystick or series of switches. Once in position, the
manually- operated hooks on the floor are used to secure the cargo.
Airstairs
On-board airstairs enable passengers to board and disembark the airplane easily. airstairs
are installed, airline operators do not have to use the ground equipment at airports which helps to
reduce operating costs. Airstairs can be integrated into the door (e.g. Challenger) or can be
located under the cabin door as extendible stairs (Boeing 737).
The additional weight and increased maintenance costs can be considered as a disadvantage of
built-in airstair systems but can also dramatically increase accessibility for some types of route
structures, particularly at unimproved airfields.
Challenger Door

Boeing 737

Fire Protection (ATA 26)
Fire Detection and Warning Systems
Fire prevention, whether on the ground or on an airplane should be at the top of any fire safety
chart. Fire detection, however, is the single most important aspect of fire protection. If a fire is
detected early enough in its development, corrective actions and practiced response can be
initiated, in an attempt to prevent a bad situation from becoming worse.
Aircraft fire protection systems are categorized into two different areas; fire detection and fire
protection.
Aircraft are equipped with fire detection systems using overheat sensors or detector loops, fire
detectors or fire sensing loops and smoke detectors to identify potentially hazardous conditions
and send a warning signal to the flight deck.
The fire protection system is comprised of fire extinguishing cylinders, tubing to route the fire
agent appropriately and valves that help to isolate the flow of combustibles (fuel, air, hydraulics).
All transport category aircraft must include fire detection and protection systems to conform to
National and International certification requirements.
From a chemist's perspective, fire is a reaction between oxygen and a flammable material. This
reaction is called oxidation. Three prerequisites are required before a fire can start (the fire
triangle):
• Availability of a flammable material (fuel)

• Availability of oxygen (more than 15%)
• Availability of an ignition source
Removing any one of the three components will prevent or extinguish a fire.
Most modern aircraft use a Halon-based fire extinguishing system. Halon is a gas that displaces
the oxygen required for oxidation and has the effect of suffocating the fire. Water-based
extinguishers have a cooling effect and help to reduce the temperature required to sustain
ignition. Powder or dry chemical extinguishers prevent the oxygen from oxidizing as the agent
displaces the surrounding oxygen.

The most obvious flammable material on board an aircraft is fuel, however there are many
combustible materials included on an aircraft, including tires, plastics, fabrics, oils and some
metals. In order to successfully identify and fight a fire, the technician must have an awareness
of the four main classes of fire. Fire extinguishers are most effective when used for their specific
class of fire.
Class A fires include solid flammable materials, such as wood, paper, plastics, or cloth textiles.
These materials are common in the cabin area so fire extinguisher agents must not present a
danger to passengers and crew when they are used.
Class B fires include flammable liquids such as fuel, lubricants, or hydraulic fluid. This type of
fire usually occurs in engine areas or hydraulic bays.
Class C fires include electrical fires that start as a result of electrical circuit overheating or
sparking. This type of fire is difficult to extinguish because in addition to the potential for severe
electrical shock, sparking can create fires in surrounding structure and can spread very rapidly.
Class D fires are caused by flammable metals such as aluminum or magnesium. These fires
usually occur in the brake and wheel areas and generate very high temperatures. Only special
extinguishing agents are suitable for metal fires. Do not use water as an extinguishing agent for
this type of fire.
Fire detection systems are designed to provide reliability and should provide:
• Redundancy in higher risk areas to reduce false alarms

• The ability to detect and identify fires quickly
• The ability to identify when the fire has been extinguished
• Automatic reset for a follow-up fire or overheat
• Built-in-Test capability from the cockpit
• Lightweight detectors that are water, oil, vibration and extreme temperature resistant
• Detectors are powered by the aircraft DC bus
• Visual and aural displays in the cockpit
A variety of fire detection systems and components are used in aircraft, including:
• Individual thermal switches

• Thermal switch loops (thermal switches connected in series or parallel)
• Resistance-style continuous fire loops (Kidde, Fenwal)
• Pressure sensor-style continuous fire loops and responders (Systron-Donner)
Thermal Switch Fire Detection Systems
This system uses thermal switches in a parallel or a number of thermal switches in a serial
circuit. As soon as one or more of the switches is activated, a warning sound, light, or message is
generated in the cockpit. The switches consist of a bimetal strip that closes a contact when
heated. Some configurations run two sets of thermal switches in a circuit (thermal switch loops)
and warnings are sent when at least two of the sensors have sensed an overheat condition.
The following schematic shows the basic principle of a thermal switch. If one of the switches
reaches a defined temperature, the contact closes and a current activates the cockpit warning
message. The detectors keep functioning even if the connections between the switches are
broken. A test circuit allows the pilots to check the system operation and integrity.
Thermal Switch Fire Warning System

Thermocouple Fire Detection System
This type of system looks for a rate of change that exceeds its normal value. If the area heats up

and cools slowly and evenly, no alarm signal is sent. If the area has a sudden spike in
temperature, an alarm is sent to the cockpit to warn of the impending fire or overheat situation.
The thermocouple style fire detection systems is comprised of a relay box, warning lights and
thermocouples.
The system's circuits include a:
• Detector circuit
• Warning circuit
• Testing circuit
The relay box contains two relays (a sensing relay and a slave relay) as well as the thermal test
unit. Depending on the number of potential fire zones, the box may contain up to eight identical
circuits. The thermocouples control the operation of the relays, which activate the cockpit
warning lights.
Multiple thermocouples connected in series control the relays. The thermocouples consist of two
metals (Alumel and Chromel) protected from damage by a metal cage. At least two of these
thermocouples are installed in every fire zone, one in a central, exposed position and the other in
a more protected area to serve as a reference.
During normal operation, both elements warm up synchronously so there is no current and hence
no alarm. If the exposed thermocouple's temperature increases in comparison to the reference
thermocouple due to a fire, the circuit closes and a current flows through the sensing relay. If this
current is greater than 4 milliamperes, the slave relay closes and activates the cockpit warning
light.
The test circuit uses a separate thermocouple installed in the normal circuit. This thermocouple is
located in the relay box next to a heating element. If the pilot pushes the test button, the heating
element activates and the test thermocouple triggers an alarm.

Thermocouple Fire Detection System
Continuous Loop Fire Detection System
The continuous loop fire detection system is particularly effective in larger areas that require
monitoring for overheat or fire. It is often used in engine nacelle and fuselage compartment areas
to provide expanded areas of protection. These types of systems are often referred to as
'resistance-type" loops and operate on a similar principle to the thermocouple system described
earlier. A control box sends a reference voltage signal through a center core wire running within
a grounding tube. The center wire is isolated from the grounding tube by a eutectic material that
allows voltage as it is heated. At a certain trigger point, the control box senses the loss of
voltage to ground and sends a warning signal to the flight deck.
These continuous loop sensors have an advantage in that they can be specifically formed to fit
tight areas and can be connected to each other by a wiring harness. In most cases, the continuous
loop is supported by a tube or rod that helps to maintain the loop's shape and prevent inadvertent
damage.
Averaging type continuous elements monitor either:
• changing electrical resistance or

• resistance and capacitance in conjunction with each other or
• changing internal gas pressure as a function of the temperatures to which the detector
element is exposed to

Electrical continuous sensing elements that monitor electrical capacitance and/or resistance, have
one or two internal conductors encased in a ceramic type material that are in a stainless steel
outer sheath. As the surrounding temperature increases, the resistance between the inner
conductor and the outer sheath conductor decreases while the capacitance increases. there are
two wire conductors encased in the sensing element, the resistance change between these two
wire conductors is measured. When the resistance between the internal conductor and the
external sheath falls to a predetermined level which corresponds to the desired alarm
temperature, a monitoring unit generates a warning signal.
This system is self-resetting. When the overheating condition is eliminated and the temperature
returns to a normal range, resistance and capacitance return to their normal parameters which
causes the alarm signals to stop.
Built-in-test (BITE) circuits have the ability to identify a short circuit or open circuit in the loops.
In addition to testing from the cockpit, the fire detection control unit has an extensive BITE
capability on its faceplate.
Most aircraft installations include a dual-loop configuration where both loops must sense a fire
condition before a warning signal is triggered. A single loop sensing an overheat or fire sends a
warning message to the flight deck but does not send a fire warning unless the aircraft is
operating in a single-loop configuration.
Continuous loop systems are designed by manufacturers such as Kidde and Fenwal.

Continuous Loop Fire Detection Systems
Fenwal System
The Fenwal system is a type of continuous loop circuit that uses a single nickel wire running
through the center of an Inconel tube filled with ceramic beads. The ceramic material is
combined with eutectic salt, which has the characteristic of drastically reduced resistance at
increased temperatures. At normal temperatures, the salt prevents a current flow in the core
material. If there is a fire or overheat, the material's resistance drops and the signal wire contacts
ground to provide a warning signal to the flight deck.

Fenwal Tube
Fenwal System
Kidde System
In this system, the Inconel tube houses two parallel wires embedded in a thermistor material.
One of the wires is connected to ground, serving as the system's internal ground, while the other
generates the signal if temperatures rise and the thermistor material loses its resistance. The
sensor elements are connected to a control unit that continuously monitors the system's total
resistance. The system registers both average temperature and local hot areas.
Kidde System
Pressure Sensor Fire Detection Systems
The pneumatic pressure type of continuous element system relies on increasing gas pressure to
achieve its alarm threshold. These sensing elements contain a hydrogen charged core surrounded
by helium gas which are contained in a stainless steel outer sheath. As the surrounding
temperature increases, the helium gas pressure increases causing a pressure alarm switch to
close. As the temperature returns to normal, the pressure decreases and the alarm stops. If a
localized or concentrated, high temperature is present, such as an engine pneumatic duct leak, the
hydrogen core gas will overpressure the hydrogen gas, independently increasing the internal
pressure and closing the fire or overheat pressure switch. Some pressure detector sensors may
have separate alarm switches for overheating and fire. M,llen the heat source is removed, the
hydrogen is absorbed back into the core and the internal pressure decreases, canceling the alarm
signal.
The end of the tube houses a pressure switch. If the temperature rises, the material releases the
gas and pressure in the tube rises. The pressure switch closes at a predefined pressure, activating
the cockpit warnings.
Two typical pressure switch fire detection systems are the:

• Lindberg system
• Systron-Donner system
Lindberg System
A detector, consisting of a stainless steel tube, contains gas-absorbent material. If temperatures

rise, the material releases the gas, causing a pressure increase within the tube, which in turn
closes a diaphragm switch in the responder unit triggering the warning signal. If the pilot pushes
the test button, he applies a low alternating current voltage into the material. This heats the
material, releasing the gas and hence generating pressure in the tube. The pressure increase
causes a test alarm which stops after the pilot releases the button and the material cools down,
again absorbing the gas and breaking the circuit.
Lindberg System

Systron-Donner System
This system uses a titanium wire running within a hydrogen-filled tube. The titanium wire has
the ability to absorb the hydrogen gas so the wire is protected and stabilized by a metal adhesive
tape. Gaps in the adhesive tape allow the gas to escape. The wire and tape assembly is contained
in a stainless steel tube filed with pressurized helium. As the temperature increases, the helium
gas expands and the pressure switch on the end of the tube reacts. At a target value, the circuit
closes and sends an overheat warning to the cockpit.
In case of a fire, the hydrogen contained in the wire is released, causing a sudden pressure
increase. The pressure switch reacts, triggering a fire warning message. If the fire has been
extinguished successfully, the sensor cools down and the titanium wire absorbs the gas. Tube
pressure decreases, the switch breaks the circuit and the warning message disappears.
Systron-Donner System
Smoke Detection and Warning Systems
Smoke detection on larger aircraft is normally found in the lavatories where crewmembers may

not have a continuous monitoring capability however passengers have access. Smoke detection is
also the primary means of fire detection used in cargo compartments. Solid state electronics and
new optics and new processing logics and algorithms have largely replaced the older and less
reliable smoke detection systems. Smoke detection systems can be distinguished into different
categories by their working principles.
The smoke detectors used in aircraft feature different designs and characteristics. There are two
common types:
• Photoelectric (light refraction) smoke detector

• Ionization smoke detector
Photoelectric detectors measure light attenuation and/or refraction. These types of detectors are
in the "optical detector class". Ionization type detectors monitor ionized combustion by-products
as they pass through a charged electrical field.
Most cargo bay applications use aerospace quality photoelectric type smoke detectors that rely
on scattered or reflected light radiation caused by a particulate matter between a radiation
emitting source and a detector device. Solid-state-smoke detectors are less prone to false alarms.
This is because their sensitivity setting remains within calibration threshold alarm limits for a
longer period of time. These threshold limits are adjusted to the individual cargo bay
environment. Another advantage of solid state smoke detectors is the use of longer life
components. A good example of this is the light source used in photoelectric smoke detectors.
Early models used a low voltage light bulb that had an extremely short life. The solid state
photoelectric smoke detectors use a long-life Light Emitting Diode (LED) as its source of light.
When smoke is detected in the cargo compartment, visual and aural warnings are provided at the
flight deck. Warning lights, will get the pilots attention. In addition, on airplanes with engine
indicating and crew alerting systems (EICAS), the message Fire CARGO FVVD or Fire
CARGO AFT is displayed on the active EICAS display to identify the affected compartment. On
airplanes without the EICAS system, individual red lights for the cargo compartment with the
fire will light (e.g., FWD CARGO Fire or AFT CARGO Fire).
Photoelectric (Light Refraction) Smoke Detectors
This type of smoke detector contains a photoelectric cell, a stroboscope and a light trap. All of
these components are mounted in a 'labyrinth". Samples of the ambient air flow through the
detector unit and if the sample contains more than 10% smoke particles, the photoelectric cell
produces a current. This is because the smoke particles refract the stroboscope's light and deflect
some of it onto the photoelectric cell. The smoke detector can be tested at the detector unit and in
some cases, from the flight deck. During test, the smoke detector relay is provided with 28VDC
current so the stroboscope and test lamp operate in a serial circuit to provide a warning message
for SMOKE.
Light Refraction Smoke Detector
Ionization Smoke Detector
This type of smoke detector uses a small amount of radioactive material to ionize the oxygen and
nitrogen molecules contained in the inducted air sample. This ionization allows small voltages to
flow through the detector's chamber. If the sample contains smoke, it combines with the ionized
molecules and reduces conductivity. If the voltage drops below a certain value, the system
triggers a warning message.
Ionization smoke detectors were used in early years, but this approach, for the most part, has
been abandoned. The widespread use of ionization type smoke detectors has largely faded away.
The use of a radioactive isotope as the source to charge the combustion particles also charged
everything else, including dust and moisture. These detectors' sensitivities change with pressure.
Plus as they age, they typically become more sensitive, leading to increased false alarms.

Ionization Smoke Detector
Fire Extinguishing Systems
The first step in controlling and suppressing a fire (after turning off the aural warning) is
removing at least one of the three elements a fire needs to survive which are oxygen, fuel and an
ignition source. This action is initiated manually in the cockpit by the pilots or in the case of
systems such as the APU, automatically.
Fire extinguishing systems must be installed in all fire-critical areas of an aircraft and the
following areas are monitored for overheat and/or fire:
• Engines
• Auxiliary Power Unit (APU)
• Cargo compartments
A fire extinguishing system consists of fire extinguisher containers with low pressure switches,
the tubing to route fire agent to the selected area, fire cylinder squibs and wiring and in some
cases, valves to direct the agent to the selected engine or cargo compartment.
Typical cockpit warnings for an engine fire include:

• A red master warning light illuminates
• An aural warning is sounded (continuous or intermittent)
• The appropriate engine fire control handle lights illuminate and the handle solenoid is
energized to release the handle safety lock
• On some aircraft, an EICAS or ECAM message is generated
• On some aircraft, an emergency fire checklist is displayed on one of the EICAS or ECAM
Screens
The pilot will depress the fire agent discharge button or lift the fire control handle (depending on
the aircraft configuration) and discharge the squib to release the fire extinguisher agent to the
affected area. Pulling the fire control handle will switch off the engine generator, close the fuel
shut-off valve (spar valve), close the engine driven hydraulic pump supply valve and close the
engine bleed valve.
As soon as the fire has been extinguished and the affected area has cooled down, the fire alarm is
switched off.
Fire Extinguishing Caution Panel of a Boeing 737NG
The role of the hand-held fire extinguishers should not be underestimated even though it is the
smallest unit on-board. It is used to put out small incipient fires or to secure the escape routes
when evacuating the airplane.
The engine fire extinguishing system generally consists of two or more fire extinguisher
containers filled with a Halon-type extinguishing agent. The pressure in the fire extinguisher
container can be read from an integral gauge (when installed) or it can be monitored for low
pressure by a cockpit indicator light on the fire extinguishing panel. Fire extinguishing agent
cylinders have a nominal pre-charge of 800 psi of N2 to ensure rapid response of the fire agent to
the selected engine.
When the pilot selects the fire bottle to discharge, an electrical signal is sent to an explosive
squib installed above a frangible disc on the fire bottle. The frangible disc is punctured and the
agent is routed to the selected engine through tubing and a series of short manifolds that direct
the agent to individual engine areas.
Engine Fire Extinguishing System Control Panel
Transport category airplanes have an Auxiliary Power Unit that requires a fire detection and
protection system as well. The APU fire detection/protection systems operate in a very similar
manner to the ones used for engines. In most cases, the APU has its own dedicated fire
extinguishing cylinder however some aircraft configurations share the APU fire bottle with one
used for an engine. The Minimum Equipment List will identify restrictions when an aircraft
shares fire extinguishing bottles with engines and the APU.

Modern aircraft include an external warning for APU fire when the APU is operating on the
ground. Typical configurations include a horn mounted in one of the wheel wells and a red light
that illuminates to draw attention to the emergency. In addition, most APU's include an auto-
shutdown feature that activates when a fire has been detected on the ground. They may also
include a switch to discharge the fire extinguishing cylinder or in some cases, the fire
extinguisher discharges automatically after a short time delay.
Cargo compartment fires can be very difficult to extinguish due to the unpredictable variations
on how baggage and other cargo is loaded into the compartment. With this in mind, it is better to
prevent the spread of a cargo compartment fire than to try and extinguish it while inflight. The
basic operating principle of a cargo compartment fire extinguishing system is to knock down any
fire by flooding the compartment with extinguishing agent and to maintain a high enough
concentration of agent in the cargo compartment to allow the aircraft to land and evacuate while
allowing ground based fire crews to extinguish the fire.
Cargo Compartment Fire Extinguishing
Cargo bay suppression system is required to provide an initial peak volumetric agent
concentration of at least 5% and this concentration should be achieved as quickly as possible
using a high-rate discharge extinguisher to "knock-down" the fire (engine systems are actually
required to achieve a 6% concentration). Unlike the engine extinguishing system, however, a
cargo suppression system is also required to maintain a concentration of at least 3% for some
extended period of time which is accomplished with a low-rate discharge extinguisher. The
typical time period for keeping the compartment inert against flaming combustion is 60 minutes,
however this can vary depending on the route the aircraft is commissioned to fly and in extended
operations (ETOPS/EROPS), inerting periods can be considerably longer.
When the fire extinguisher cylinder includes a pressure gauge, it is checked at regular intervals.
The cylinder pressure varies with temperature and a reference placard is normally installed near
the cylinders. If the cylinder pressure is monitored by a low pressure switch, a test feature in the
cockpit enables the technician or pilot to confirm minimum pressure.
At certain time periods, the fire extinguisher cylinder will be removed and weighed to confirm
serviceability. Cylinder weight is the only true test to confirm the presence of sufficient
extinguishing agent. In addition, the pressurized cylinders must undergo hydrostatic testing every
10 years (or in accordance with the Regulatory restrictions) to confirm the integrity of the
pressure cylinder.
Pressure in the Fire Extinguisher Container

System Tests
Smoke and fire detection/protection systems can be checked from test features in the cockpit or
in some cases, from a detector unit that is housed in one of the electrical or avionics bays.
New features are also now offered in continuous element detection systems that further enhance
their reliability and maintainability aspects. They include:
• Automatic, periodic self-test and system reconfiguration

• Fault location/isolation to the line replaceable unit level
• Self-health monitoring which automatically notifies the maintenance crew that a component
is deteriorating, before a fault occurs
These features can lead to increased detection confidence and improved aircraft "dispatchability"
(mission readiness).
A system test of the fire and smoke alarm systems is described below using the example of a
737NG. The fire extinguishing system control panel is located in the cockpit on the P8 Center
Pedestal just aft of the power levers. On this control panel, there is a toggle switch labelled
"TEST". If the pilot toggles this switch to the FAULT/INOP position, all lights on the panel
except for the squibs should illuminate. If not, a fault exists. Toggling the switch to the
OVHT/FIRE position will cause the following indications:
• Continuous fire bell sounds

• MASTER WARNING lights illuminate
• FIRE WARN lights on the glareshield illumnate (pushing this button silences the fire bell
only)
• ENG FIRE appears in the EICAS message center monitor of the fire extinguishing system
control panel
• ENG FIRE switch/handle illuminates
• SQUIB LIGHTS-illuminate white if the fire extinguisher agent is available (continuity check)
• BOTTLE DISCHARGED amber lights illuminates
Portable Fire Extinguisher
The role of the hand-held fire extinguishers should not be underestimated even though it is the
smallest unit on-board.

Hand-held or portable fire extinguishers can be used to extinguish small fires before they have an
opportunity to grow into larger unmanageable fires. The hand-held extinguishers are also used to
assist with securing escape routes in the event of aircraft evacuation.
Halon-type gas is used as the extinguishing agent in most portable fire extinguishers although
many aircraft also carry dry chemical extinguishers as well. Portable fire extinguishers are
weighed at specified intervals to determine their serviceability.
Portable fire extinguishers are mounted in special quick-release brackets that enable easy access
while providing security in the event of turbulence or accidental contact with passengers or
equipment.
Flight Controls (ATA 27)
In order to control the airplane about its three axes, aircraft use primary and secondary flight
controls. The flight controls are coordinated to provide smooth and predictable movements for
pitch, roll, and yaw.
The flight controls receive input from the flight deck via manual control, automatic control, or in
some cases, via an emergency override system.
Primary flight controls are responsible for control of the aircraft in each axis; ailerons for roll,
elevators for pitch, and the rudder for yaw. In order to reduce the constant forces exerted on the
control column or joystick, the three primary aircraft axes can be trimmed. Secondary flight
controls provide assistance to the primary controls or are responsible for lift augmentation (roll
spoilers, flaps, leading edge devices) or lift dump (speed brakes, and ground spoilers). Feedback
from the control surface to the control input (joystick or control column) is proportional to the
actual loads being exerted on the control surface. In addition, flight control position is generally
displayed on one of the cockpit indicators so that pilots can compare feedback forces with the
existing flight control positions.

Tailplane With Control Surfaces
Aileron and Asymmetrical Roll Spoilers
The ailerons and flight spoilers are used to control the motion of an aircraft on the longitudinal or
"roll" axis. The rolling motion is created by asymmetrically modifying the lift on the wings. The
result in the change of balance between the two wings (right/left) creates a difference in lift. The
wing with more lift rotates about the longitudinal axis and center of gravity in an upward
direction. The other wing moves correspondingly in a downward direction.
The deflection of the ailerons is differential. This means that a deflection in an upward direction
results in a greater angle of deflection than when the aileron is deflected in a downward
direction. This is to reduce the negative yaw moment and a wing "digging" into the wind in
direction of the yaw.
Large transport aircraft usually incorporate two sets of ailerons on each wing. Typical long and
narrow ailerons are installed at the outboard trailing edge of the wing to provide roll control at
low airspeeds. Shorter large chord ailerons are installed on the inboard section of the aft wing to
provide roll control at higher airspeeds. In addition, roll control is assisted by the use of flight

spoilers that can extend upwards to spoil the lift on either wing. Raising a flight spoiler panel
results in a rolling motion because of the differential in lift between the left and right wings.
Low speed ailerons are located on the rear outboard position of each wing to create a large lever
arm in relation to the center of gravity for low speed ranges. Operation of the outboard (low
speed) ailerons is usually inhibited during high speed operations. Operation of the high speed
ailerons located on the inner area of the wing surface prevent the aileron from causing twisting
(torsion) of the wing at high speeds because they have a much smaller lever arm.
When flight spoilers are deflected, they create a decrease in lift on that side which results in a
roll around the longitudinal axis. Flight spoilers usually assist the inner ailerons during cruise
(high speed) flight.
A very small movement of the flight spoilers at high speed results in a significant change to the
roll axis. Flight spoilers are usually enabled during both low speed and high speed flight.
The ailerons and the flight spoilers are controlled by moving the control column (joystick or
control yoke) to the right or to the left. A deflection of the control column to the right results in a
rotational movement of the aircraft along the longitudinal axis to the right, and vice versa.
The stability of the movement along the roll axis is called lateral stability and is mainly
determined by the position of the wings and the height of the vertical tail surfaces.
Elevator
Elevators provide the primary flight control for the pitch (lateral) axis of an aircraft. Elevators
may be constructed of a single piece or, particularly in larger aircraft, of multiple sections. The
elevators are connected to the trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizer and are usually
hydraulically powered through single or multiple actuators.
If the trailing edge of the elevator is deflected downwards by pushing forward on the control
column (or joystick), the curvature of the horizontal stabilizer is increased and results in a lifting
motion at the elevator. Raising the tailplane forces the aircraft nose down and the aircraft
descends. If the trailing edge of the elevator is deflected upwards by pulling aft on the control
column (or joystick), the tail of the aircraft will drop, resulting in a nose up attitude for the
aircraft. If the aircraft has sufficient speed, raising the aircraft nose will cause the aircraft to
ascend.
Due to the long lever arm at the elevators, the forces generated on the elevator can be relatively

small while still creating a large pitch movement. If the aircraft center of gravity is close to the
aft limit, additional effort will be required to push the elevator controls to a nose down position.
Most transport category aircraft use the elevators for short term pitch changes (during takeoff,
landing, and for small amounts of trim during cruise). Long term pitch change required for cruise
configuration is usually accomplished by the secondary flight control responsible for pitch (the
trimmable horizontal stabilizer). In addition, aircraft usually include a system called "neutral
shift" that is responsible to align the horizontal stabilizer and elevator positions to avoid large
amounts of drag created by an offset elevator at high speed.
As seen in Module 8 (Basic Aerodynamics), swept wing aircraft have a tendency to pitch
forward with increasing airspeed. Transport category aircraft incorporate a system called "Mach
Trim" that moves the elevators in response to this tendency. Elevators raise slightly with
increasing airspeed to raise the nose and the neutral shift mechanism then works to align the
horizontal stabilizer with the elevator. This correction is done automatically through a dedicated
Mach Trim system or through one or more autopilot systems.
Rudder
Rudder
The rudder is installed on the vertical stabilizer and is responsible for controlling aircraft yaw
(the movement of the aircraft around its vertical axis). Deflection of the rudder modifies the
profile curvature on the entire vertical tail to generate a yaw moment of the vertical tail structure
in relation to the center of gravity (vertical axis). In order to maintain the greatest possible lever
arm, rudders are installed as far to the rear of the aircraft as possible.
Together with the aileron, the rudder is primarily used to determine the flight direction of an
aircraft. Coordinated turns are enabled by the simultaneous operation of the rudder and aileron.
Without this coordination, undesirable shear forces would occur. Transport category aircraft use
one or more autopilot channels to provide turn coordination and reduce the pilot's workload.
The rudder is controlled manually by the rudder pedals, trim wheel (or switches), and
automatically by a yaw damper and one or more of the autopilot systems. On transport category
aircraft, the rudder pedals also provide a limited amount of control for the nose wheel steering
system when on the ground.
The stability that is produced about the vertical axis is called directional stability and is largely
determined by the sweep of the wings and the size of the fuselage surfaces situated behind the

center of gravity. High speed, swept wing aircraft are susceptible to an adverse yaw condition
called "Dutch Roll". Dutch Roll is a type of aircraft motion consisting of tail plane oscillation
and rocking. The motion is very uncomfortable for passengers and so aircraft counteract this
condition by using a Yaw Damper system. The Yaw Damper system uses sensors to detect the
Dutch Roll movement and send a signal to a dedicated Yaw Damper Coupler or to one of the
flight control computers to move the rudder to counteract the motion. The Yaw Damper system
has a small amount of authority over the rudder and is not used for normal directional control.
Spoiler
Spoiler and lift dump panels are usually hinged panels fixed to the upper part of the aft wing spar
with hinges and an actuator. Hydraulically or electrically operated, or both, they produce a large
amount of drag when deployed which results in a reduction of lift.
The spoiler panel system has a wide variety of functions including the previously mentioned roll
control assistance, speed brakes, lift reduction or lift dumping. Movements of the panels are
commanded with inputs from the cockpit control wheels or a speed brake lever. On more modern
aircraft with electronic controls, the spoiler system can be controlled electronically by a flight
control computer.
Trim Control
Aircraft attitude can be trimmed (small amounts of adjustment) automatically through an

autopilot system, or manually by using a trim control switch or trim wheel in the cockpit. The
pilot activates the switch or moves the trim wheel in the desired direction to relieve the flight
control of significant forces.
Aircraft can be trimmed for Pitch, Roll, or Yaw by moving the center (pivot) point of the Feel
and Centering Unit which effectively results in a new neutral position. Adjusting the pivot point
for the Feel and Centering Unit is done at the cable quadrant (hydro-mechanically controlled
aircraft) or at the Power Control Unit (Hydraulically and Electrically Controlled Flight Controls).
In both cases, the trimmed pivot point simulates a new neutral position and will have a small
adverse effect on the amount of travel that can be applied in one of the directions.
Most aircraft input the trim directly to the primary flight control (aileron, elevator, or rudder) but
feedback systems may also reposition the corresponding secondary flight control. For example,
when elevator trim is selected in the flight deck, elevator movement will input to a feedback
system that moves the horizontal stabilizer to reduce the amount of elevator force and to
streamline the flight control surface. Most large aircraft do not incorporate dedicated trim tabs on
flight control surfaces but reposition the entire flight control surface to provide trim. Pilots use
the trim wheels or trim switches to offload the forces on the column and then select an autopilot
to maintain the aircraft attitude. When the trim switch or wheel is actuated, feedback from
movement of the affected flight control repositions the control in the flight deck. For example, if
one unit of left wing UP trim is input, the aileron control wheel will displace slightly to
the left if hydraulic power is available to move the flight control.
Large amounts of trim on any axis have an adverse effect on fuel economy and airspeed. Aircraft
requiring large trim adjustments will normally require a rigging check to determine the cause of
the ongoing trim condition.
Active Load Control
Some aircraft manufacturers have incorporated systems to ensure that the wing is not
overstressed (overloaded) during operational maneuvers. These systems are often referred to as
the Load Alleviation Function (LAF) or Active Load Control (ALC). The active load control
systems have the singular purpose of restoring design loads to the wings by quickly dumping lift.
The system operates automatically without pilot input and is completely controlled by inputs
from the flight control surfaces to flight control computers which can command spoiler panels
and ailerons.
ALC systems are featured on Fly-By-Wire aircraft and use electronic signals to deflect two or
more spoiler panels on each wing and at the same time, command both ailerons to the "up"
position. Of course in normal roll control mode, the ailerons on each wing act in opposite
directions but this can be overridden momentarily by the IAF system when required. Active
Load Control enables aircraft to safely fly within their design envelopes for speed, altitude, and
roll maneuvers.
Another type of common active load control is used for the trailing edge flaps. V%en the flaps
are extended to the fully extended position (landing flaps), and the pilot is required to speed up
or do a go-around, the flaps load relief system will automatically retract the flaps at a preset
airspeed. The trailing edge flaps return to their originally commanded position when the aircraft
drops below the threshold speed for load relief. Aircraft incorporate test features for load relief
that involves simulation of excessive airspeed through a switch on the Air Data Computer or
through a menu on the Flight Management Computer (or similar unit).
High Lift Devices
Lift augmentation (also called high lift) devices provide additional lift during the takeoff and
landing phases of flight. Transport category aircraft use trailing edge flaps, leading edge flaps,
and leading edge slats for lift augmentation. The additional lift provided by these devices enables
aircraft to takeoff and land at lower speeds, thus reducing the amount of thrust and energy
required during these phases of operation.
When extended, the flaps on the trailing edge of the wing increase the wing chord, and in the
case of Fowler flaps, they also increase the total wing surface. Slots (or gaps) created between
flap segments direct the flow of energy from the lower wing to the upper wing surface. This
results in delayed airflow separation across the upper wing surface and provides additional lift.
This principle is also applied to the leading edge slats. The leading edge itself does not directly
increase lift but allows larger angles of attack and thus additional lift coefficients. Krueger flaps
are sometimes found on the inboard leading edge area and provide similar airflow advantages.
Trailing edge flaps, leading edge flaps, and leading edge slats are commanded when operating
the flap lever in the cockpit. Most modern transport category aircraft use hydraulic power to
operate the leading edge devices and trailing edge flaps but incorporate an electrical backup
mode. When flaps or slats are operated electrically, the hydraulic flap drive motor will be put
into a bypass mode to avoid hydraulic lock. In some cases, aircraft allow extension of leading
edges electrically but retraction is inhibited until hydraulic power is available.
Leading edge devices and flaps must follow strict limits for the maximum extension airspeed.
Extending the slats or flaps at too high of an airspeed can cause structural damage to the flight
control surface and may result in an aircraft upset condition due to asymmetry (one side extends
while the damaged side does not). As discussed in the section for active flight controls, most
large aircraft include a flap load relief system to automatically retract the trailing edge flaps if the
airspeed is excessive with landing flaps selected.
The Flight Crew Operating Manual (FCOM) or in some cases, the Flight Management Computer
(FMC) identifies the maximum speeds for flap extension. If the flaps have been selected to
extend at a higher than allowable speed, the Technician is required to perform a structural
inspection of the leading edge and flap mechanisms, including flap tracks and programming
fixtures (toggles).
Lift Dump
Spoiler panels acting in a Speed Brake function mode assist in reducing or eliminating kinetic or
potential energy and disrupting the wing lift after touchdown (weight-on-wheels). This ensures
that the full weight of the aircraft will be on the wheels which allows for increased effectiveness
of the wheel brakes. Without this function, wheels will have a tendancy to skid.
Depending on the system design and the size of the aircraft, some of the spoiler panels on the
upper surface of the wing are dedicated solely to the lift dump function. These panels, often
referred to as ground spoilers are usually located at the most inboard and outboard positions. An
input from the main landing gear, weight-on-wheels sensor will be shared with the spoiler
control unit for the lift dump mode after a short delay when the first signal is received. This is to
ensure the panels will be deployed only after landing and the aircraft is not "bouncing".
On most aircraft, the lift dump system requires an "arming" signal before deployment. Under
normal conditions, this arming signal is achieved during the takeoff mode when the engine
power or thrust levers are set to takeoff power. V%en the levers are moved to idle during landing
or a rejected takeoff, the spoiler controller will also look for the weight-on-wheels signal before
commanding spoiler panel, lift dump deployment. M,llen commanded in this mode, the spoiler
panels will extend to their physical maximum limits which is further than the inflight speed
brake mode.
Speed Brakes
Spoiler panels extend as commanded while acting in a Speed Brake function mode. Speed brakes
are used to reduce or eliminate an aircraft's kinetic or potential energy, particularly during
approach to the airfield while still inflight. Speed brakes deploy by raising and lowering or
extending and retracting in unison on each wing (symmetrically) to quickly reduce aircraft speed
or "disrupt" the amount of lift created by the wings.
Spoiler panels acting as speed brakes will normally not be commanded to their full maximum
extension as they would after landing with weight-on-wheels.
This function mode allows transport category aircraft to remain in a cruise configuration longer
as they can significantly alter their descent profile. Aircraft without speed brakes must begin a
long shallow approach well before nearing their destination while aircraft incorporating speed
brakes can follow a much steeper descent profile. Using a steeper descent profile helps with an
aircraft's fuel efficiency and is usually a standard operating procedure for air traffic control.
Speed brakes can also be extended on the ground to help slow the aircraft after landing and
ensure an increased braking effectiveness with the full weight of the aircraft on the wheels.
System Operation: Manual
Flight control commands are transmitted mechanically through control rods, cables, push-pull
rods, bellcranks, or via electronic or hydro-mechanical signals. Most transport category aircraft
do not use mechanical control as their primary means of moving flight controls but they will
often use mechanical components to move a hydraulic or electro-hydraulic actuator that is
attached to the flight control surface. Some older aircraft use hydraulic actuators with a
mechanical backup or override system.
Many modern aircraft use full or partial fly-by-wire systems to move flight controls. Some
aircraft use additional fiber-optic signals to transmit inputs to electronic flight control computers
where specific computations command movements of the flight control surfaces.
Mechanical or hydro-mechanical systems typically have an artificial feel system so that the pilots
can receive feedback following movement of the flight control. This can be accomplished
through moving a unit called the Feel and Centering Unit that stretches or retracts a spring on a
control quadrant to provide artificial feel for the pilots. In some cases, a hydraulic feedback is
provided so that the flight controls feel heavier with increasing airspeed.
Electronic fly-by-wire systems do not typically have such mechanical feedback and so the
feedback is simulated electrically at the control column or joystick. In addition, flight control
computers in electronic systems have strict parameters for the rate of movement and travel
limits.
You may see the mechanical or hydro-mechanical flight controls referred to as "reversible flight
controls" because they provide feedback (a reverse signal) to the cockpit. The electronic fly-by-
wire or fly-by-light systems do not provide a direct mechanical feedback signal to the cockpit
and are sometimes called "Irreversible Flight Controls' .

Flight Controls Classification
Manual Signal Flight Controls
Manually controlled flight control systems use mechanical components to transmit forces and
signals. These components include:
• Cables
• Control rods
• Rotating shafts
• Chains
Cables
Depending on their purpose and application, cables are usually constructed of multiple braids of
stainless steel with connector ends and/or turnbuckles (turn barrels). Cable routing and change of
direction is accomplished by the use of pulleys and quadrants. Fairleads are used to protect
cables where they go through bulkheads or enter the fuselage. Cables are usually routed in a
closed loop system where movement in one direction commands a flight control and movement
in the other direction provides a feedback or nulling signal.
Control Rods and Rotating Shafts

Control rods (push rods) and rotating shafts can be used to transfer push-pull forces. Control rods
have the advantage of creating an immediate effect because they are generally shorter in length
and do not have free play or slack built in to their installation. Where a system requires a
feedback circuit, a second control rod will be installed.
Chains
Chains are occasionally used to move large flight control surfaces at a slow rate. While the use of
chains in flight controls is relatively rare in modern aircraft, they are found in aircraft built
during the 1970's as a primary means of moving the horizontal stabilizer.
Mechanically Controlled Actuators

An input from the flight deck provides a signal that is transmitted mechanically to open or close
a control valve on a flight control actuator. The valve allows or prevents hydraulic fluid from
operating an actuator. A feedback system on the flight control repositions the valve once the
commanded position has been reached. Feedback signals can be via a cable, or push-pull rod
although most modern aircraft use electrical feedback circuits.

Mechanical Actuator
System Operation: Hydraulic
A hydraulic actuator converts flight control inputs into control surface movement. The input
signal may be mechanical or electrical. The magnitude of the input determines the degree to
which the control surface deflects. One form of hydraulic actuator installation is called the
"moving body actuator" , where the piston rod is connected to the airframe and the actuator to
the control surface. The opposite type of installation is called the "fixed body actuator" where the
actuator is connected to the airframe and the piston rod attaches to the control surface.
Integrated Actuator Package (IAP)

In order to process input signals, the actuator must be provided with hydraulic pressure. This
type of actuator may be equipped with a separate hydraulic pump that is independent of the on-
board hydraulic system. In this case, the integrated actuator packages are controlled
mechanically.

Integrated Actuator Package
System Operation: Pneumatic
The use of a pneumatic pressure circuit to operate flight controls and other moving aircraft
components has reduced as a primary means considerably as aircraft and their systems have
grown larger with more demanding missions. Pneumatics pressure bled from a turbine engine or
from an electric compressor can provide a power source to operate landing gear, flight controls,
nose wheel steering and brakes. Hydraulic systems with pressures up to 3000 psi and 5000 psi
are now found on the largest of aircraft. Some fairly modern aircraft still use pneumatic pressure
to operate important systems such as secondary flight controls. Using the Boeing 747 as an
example, a pneumatic source is supplied to drive motors which extend and retract the leading
edge flaps.
The pneumatic drive motor turns torque tubes that connect to rotary actuators or gearboxes. The
rotary actuators use drive links to extend and retract segments of the leading edges. The leading
edge drive motor receives power from the aircraft pneumatic system and is regulated to ensure a
predictable drive motor speed. Early versions of pneumatic drive motors and connecting tubing
were prone to icing that could cause asymmetry issues. Service bulletins were issued to ensure
that a small amount of hot pneumatic supply air was ported to the drive motor to prevent icing
and sluggish operation. In most cases, pneumatic drive systems for leading edges will have an
electrical backup system to extend the flaps in case of a loss of pneumatic power.

System Operation: Electrical
In addition to the use of cables and control rods, flight controls can also be controlled via
electrical or electronic signals. This is often referred to as a "fly-by-wire" flight control system.
In an electrical or electronic system, flight control computers receive the input from the flight
deck and transmit it to the associated flight control. When the flight control moves, dual sensors
provide feedback to the flight control computer to null the input signal. The fly-by-wire system is
quite similar to a mechanical system except that inputs and feedbacks are electronic or electrical.
True fly-by-wire systems do not have a mechanical backup system but do include many
redundant systems to ensure that the flight controls can only operate within a certain flight
envelope. The flight control computers are designed to prohibit an unsafe or out-of-limits signal
to the control surfaces.
Some aircraft are hybrid in nature and have a mix of mechanical and fly-by-wire controls. For
example, the spoiler panels on the Boeing 767 operate using electronic inputs and feedback but
ailerons, elevators, rudder, and flaps are mechanically controlled.
Fly-by-wire systems have the following advantages:
• Less complex installation because there are no cables, pulleys or associated mechanical
linkages
• Weight savings due to electrical wires taking the place of control cables and associated
hardware
• Improved feedback capability to the flight deck for troubleshooting and indication
• Reduced maintenance requirements
• Improved handling characteristics because of the ability of computers to command precise
movements
• Automatic safety features to maintain flight control safety envelopes
Fly-By-Wire Actuators
Fly-by-wire actuators receive electronic input signals from the flight deck via a flight control
computer or series of flight control computers. Flight control computers are referred to by a
number of different names depending on aircraft model and manufacturer but in all cases, they
are responsible for receiving an input and providing an output to actuators on the associated
flight control surface. Modern aircraft use integrated flight control computers that receive
electronic input from all flight control surfaces, from the Thrust Management Computer (TMC),
Flight Management Computer (FMC) and from the Autoflight Selector Panel to provide signals
to the flight controls.

Actuator and flight control surface position is reported to the flight control computers by
electronic position sensors, usually by a Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT).
FBW Actuator
Electro-Hydrostatic Actuator (EHA)
Electro-Hydrostatic Actuators are similar to Integrated Actuator Packages (IAP). The hydraulic
pressure for the EHA is generated by an electric motor, which only uses power when it is
commanded to move a control surface and so, EHA's are very power efficient.

EHA
Electro-Mechanical Actuator (EMA)
Electro-Mechanical Actuators (EMA) are an evolution of the Electro-Hydrostatic Actuator

(EHA). The EMA was designed to eliminate the local hydraulic actuators used in an EHA
system and replaces hydraulic actuators with an electrical motor. Because of relatively slow
reaction times, EMA's are mainly used for control surfaces using a screw jack or similar system.

EMA
Artificial Feel
Hydraulically operated flight control surfaces require an artificial feedback (feel) to the flight
deck so that pilots have a direct feel of control force pressures. Without an artificial feel system,
pilots could over-control the flight control surfaces creating an unsafe and uncomfortable phase
of flight.
In addition to being very uncomfortable for passengers, over control of the aircraft could cause
airframe or component damage. Most artificial feel systems use a spring and/or cam arrangement
within the flight control input quadrant to provide physical resistance to control movement.
In a system using a spring tension to create artificial feel, flight control inputs act directly on the
spring. The force felt by the pilots at the cockpit control varies as the spring is compressed or
stretched. This type of artificial feel system is comprised of a dual-acting feel and centering
spring. One side of the feel unit is connected to the control column by a lever. The other side is
attached to the airframe. If the control column in the cockpit is pushed forwards, the force on the
control column acts on the internal ram in the feel unit through the control rod. The spring is
pushed against the right stop on the housing and the control pressure increases. If the control
column in the cockpit is pulled aft, the force on the control column acts on the internal ram in the
feel unit through the control rod. The spring is pushed against the left stop on the housing and the
control pressure Increases.
The control surface neutral (null) position can be changed by the trim system. The trim system
consists of a cable operated trim wheel or an electric motor that drives a spindle screw. The

housing of the feel unit is moved with the spindle screw.
This type of system consists of the following components:
• A cam that is on the same shaft as the input quadrant

• A cam follower with a roller
• A support unit on which the cam follower has its center of rotation
• A feel and centering spring between the cam follower and the support unit
The support unit is held in position by a trim actuator. Control input is transferred to the servo
control unit through a control rod that is connected to the input quadrant.
If the control wheel is moved, rotation is transferred to the input quadrants and cams. The cam
follower is forced out of the zero (mid) position and the feel and centering spring extends. The
extension of the spring causes increased control forces for the pilots. If the pilot releases the
control wheel, the spring compresses and the entire system is centered.
Yaw Damper
Passenger jets usually fly at high speeds and have a tendency to oscillate around the vertical axis.
These oscillations are known as "Dutch roll" and are an uncomfortable aerodynamic behavior.
This phenomena mainly occurs in aircraft with swept wings.
A yaw damper system is used on many aircraft (usually jets and turboprops) to dampen the
rolling and yawing oscillations by making inputs to the rudder control system. Dutch roll occurs
when the lateral stability is greater than the directional stability. If this equilibrium is restored,
the leading edge of the wing generates more lift and resistance than the trailing edge of the wing.
A slip in the opposite direction is generated and the Dutch roll cycle repeats. The use of a yaw
damper helps to provide a better ride for passengers.
Yaw damper systems require yaw rate sensors and a processor (called a Yaw Damper Coupler)
that provides a signal to an actuator that is connected to the rudder controls. The yaw rate sensor
is a gyro that records the angular speed of an aircraft's yaw movement. The Yaw Damper
CouplerA computer determines the required amount of deflection input to counteract the Dutch
roll movement. The maximum amount of rudder deflection allowed by the Yaw Damp system
varies depending on the aircraft size and design. Typically, small turbo propeller aircraft limit
yaw damp movements to three degrees left or right of neutral while large aircraft such as the
Boeing 777 increase the limit to six degrees left or right of neutral.
On some aircraft the yaw damper must be operational at all times during flight above a specified
altitude. Input for aircraft altitude is sent to the Yaw Damper Coupler from an IRU or from one
of the Radio Altimeters.
While it is considered as a part of the auto-flight system, Yaw Dampers can usually be activated
without engaging the autopilot but do require the Inertial Reference Units (IRU) to be aligned or
the GPS to be active.
Rudder Limiter
Control surfaces on large transport category aircraft require both hard and soft deflection limiters
to prevent damage due to excessive flight control deflection at high speeds. Hard limits are
usually provided by a physical stop on a quadrant or on the surface itself while soft limiters are
programmed in software. Because they are programmable in software, soft limits can be variable
depending on the aircraft configuration and speed range.
Most modern aircraft allow full rudder deflection during low altitude, low speed operation, and
when the aircraft is on the ground. Full deflection may also be enabled during an "engine-out"
condition to assist with yaw control during an engine failure. Full rudder travel is determined by
physical stops on the rudder input quadrant or by rudder Power Control Unit (PCU) travel limits.
Typically, when an aircraft is above a certain altitude or above a scheduled speed, the amount of
rudder travel is restricted by a pressure reducer in the PCU. The pressure reducer drops system
pressure of 3000 psi to around 1000 psi with the effect of slowing down the speed of rudder
movement and at the same time, reducing the overall amount of travel because of increasing air
loads at high speeds. The rudder Power Control Unit (PCU) receives an input from a Radio
Altimeter or from an IRU to provide a signal for aircraft altitude. The pressure reducer is
solenoid controlled to restrict the speed and travel of the rudder. Some earlier aircraft use a direct
input from a vertical fin-mounted pitot tube to a Yaw Damper Coupler to provide a signal for
airspeed.
Gust Lock Systems
When an aircraft is on the ground without electrical or hydraulic power available, the flight
controls are susceptible to uncommanded movement due to wind gusts or blast from other
aircraft. The unrestricted movement of flight control surfaces against its stops can cause
significant damage so transport category aircraft have an automatic gust dampening system.
Hydraulically powered flight controls retain pressure within the actuator to provide hydraulic
dampening. The trapped hydraulic pressure is routed to return when hydraulic pressure is applied
to the aircraft. Gust locking or dampening is usually installed on ailerons, elevators and on the

rudder. Spoiler panels, leading edge devices and trailing edge flaps do not normally include a
gust dampening system.
Balancing
For a stable flight condition, the forces acting on the airplane and moments must be in
equilibrium. Creating this equilibrium manually throughout the entire duration of a flight by
means of the elevator over the lateral axis, for example, would put constant strain on the pilot. To
reduce this strain, the elevator has a trim tab. In passenger and corporate aircraft, the entire
tailplane is usually adjusted for trimming the pitch moment. A spindle is used as the drive for
adjusting the tailplane.
This type of trim has the advantage that, despite the trim changes made, full rudder deflection is
always available for control. Moreover, a large trim range is required in long-haul aircraft in
particular due to their high speeds of travel. The tuck-under caused by supersonic effects on the
wings (in the high subsonic range of Mach 0.70) is responsible for this. In addition, commercial
airliners with swept wings (integral tanks in the wings) require a greater trim range due to the
large shift in the center of gravity as a result of fuel consumption and the different load
arrangements of passengers and cargo.
The trim can be adjusted automatically by computer or using a trim control button on the yoke or
a trim wheel on the cockpit's central console. The controlling pilot moves the button or the trim
wheel in the desired direction until the yoke is free of forces.
Due to the lack of natural control force feedback on the input devices if the hydraulic signal and
transmission is complete, the tailplane is trimmed to either the mid deflection position of the
elevator or to an idle state of power in the elevator hydraulic actuator by the trimming computer.
In a fully powered signal and transmission system, it is usually only the neutral point of motion
that is repositioned during the lateral and directional trim about the corresponding axis, due to
the absence of any point of reference. For example, if the aileron has to be deflected on one side
by 50 for straight flight, this position can be re-established as the neutral point by adjusting the
lateral trim.
Rigging
Flight control components are checked and adjusted at regular intervals determined by the
manufacturer. In most cases, misaligned or unbalanced flight controls will be written up by the
flight crew but maintenance personnel will confirm correct rigging and serviceability during
routine checks.
Before disconnecting flight control cables, rods, or other components, the correct or "rig"
position must be established by inserting a series of rig pins. With the rig pins installed and the
flight control surface in their correct positions according to the aircraft maintenance manual,
cables, control rods, or in some cases, voltages can be adjusted. It is important to follow the
correct set-up procedures during the rigging procedure because manufacturers may use different
settings as their neutral positions. Normal safety precautions must be observed and all rig pins
must be visible through the use of red streamers or fluorescent colored rig pins. Some
manufacturers recommend the use of hydraulic fluid- resistant plastic pins so that the pin would
break in the event of inadvertent hydraulic movement with the pin installed.
Cable tensions vary with ambient temperature and the maintenance manual will identify
variations in cable tensions depending on ambient temperature. Make sure that you know the size
of the cable as most cable tensiometers have different settings for different sizes of cables.
It is always recommended that cable tensions be adjusted at or near standard day temperatures.
Do not adjust a cable tension if there are temperature extremes (too hot or too cold) as the
maintenance data is predicated on a typical 15-20 degree ambient temperature. Cable tension is
taken mid-way between two pulleys and on a run that is long enough to have some deflection
when depressed. Cable tensiometers are calibrated at regular intervals to ensure the accuracy of
maintenance readings.
Stall Protection/Warning System
If an airplane's angle of attack is too high for the oncoming air flow, a wing stall can occur.
During a stall, the wings no longer produce enough lift to keep the airplane in the air. In order to
prevent aircraft stalls, angle of attack sensors are installed on the forward section of the fuselage.
The angle of attack sensors (AOA) provide inputs to Stall Warning Computers or to Flight
Control Computers to send visual and aural warnings to the pilots in the event of an impending
stall condition. The AOA sensors are heated whenever the engines are running or when the
aircraft is in flight mode so caution must be used when working around them. Angle of Attack
sensors are indexed to ensure that they are installed with the correct reference to the airframe and
most aircraft include a stall warning test circuit that can be activated by the flight crew or
maintenance personnel.
Modern aircraft connect the stall warning circuit to the flight control computer that will
automatically drop the nose and increase the throttle to regain airflow over the wings and recover

from a stall condition. Some aircraft also include an auto-slat feature that extends the leading
edge slats to further recover from the stall. During a stall condition, a stick shaker vibrates the
pilot's control column and both aural and visual warnings appear in the flight deck.
In a Boeing 737 NG, the angle of attack sensor system works as follows:
If an exceeding angle of attack is detected, the landing flaps in 1, 2 or 5 of the landing flap lever
are moved from the "extended" position to the "fully extended" position.
If the angle of attack decreases, then the landing flaps return to the pre-set position. If the angle
of attack increases again, then the control column vibrates. At the same time, a strong artificial
control feel is generated, which means the pilots are no longer able to pull the yoke further.
An automatic signal causes the airplane to be trimmed via the trimmable horizontal stabilizer
with a burden on the nose. If these measures reduce the angle of attack, all activated systems are
reset.
Fuel Systems (ATA 28)
System Layout
An airplane's fuel system consists of a number of subsystems including fuel storage and water
removal, fuel tank ventilation, fuel delivery, fuel transfer, fueling/defueling, and indication.
Some aircraft also include a subsystem for dumping fuel in the event of an emergency; although,
this is mainly found in heavy aircraft that cannot land with a full load of fuel.
Fuel tanks are normally integral in the wings and in the center body section. Some aircraft
include "wet stabilizers" and carry fuel in the horizontal stabilizer. Fuel in the horizontal
stabilizer is generally used as a part of the aircraft trim system and moves fore and aft to ensure
correct longitudinal trim before it is consumed by the engines or Auxiliary Power Unit (APU).

Fuel Tanks
The vent surge tanks are installed near the wing tips and are included as part of the wing
structure to provide a small amount of space for fuel overflow and to assist with positive fuel
tank venting.
Removable auxiliary tanks are sometimes included in one of the cargo compartments and are
used to extend an airplane's range.
The vent surge tanks are installed near the wing tips and are included as part of the wing
structure to provide a small amount of space for fuel overflow and to assist with positive fuel
tank venting.
Fuel Tanks
Integral fuel tanks are commonly used in transport category aircraft and take advantage of the
space within the wings to carry fuel. Sealed wing ribs separate the various tanks while the upper
and lower wing planks, and front and rear spars provide tank boundaries.

Wing Tank Structure
The center tank is formed by forward, aft, upper, and lower bulkheads and by the left and right
wing ribs.
Integral Tank

Center Tank
When installed, auxiliary fuel tanks are not considered a part of the original aircraft structure.
They are usually removable, or in some cases expandable, to add fuel capacity. Auxiliary fuel
tanks are most often comprised of a fuel bladder that is retained in place by a solid frame or
similar structure.
Additional Tank
Integral tanks are not fuel-tight unless ribs, joints, screws, attaching hardware, and rivets are
internally sealed. Where two tanks are connected to each other or where piping goes through
separate sections of a fuel tank, gaskets are used to ensure tank integrity and security.

Seal
During aircraft attitude changes, it is important that the fuel does not immediately rush to the low
points (down-wing or nose up/down position). Sudden internal transfer of fuel during an attitude
change could cause significant problems with the center of gravity and left to right (lateral) wing
imbalance. Thus, baffles are installed in fuel tanks to slow or restrict the amount of fuel
movement. The baffles can be in the form of larger internal ribs with fuel transfer holes or in
some cases, with flapper valves to restrict the amount of fuel transfer during takeoff, landing, and
in a turn. Fuel movement in both the fore-aft and left-right directions is controlled to avoid
sudden shifts in the aircraft handling characteristics.

Fuel Damping
Check valves with sealing flaps allow fuel to flow inboard towards the fuel pumps but restrict or
prohibit fuel flow in an outboard direction. This helps to ensure that the fuel (boost) pump intake
area remains covered with fuel during attitude changes. The check valves are located along the
entire length of the wing ribs of the wings. Fuel tank boost pumps are normally installed within a
housing that ensures that there is an adequate supply of fuel during all engine demands. The
housing includes flapper valves that allow fuel to enter but not to leak out during aircraft attitude
changes.

Check Valves With Flaps
Fuel tanks require internal access for inspection and for some component replacement. Fuel tank

access doors are installed at various locations along the lower wing surface to enable technicians
to perform inspections and maintenance as required. Some inboard areas of wing tanks or center
body tanks are large enough for full technician access and these areas often include internal webs
with access holes between sections of the tank. The technician must follow procedures for health
and safety before entering a fuel tank as such access is carefully controlled.
Auxiliary fuel tanks that are installed within a cargo compartment must include a sump area to
catch and vent any fuel leakage from the bladder-style tank. This ensures that a build-up of fuel
cannot occur and is particularly important to avoid a fuel-air ratio that could result in a fire or
explosion if exposed to an ignition source. These sump areas are vented and include drain holes
or drain masts to ensure positive airflow through the area.
Supply Systems
Engine fuel supply systems ensure that there is a positive fuel supply available to the engines and
APU during all phases of flight and ground operation. In most cases, engines are supplied with
fuel from a specific fuel tank; however, aircraft with multiple tanks allow the cross-feeding of
fuel between tanks to the engines. A fuel supply shut-off valve is installed in the fuel line to cut
off the fuel in the event of a fire or emergency condition. A fuel pump outlet check valve is
installed in the fuel delivery line from each fuel pump to ensure that fuel from another pump is
not fed back through an inoperative pump.
Fuel can be supplied from other tanks through a cross-feed system. Dependent on the aircraft
type, fuel can be fed from any tank to any engine, but some aircraft do not allow the transfer of
fuel in flight. As an example, the Boeing 737 can feed either engine from any tank but is unable
to transfer fuel between tanks except for when the airplane is on the ground.
Fuel systems are designed to ensure that at least two fuel pumps are available to supply each
engine. If a fuel boost pump fails during engine operation, a single boost pump can meet the fuel
demand from the engine without an interruption in fuel supply. In the event of a fuel pump check
valve failure or other blockage, a bypass valve is installed in the fuel delivery system to allow
fuel to go around the pump and deliver fuel at a reduced supply rate to the engines.

Supply System
Fuel is supplied to the APU and engines from one of the main tanks and depending on the
aircraft type and manufacturer, may be from a wing or center tank. Fuel routed to the APU goes
through a fuel shutoff valve that opens when the APU is selected to run. This fuel shutoff valve
will close when the APU shuts down or when an APU fire is detected.
There is also a fuel shutoff valve installed in the fuel supply line to each engine. The engine fuel
supply valve is often referred to as the "spar valve" and is commanded open or closed with the
engine fuel selector switch in the flight deck. The engine fuel supply valve closes during engine
shutdown or when the engine fire handle is activated (pulled or pushed) to remove the potential
source of combustibility to the engine.
If fuel is housed in the horizontal stabilizer, it will have fuel supply lines connecting to the center
tank to maintain a full level for as long as possible. Most aircraft are designed to retain fuel in the
wing tanks until it is required by the engines to assist with dampening of wingtip flutter and to
provide a predictable center of gravity.
Older aircraft use a manual fuel management system that would require a flight engineer, or third
member of the crew, to control fuel supply to engines by use of fuel pumps and cross-feed
valves. Modern aircraft manage fuel usage automatically through software and have fuel supply
scheduling logic built-in to their design. Two methods are most common in the management of
fuel supply to the engines:
• Fuel pumps (boost pumps) can have different fuel delivery pressures, oftentimes with the
higher output pumps being installed in the center tank to ensure that fuel is used there first.
This type of fuel pump is normally referred to as an "override pump" because of its higher
output pressure that overrides the pressure of the main tank boost pumps.
• Fuel pumps may deliver the same pressure but check valves installed in their outlets are of a
different value. For example, some B737 aircraft have a 12 psi check valve at their outlet for
wing tank boost pumps while the boost pumps installed in the center tank have a check
valve value of only 1.3 psi. The difference in check valve settings helps to ensure that the
center tank fuel supply is used first.

Manual Control
Fuel boost pumps are centrifugal style pumps consisting of an AC motor driving an impeller.
Centrifugal pumps provide large volumes of fuel at relatively low pressure (typically 20-35 psi).
Fuel boost pumps ensure that a high volume of constant pressure fuel is available to the High
Pressure pump installed on the engine. Fuel boost pumps are typically housed within a fuel-tight
canister that enables a technician to remove the pump without defueling the fuel tank. M,llen the
boost pump is extracted from the housing, a check valve or flapper valve closes the fuel line to
prevent excessive leakage. Replacement of fuel pump outlet check valves will usually require
tank defueling.
In addition to supplying the engines and APU with fuel, there are a number of supporting
functions. Hydraulic systems route their case drain fluid through a fuel-oil heat exchanger that is
normally located in the inboard area of each wing tank. Hydraulic case drain fluid is used to
provide cooling and lubrication for engine-driven and electric hydraulic pumps.
Many engines use fuel as a cooling method for engine oil through the use of an engine fuel-oil
heat exchanger. In this arrangement, low pressure fuel from the engine fuel pump is routed
through a canister containing a number of passageways holding engine oil. This type of fuel-oil
heat exchanger system is commonly monitored for contamination and advises the flight crew or
technician of a bypass or over-temperature condition.
Some modern aircraft also use fuel as a cooling method for oil used in the Integrated Drive
Generator (IDG). Depending on the electrical demand from the IDG, control valves in an IDG
heat exchanger will open or close to provide cooling fuel flow through a fuel-oil heat exchanger
similar to the engine oil and hydraulic systems.
Recirculation
Dumping
Some airplanes include a fuel dumping system that allows the flight crew to offload fuel in the
event of an emergency in-flight. Most aircraft cannot land safely at their maximum takeoff
weights. there are safety margins for overweight landings, landing with an overweight aircraft
can create extreme stress on the fuselage and landing gear. Most heavy commercial aircraft
incorporate a fuel dumping system.
Fuel dump systems are designed to restrict the total amount of fuel that can be dumped. The fuel
pickups for the dumping system are typically set at a higher level than for the engine fuel boost
pumps to ensure that sufficient fuel for engine operation remains available after dumping has
been completed. Some aircraft do not enable dumping of all tanks which also helps to ensure that
sufficient fuel remains for engine operation.

Fuel dump systems are normally routed through their own manifold where the fuel is moved
through normal boost pumps, or jettison pumps, to jettison valves located at the trailing edge of
the wingtips. The jettison pumps deliver both high volume and high pressure fuel during fuel
dump operation to quickly reduce the aircraft's gross weight. The fuel dump manifold leads the
fuel to jettison valves where it is dumped overboard through a jettison nozzle. The jettison nozzle
is designed to prevent fuel atomization during dumping so that the risk of explosion is reduced.
Fuel Jettison
Some airplanes are equipped with special jettison pumps, while other aircraft use standard fuel
pumps to pump the fuel overboard. Although the pumps may look similar, the jettison pumps
have a higher output and pressure. Most aircraft also include a jettison manifold isolation valve
to prevent normal fuel pressures from entering the jettison manifold (dump manifold) and
leaking through the nozzle valves.
Venting
A fuel vent system serves the purpose of exhausting air from the tank during refueling. This is
referred to as the "positive fuel venting system". Conversely, ventilation systems must allow air
to enter the top of the tank area as fuel is consumed by the engines and APU. This is referred to
as the "negative fuel venting system". A plugged vent system can result in serious fuel delivery
problems or in some cases, structural damage. As a result, fuel tanks have protection for both
negative and positive overpressure situations.

Fuel tanks are connected to surge tanks by vent lines with check valves to ensure that fuel does
not enter the vent system during excessive climb and descent situations. The vent tanks are
connected to the atmosphere through a small outlet and a National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics (NACA) scoop assembly. The scoop assembly provides a small amount of pressure
during flight that helps to prevent fuel evaporation while ensuring a positive fuel tank head
pressure. The center tank is ventilated by ducts connecting to each surge tank. This cross venting
ensures that venting is available regardless of the aircraft's attitude.
The vent tubes pass through the wing and larger fuel tanks often require two ducts to ensure
proper ventilation. The vent ducts contain drain valves that open to drain any fuel in the vent line
after the tank fuel levels have dropped below a certain level. When the tanks are above the drain
valve level, a poppet or float valve closes off the drain valve to prevent fuel from entering the
vent system tubing.
Venting

If a refueling valve sticks open or does not close when commanded, fuel enters the vent system
and is stored in the vent tank before draining overboard through the scoops. Drain valves in the
tanks enable any remaining fuel to drain back to the wing tanks when the fuel levels fall below
the level of the drain valve.
In the event of a positive or negative vent system failure, the vent system includes two
overpressure relief valves for each surge tank area. One of the relief valves opens to relieve
positive pressure while the other relieves negative pressure. Both types of relief valves have a
visual indication that there has been a vent system problem, normally indicated by a pop-out
style indicator.
Venting systems for center wing and auxiliary tanks help to protect the aircraft and the
passengers from dangerous fuel vapors or leakage. Center wing tanks often have the air
conditioning bays in close proximity and there is potential for explosions in this area if fuel
leakage were to occur. A NACA scoop on the lower fuselage area routes positive ventilation air
around the tank cavity and expels it overboard through a scoop or drain. Ventilation for the
horizontal stabilizer fuel tank is provided by a small amount of ram air that is routed through the
upper area of the tank.
Draining
Fuel tanks have sump drains installed at the lowest point of each tank section. These drains are
used to remove contaminants such as water or other fluids that are heavier than the fuel. In some
cases, construction of the tank or interference from components requires a drain line from the
low area in the tank be routed to a more accessible area for the sump drain.
Drain valves are operated manually by inserting a sump drain tool that includes a small scupper
or funnel to drain the fuel to a container for disposal. The valve consists of a valve piston and an
internal check valve. A spring keeps the piston and check valve closed. When a drain tool is
inserted into the drain valve, it presses against the inner spring, raises the piston, and contacts the
check valve. Additional upward pressure opens the drain check valve and the fuel drains through
a tube to the sump drain scupper or funnel assembly.

Sump Drain Valve (Internal View)

Sump Drain Valve (External Mew)
In addition to drain valves, water scavenge systems are installed in most fuel tanks to ensure that
large volumes of water do not collect in one area. The water scavenge systems are operated by a
jet pump assembly that creates a low pressure area at the low spots in the tank. Lines connecting
the low spots are used to syphon the fuel-water mixture and route them to the inlet of the boost
pump. The boost pump has enough volume to dilute the fuel-water mixture and it is sent to the
engines for combustion.
Some drain valves are installed in inaccessible locations and therefore can only be opened
electrically. They operate with a magnetic switch which, when activated, opens the valve. If the
magnetic switch fails, the service technician can also open the drain valve manually. The electric
drain valves are controlled via their own control panel.
Removal of fuel sump drains requires that the tank be empty. Defueling can remove most of the
fuel from a tank however there is always a certain amount of unusable fuel that must be drained
into a large container through the fuel sump valves. In many cases, this unusable fuel can exceed
200 litres and so there are special sump drain tools that lock the drain valve in place for extended
periods of operation.
Crossfeed
A fuel crossfeed and transfer system allows the transfer of fuel between tanks. Fuel transfer
between the tanks during flight is often prohibited or controlled because of the changes that are
created for the center of gravity and lateral imbalance. Where aircraft have reserve tanks, it is
common for fuel transfer to occur between the auxiliary or reserve tanks and the main tank. This
sort of fuel transfer may be manually or automatically controlled and normally does not go
through a fuel crossfeed valve. Instead, auxiliary tank to main tank transfer uses a series of floats
and internal switches to determine when the transfer should occur and when the transfer should
stop.
Wing to wing fuel crossfeed will normally include either a timer or an automatic warning system
to advise the crew of lateral imbalance. A gate style crossfeed valve is installed in the crossfeed
manifold to control fuel transfer and has switches, lights, and/or warnings in the flight deck to
show the valve position or disagreement.
The following components are necessary for performing a transfer:
• Fuel pumps
• Fuel supply valve
• Discharge valve or transfer valve
• Fueling valve
• Fueling lines through which the fuel can flow into the other tank
A transfer of fuel can be carried out manually, for example after a failed refueling, in order to
restore the balance of the aircraft.
Indications
The Fuel Management Panel on most aircraft includes information for the status of fuel pumps,
crossfeed valves, fuel temperature, and fuel quantity. In many cases, fuel pump switches are of
the "switch-light" type that identifies whether the switch has been selected by illuminating an
"ON" light. In most modern aircraft, the system is also displayed on a synoptic page in advisory
systems such as ECAM or EICAS. Synoptic pages show the position of boost pumps, fuel
crossfeed valves, and fuel fill valves. They often include information for fuel used, total fuel
remaining onboard, and identify whether an automatic transfer between tanks is in progress. The
synoptic pages include a good representation of the lines used to move fuel throughout the
airplane tanks.
Information for fuel quantity is derived from a series of capacitance units and at least one
compensator unit that measures the specific gravity of the fuel in the tank. A Fuel Quantity
Processor Unit is a type of computer that receives signals from the capacitance units and
capacitor to output a fuel quantity indication to the flight deck and to the refuel panel on the
wing.
The fuel quantity is indicated as mass, usually pounds, kilograms or tonnes. Information for the
fuel quantity is important for pilot information and also for the Flight Management System

(FMS) that calculates maximum performance data for the aircraft. Aircraft with heavy fuel loads
may not be able to climb directly to their cruising altitude and the FMS provides an amended
program for the flight profile.
Level Measurement
The number of fill level sensors in a tank depends on its size and shape. The sensors are installed
vertically in each tank and extend from the tank floor to the tank top. Therefore the sensors have
a different length.

Each sensor consists of two thin-walled tubes of an aluminum alloy. The sensors are coaxially
installed and electrically insulated from one another to form a capacitor. Each sensor has a
connection block, which consists of the electrical connection and a fastening connection, that
connects the tank structure with the sensor.
If the tank is empty, the space between the two pipes is filled with air. When the tank is filled
with fuel, this space is either full or only partially filled with fuel, depending on the fuel level of
the tank.
The capacitance (C) of the sensor is its ability to store electrical energy and is among other
factors dependent upon:
• The disk surface area (A) and

• The distance between the disks (d)
Furthermore, the capacitance also depends on the material between the plates. If the sensor is
completely surrounded by fuel, the capacity is increased by a factor of 2.2. The material-
dependent factor e is referred to as the dielectric constant.
The Fuel Quantity Processor Unit measures the capacity of all sensors and calculates the fuel
level. It also stores information for fuel tank shape and the length of each capacitance probe and
can convert the capacitance values and fuel density to a fuel quantity for display. Failure of one
capacitance probe will not adversely affect the fuel quantity display although Built-In-Testing
(BIT) will identify which probe is faulty.
Warnings
The outlet pressure from fuel boost pumps is connected to pressure switches that illuminate a
light or send a message to the flight deck for low pressure. The pressure switches typically
include a low pressure limit that closes a switch to provide a cockpit warning.
Aircraft with synoptic pages on EICAS or ECAM will often display the actual output pressure of
each boost pump and include a color change to amber for low pressure. Normal fuel pressures
are shown by a green readout of the fuel pressure.
Many modern aircraft use a fuel management system that will automatically control boost pumps
when the pilot "arms" the fuel system for automatic operation. WIIen the low pressure indication

is received in this type of system, the fuel management computer automatically deactivates the
pump and removes the associated low pressure warning.
A typical fuel boost pump provides 18-30 psi to the engine fuel control unit with low pressure
switches set between 8-15 psi.
Refueling
Overwing Refueling
Aircraft fuel tanks include pipes, valves, check valves, floats, jet pumps, switches, and many
other components for controlling the fuel system. It is also common to find heat exchangers
installed in the inboard sections of tank that provide cooling for hydraulic case drain fluid.
External control panels are used to control fueling from either a refueling truck or fuel hydrant
system. Most aircraft include a single point fueling system where the fuel truck connects to a
receptacle (or in some cases, two receptacles) that distributes fuel after the selection of fueling
valves. Smaller aircraft and some of the older larger aircraft may include an overwing type of
fuel system where fuel is added through fuel tank caps mounted on the upper surface of the wing.
This sort of fueling is impractical at best as fueling must occur at half rate and it can take several
hours to add a small amount of fuel. Some airports prohibit the use of overwing fueling because
of the inherent risks of fire, fuel spillage, or worker safety.

Refuel/Defuel Station
During pressure fueling there is a sealed connection between the coupling of the fueling
manifold and fuel truck or hydrant connection. Aircraft identify a maximum fueling pressure and
aircraft fuel manifolds can typically accept between 10 and 50psi. At least 10 psi is required to
push open a fuel receptacle check valve that is installed to prevent the fueling manifold from
draining when the fuel truck is disconnected. Additionally, most fueling valves are controlled by
solenoids but use the fuel pressure to push open the fuel valve. Fuel valves also require at least
10 psi to open.
This type of fueling, often called single-point fueling, is safe and much faster than overwing
fueling.
Defueling
There are two methods to defuel an airplane: pressure defueling and suction defueling.
Pressure defueling is done with the help of the fuel pumps. Their initial pressure of 25 to 50 psi
allows for quick defueling.
For suction defueling, the pump of the tank truck is used to defuel the aircraft. The smallest
suction force required is between 10 to 15 psi.
During pressure defueling, the pumps feed the fuel through the fuel supply valve to the defueling

transfer valve, which is necessary for the defueling. The defueling transfer valve may be
manually operated or motor-driven and connects the fuel supply valve to the defueling valve.
When the defueling transfer valve opens, the fuel flows into the refueling valve. A check valve
prevents backflow from the refueling valve into the fuel supply valve.
Pressure Defueling
The same components are used for suction defueling. Some tanks have bypass valves for the fuel
pumps through which the fuel can enter the fuel supply valve. When defueling, the manual
defueling valve must also be open in order to allow the tanker truck to defuel. When the
crossfeed valve is opened, the fuel is suctioned from the fuel tanks.
Most fuel companies that defuel aircraft will either dispose of the fuel or in some cases, provide
the fuel to another aircraft owned by the same company. They will not typically defuel an
aircraft and use the fuel for general distribution to other aircraft because of the potential for
contamination.

Longitudinal Balance Fuel Systems
Trim tank systems increase the efficiency of an aircraft during flight, thereby reducing fuel
consumption. The fuel trim system affects the flight attitude and the air resistance during flight
and thus the fuel consumption is reduced. The trim tank system controls the center of gravity of
the aircraft by moving fuel fore or aft.
There are 4 forces affecting an airplane. These are:
• Lift
• Weight
• Thrust
• Drag
The forces shown in the following figure lead to a downward pitch of the aircraft. In order to
counteract this, the horizontal stabilizer is adjusted in such a way that an opposing force is
produced. This force brings the aircraft back into a horizontal position. This additional
downward force on the stabilizer has to be compensated for by a higher buoyancy which in turn
leads to a higher air resistance of the aircraft.

An aircraft with a trim tank system generates the necessary downward force by pumping fuel
from the front tanks into the horizontal stabilizer. No additional lift is necessary since the overall
aircraft weight remains "constant".
By transferring fuel to the rear, the center of gravity of the aircraft also shifts to the rear. This
may result in instability of the aircraft. Therefore, in the case of an aircraft with a trim tank
system, the center of gravity must be regulated.
In order to regulate the center of gravity, the system must determine its current configuration.
The longitudinal balance criteria in the Flight Management System is loaded with information
for the aircraft center of gravity prior to starting engines at the gate. From this point onwards, the
shifting of the center of gravity is determined by sensors and calculations.
Trim Tank System
Hydraulic Power (ATA 29)
System Layout
In order to minimize the force needed for control inputs by the pilot, different types of aircraft
control systems are hydraulically assisted or completely hydraulic. Hydraulic systems are further
used to generate and transmit forces in the aircraft, for example for landing gear drives or
auxiliary devices. Hydraulic systems are often redundant and feature automatic switches that
switch to the backup system should there be a problem or failure.

The working principle of a hydraulic system is based on the incompressibility of fluids.

Hydraulic rams, pistons, sleeves, or servo valves are positioned by the movement of pressurized
hydraulic fluid. Each pressure source requires a return pressure line that is routed to the reservoir
or to the pump. Without a hydraulic pressure return line, actuators would not respond to pressure
and would experience a hydraulic lock in which the piston extends or retracts and cannot move
in the opposite direction.
Principle of Hydraulics
A basic hydraulic system is comprised of the following components:
• Pump
• Filter
• Fluid reservoir
• Fluid supply lines
• Fluid return lines
• Load (actuator, servo, or other load)

Layout of a Hydraulic System
The symbols used to identify flow and components in hydraulic systems are identified by the
manufacturer and also in ISO 1219. It is important to recognize the hydraulic symbols to
determine the flow and function of a specific hydraulic system. In most cases, the aircraft
maintenance manual's schematic diagrams include a legend to describe each hydraulic symbol in
that circuit.

Hydraulic System Reservoir
Constant Pressure and On-Demand Pressure Hydraulic Systems
Hydraulic systems are categorized by the way they provide pressure. There are systems that are
permanently under pressure (permanent pressure system) and systems in which pumps only
provide pressure when it is required (on-demand). Constant pressure systems use special pumps
that generate and maintain high pressure even without volume flow. A valve system then
distributes pressure and volume flow to loads on demand. This principle facilitates short reaction
times but has the drawback of applying pressure stress to the system components at all times.
Constant pressure systems are often used for primary flight control systems since those require
short reaction times.
On-demand systems only activate when they are required and therefore have longer reaction
times. Their components have significantly longer lifetimes. These systems are mainly used for
braking systems.
Active and Passive Systems
A further distinction amongst hydraulic systems can be made by whether the system employs
active or passive pressure generation. Active systems are equipped with a pump that creates
operating pressure, whereas the working cylinder's movement itself creates pressure in a passive
system. A passive system does not feature separate pumps. Nearly all aircraft hydraulic systems
are active. The only common application of passive hydraulic systems are elements in the
dampers of wheel landing gear helicopters.
Main Uses of Hydraulic Systems
The following components and assemblies of an aircraft are often driven or assisted by a
hydraulic system:
• Flight controls: Control inputs for the primary and secondary flight controls
• Other systems: Landing gear, steering, brakes, cargo doors, retractable tail skid
High and Low Pressure Systems
Hydraulic systems are further split into low pressure (below 2,000 psi) and high pressure (above
2,000 psi) systems. High pressure systems, due to the increased pressure stress require
strengthened parts, including pumps or control valves. The normal operating pressure on very
large jet aircraft is as high as 5,000 psi. In an open center system, a pump generates operating
pressure on demand and transmits the fluid through a pressure line into the required side of the
hydraulic actuator. The fluid on the other side of the actuator's piston is displaced into a return

line that feeds into the reservoir. If the pressure line transfers pressure to the other side of the
actuator's piston, the fluid on the side that was pressurized before is displaced and flows through
a return line into the reservoir. A control valve is used to switch between the respective pressure
and return lines. If the valve is in its neutral position, the pump feeds fluid directly through the
pressure and return line into the reservoir. A sensor recognizes this unpressurized state and shuts
the pump off. If the cylinder is subject to large loads and the available operating pressure is too
small, system pressure is automatically increased by increasing pump rpm. There is an
emergency relief valve that automatically drains the pressure line into the return line should
pressure be too high.
Redundancy
Hydraulic systems are usually arranged with a primary and demand component. The primary
system operates continuously to provide constant pressure and variable flow depending on the
demand. V%en the primary system cannot provide the required pressures and flow rates, the
demand pump starts automatically to provide assistance. In most configurations, the primary
pumps are driven by the engine while the demand pump(s) may be electric and/or air driven.
Once the demand has been met by the demand pumps and after a short time delay to prevent
cycling of pumps, the demand pumps will shut off and will be armed for the next high demand
situation. Demand pumps are commanded to operate by a low pressure switch installed in the
hydraulic system pressure module that is independent of the switch used for flight deck
indication.
A standby hydraulic system is provided as a backup if one or more of the main systems fail. The
standby system can be activated manually or automatically and uses an electric motor pump to
provide hydraulic pressure to critical aircraft systems such as primary flight controls, nose wheel
steering, and thrust reversers.
The parameters for automatic activation of a standby hydraulic system varies by aircraft
manufacturer but the system is normally activated by a loss of system pressure. Because of the
standby pump's size and system capacity, slower and less responsive movements of the flight
controls should be expected. Some aircraft include a hydraulic interconnect system whereby
pressure generated in one system can be routed to specific components that do not normally use
that hydraulic power source. Systems using a hydraulic interconnect system will normally
disable it in flight mode to prevent inadvertent loss of all fluid in the event of significant fluid
leakage.

Hydraulic Fluids
Hydraulic fluid should be non-corrosive, highly viscose, temperature resistant, lubricating, and
be resistant to cavitation. These requirements are best met by two kinds of hydraulic fluids:
synthetic and petroleum-based mineral fluids. Synthetic fluids such as Skydrol are identified as
Type IV or Type V hydraulic fluids and consist of phosphoric acid esters and additives with the
following leading characteristics:
• Toxicity
•Chemical aggressiveness
•Cavitation resistance
• Low flammability
•Low freezing point, stable viscosity
•Aging resistance
•Corrosion protection
• Lubrication
Synthetic fluids, such as Skydrol, consist of phosphoric acid esters and additives. They have the
following characteristics:
Toxicity
Type IV and Type V hydraulic fluids have toxic and chemically aggressive effects on the human
body. Protective clothing must be worn when working with these types of hydraulic fluids to
prevent skin contact.
Chemical Aggressiveness
Hydraulic fluids are chemically aggressive and can dissolve paint or plastic.
Cavitation Resistance
Hydraulic fluids must have a low tendency to form gas bubbles under heat since cavitation
compromises the principle of incompressibility and may reduce the systems effectiveness or
cause the system to become inoperable.
Low Flammability

Hydraulic fluids exhibit low flammability (up to 7000C) in order to prevent ignition by hot
assemblies (e.g. engines) in case of a system or component leakage.
Low Freezing Point, Stable Viscosity
Hydraulic fluids have to be highly viscose at low temperatures without degrading at high
temperatures in order to ensure operability in all conditions. They usually have a freeze point of
-600C and exhibit stable viscosity from -500C to 1100C.
Aging Resistance
Hydraulic fluids have to function during their complete design lifetime without decay or a loss in
stability.
Corrosion Protection
Hydraulic fluids must resist or prevent corrosion on hydraulic system components.
Lubrication
Bearings, friction points, pumps, actuators and motors must be lubricated in order to minimize
mechanical wear.
Synthetic hydraulic fluids are colored violet to make them easily recognizable during operation.
Since they are chemically aggressive, special care must be taken to prevent direct skin contact
when maintaining these systems.
Hydraulic systems require special seals and gaskets since hydraulic fluids dissolve plastics.
Mineral oils, on the other hand, are colored red. They are easily adaptable to almost every
operational purpose and environment, but are flammable and therefore rarely used in civil
aviation.
Because their different chemical compound and characteristics can lead to unintended
interaction, synthetic and mineral fluids may never be mixed for use in one system.
Incompressibility
Incompressibility is one of the most important characteristics of hydraulic fluids.

"Incompressible" means that the fluid's density is not affected by pressure applied to it. most
fluids are incompressible at normal operational pressure levels, gases are compressible. If you
filled an air pump with hydraulic oil and blocked its nozzle, it would be impossible to move the
pump's piston, even with great force. If the pump were to be filled with gas, you would be able to
compress the gas with the piston to some degree.
Hydraulic Reservoirs
Hydraulic reservoirs are used to store a volume of fluid to ensure that all demands can be met
without compromising fluid supply to the pumps. The reservoir also acts as a de-aerator and
most reservoirs have swirl vanes or similar internal structures to prevent foaming and bubbles in
the return fluid. Hydraulic reservoirs are most often shaped in a cylindrical or spherical shape,
depending on the space considerations for where they are installed. With a few exceptions, each
independent hydraulic system has its own hydraulic reservoir that is isolated from the other
systems. An exception may exist for a standby hydraulic system reservoir that is often connected
to one of the main reservoirs but is plumbed in such a way that its fluid is retained in the event of
a major leak to that main reservoir. Depending on the aircraft and hydraulic system, reservoirs
may hold between 1.5 to 11 gallons with a typical system reservoir being in the 7 gallon range.
In order to further prevent foaming and cavitation, hydraulic reservoirs are pressurized, either by
an air source or by their own generated hydraulic pressure. Air to pressurize the reservoir is
usually provided by the airplane's pneumatic system, through an external nitrogen filling port, or
through a small hydraulic line on top of a piston that compresses fluid in the reservoir. Reservoir
pressurization also helps to raise the boiling point of hydraulic fluid when the aircraft is at high
altitude.

Hydraulic Reservoir with Gauge and Placards
Pressurized Reservoirs
Most aircraft that use bleed air to power their pneumatic systems will provide a tap off the bleed
manifold and route a small line to the top of the hydraulic reservoir. In most cases, a balance line
then connects each reservoir to provide equal pressures for each reservoir. The bleed air is
filtered before entering the reservoir to provide a "head pressure" that reduces foaming and pump
cavitation. Hydraulic reservoirs usually include an air fill/drain port and a pressure gauge to
monitor head pressure and to add or relieve pressure during maintenance procedures. A typical
hydraulic reservoir has about 40-50 psi of head pressure to ensure positive fluid delivery to the
pumps.

Pressurized Reservoir

Bootstrap Reservoirs
Some hydraulic system designs incorporate a system where the reservoirs are unpressurized until
a pump is operating and producing pressure. This pump pressure is routed to a large piston inside
the reservoir assembly which forces the piston down to provide reservoir head pressure on the
fluid supply feeding the pump. This is commonly referred to as "bootstrap pressure". Bootstrap
pressure acts the same as reservoir head pressure in reducing fluid foaming and ensuring a
positive flow to the hydraulic pumps.
Hydraulically Pressurized Reservoir

Hydraulic Power Packs
In an effort to reduce overall aircraft weight and increase efficiency, general aviation and some
commercial aircraft manufacturers may use hydraulic power packs in their hydraulic system
designs. Hydraulic power packs are self-contained units that replace traditional separate pump
and reservoir architecture and are placed closer to the end-users (consumer) than in other system
designs. Power packs have the following components contained in a single unit: a hydraulic
reservoir, regulators, pump, motor, and pressure supply and return lines. Hydraulic power packs
deliver pressure through a control valve which operates their associated component.
Electric Pressure Generation
Hydraulic pumps work by displacing a volume of fluid into a line, module, or component using
rotation (gear pump) or translation (axial piston pump). In an axial piston pump, a piston moves
up and down, displacing the volume of hydraulic fluid from the cylinder into the attached tubing
or component. The displacement volume can be changed by altering the piston's stroke or
diameter. The pump pressure depends on the force on the piston and its diameter. Piston pumps
therefore have a constantly variable operating pressure. A piston pump may be driven by a
camshaft, crankshaft, cam disc, or swashplate. Cam stroke and the swashplate's angle define
piston stroke and therefore also pump pressure and volume flow. This type of pump is suitable
for high pressures and moderate volume flows but is not commonly found on transport category
aircraft.
In addition to hydraulic engine driven pumps, aircraft may use one or more electric hydraulic
pumps to provide system pressure. In most cases, these electric pumps are referred to as "demand
pumps" and provide pressure when there are high flow and pressure demands that cannot be
adequately handled by the engine driven pumps. They are also used to ensure an immediate
response for small flight control adjustments during cruise as they do not typically use a swash
plate design thus providing an immediate response to downstream end-user demands.

Hydraulic Pump
The hydraulic pumps of an aircraft or fixed wing aircraft can be controlled from the cockpit.

Hydraulic Systems Cockpit Panel
Working Principle of Hydraulic Pumps
Some of the aircraft standby end-user systems also use an electric hydraulic pump that can
provide pressure in a non-normal (emergency) situation where the normal source of hydraulic
pressure has been lost. An example of a standby end-user system is the one used to provide
standby hydraulic pressure to the rudder actuator on the Boeing 737 aircraft. This standby system
normally provides a backup hydraulic pressure source for a number of critical systems: standby
rudder leading edge flap extension, and engine thrust reverser. Electric pumps typically provide a
flow rate of 22 to 28 liters per minute at 2800 psi.

Swash Plate Pump

Gear pumps displace fixed volumes of fluid into a line, module, or component by using
intermeshing gear wheels or vanes that rotate. Pump rotation, speed, and torque determine the
final operating pressure. These pumps are suitable for low pressure high volume flows and are
rather noisy.
Gear Pump
Gerotor Pump
Hydraulic systems with pumps that have uncontrolled output pressures use a pressure control
valve within a pressure module to ensure that operating pressures are suitable for the components
that they actuate. Pressure control valves typically reduce the pump output pressures when there
is no demand on the system.
Emergency Pressure Generation
Some aircraft use an externally driven hydraulic pump to provide emergency hydraulic pressure
in the event of a major electrical or engine power loss. This type of pump is typically driven by a
small propeller that can be extended into the airflow during an emergency situation. The
propeller is variable pitch and its speed is dependent on the airspeed. The propeller is attached to
a small pump assembly that provides hydraulic pressure for critical flight control systems in the
event of a total electrical and hydraulic system loss. This type of pump is usually referred to as a
Ram Air Turbine or RAT. Deployment of the RAT can be automatic based on hydraulic system
pressure or manually deployed from a switch in the flight deck.
Some older aircraft used a similar system but the propeller drove a generator that powered an
emergency bus as well as an electric hydraulic pump. This type of system was referred to as an
Air Driven Generator (ADG) but both the RAT and ADG type of systems are only used in the
event of extreme emergencies.
Ram Air Turbines
If all engines fail, the ram air turbine automatically extends from the fuselage. The airflow drives
a propeller connected to a hydraulic pump, and pressurizes a designated system. The ram air
turbine generally has limited capability for fluid flow but may generate up to 3000 psi.
Emergency systems are usually connected to the RAT output pressure and it is not designed to
provide full hydraulic system capability.
The ram air turbine can also be extended on the ground by initiating a ground test. The
maintenance manual identifies a number of precautions before performing the RAT test
procedure, including isolating the immediate area with a cage or other type of physical barrier.

Ram Air Turbine
Power Transfer Unit
To provide hydraulic system redundancy, aircraft may use a power transfer unit (non-reversible
motor pump) that uses the pressure generated in one system to drive fluid in another independent
hydraulic system. These Power Transfer Units (PTU) are manually or automatically controlled to
ensure that loss of pressure in one system can be immediately recovered by driving a pump using
pressure from another system. There is no intermixing of hydraulic fluid between the hydraulic
systems where a PTU is installed. Rather, the PTU provides for a rotary mechanical interconnect
where one hydraulic systems' pressure can power another, independent, hydraulic system for
short durations.

Power Transfer Unit (PTU)
Power transfer units are normally very small in size and are used for a specific airplane system
functions. For example, the Boeing 737 uses a power transfer unit to extend the leading edges
from the intermediate position to the fully extend position in the event of normal pressure loss
while a stall is occurring. The total amount of travel required by the leading edge actuators is
very small and the power transfer unit can respond to this requirement very quickly. Power
transfer units are not normally used for "high draw" components such as landing gear or major
flight controls.
Pressure Control
The approach to limiting system pressure varies with the pump type used. Hydraulic systems
with uncontrolled pumps require pressure control valves for keeping pressure within certain
limits. Pressure depends on the pump speed and the number of circuits currently in use. Pressure
control valves reduce pump load when no actuator is moving.
The hydraulic pump pressurizes the hydraulic system through a no return valve, filling the
accumulator. The pressure applies to both the pressure control valve piston's lower side as well
as the closed ball valve. If pressure exceeds the operating limits, the piston overcomes the spring
load and opens the ball valve. Hydraulic fluid can now flow through the pressure control valve
and into the reservoir. The check valve prevents fluid currently in pressurized operating circuits
from returning to the reservoir.
Pressure Control Valve
Power Distribution
Hydraulic pressure generated by the engine-driven and electric pumps is distributed to end-user
systems via flexible hoses and rigid tubing of various diameters. These tubes and hoses are
resistant to the chemical composition of the hydraulic fluid and can withstand high pressures.
Check valves, shutoff valves, fuses, restrictors, and shuttle valves may be distributed among the
pressure and return lines to control flow, pressure, and direction. Most aircraft route hydraulic
pressure to flight controls through a pressure control module that includes pressure switches,
filters, and valves to monitor and control hydraulic pressure. Some very modern aircraft generate
hydraulic power at the end-user system's components which helps to reduce the length and size
of hydraulic tubing that is required.
Tube Lines
Most rigid tubes are manufactured from aluminum or steel and are equipped with union nuts for
connections. In hot areas, the tubing may be constructed of Inconel or Titanium. Tubes can be
classified into the following three categories:
• High pressure lines - up to 5,000 psi

• Medium pressure lines - 1,000 to 1,500 psi
• Low pressure lines - below 1,000 psi
Low pressure lines are mainly used as suction or return lines in a hydraulic system.
Rigid tubing must be installed with consideration for airframe movement and tubing oscillation.

Tube oscillations can occur if long lengths of tubing are not supported by clamps or brackets,
thus allowing the lines to "whip" and start oscillating. These types of movements result in cracks,
loose connections, or line rupture.
Line Installation
The bending radius of rigid tubing depends on the material used, wall thickness, and outer
diameter. Rigid tubing must attach to their connections without a preload to avoid leakage and
possible line damage.
Bends

Hose Lines
Flexible hoses are used on moving components where rigid tube lines are not suitable. Lines
connecting a gear door or brake assembly require the ability to flex during operation and are one
example of areas using flexible hoses. Flexible hoses are much less prone to oscillation because
of their construction and weight and are clamped or secured differently than rigid tubing.
Flexible hoses are classified as high, medium or low pressure lines. A typical hydraulic hose
consists of:
• Inner layer
• Reinforcement layer
• Outer layer
Identifying Data on Hose
Hose Fitting

Inner Layer
Hydraulic fluid flows through the hose's inner layer. If the inner layer is constructed of synthetic
rubber, it will have a limited life and will include an expiry date that must be observed prior to
installation. Most hoses made to carry a Type IV hydraulic fluid are constructed using a Teflon
composite and they do not normally include an expiry date.
Reinforcement Layer
The reinforcement layer gives the hose the ability to withstand high pressures. It is usually a
weave of cotton, polyester, rayon or steel.
Outer Layer
The outer layer protects the hose from damage and heat. It consists of textiles or a steel weave.
Hoses used in engine areas are equipped with a fire-resistant coating.
When installing hoses, it is important to ensure they are not under tension. Hoses must not be
twisted or bent and most hoses include a "lay line" to show the amount of twist in the line.
Where hoses come into close contact with components or other lines, they must be held in place
using clamps.

Comparison of Right and Wrong Ways to Install Hose Lines
Connections
The connections on the ends of tube and hose lines allow them to be connected to devices or
other lines. Lines are always fitted with "female" connectors, the load therefore has to feature a
"male' connector. If lines are connected to other lines, an adapter is required.

Connections can be distinguished into:
• Flare fittings
• Flareless fittings
Flare Fittings
This type of fitting uses a union nut and a sleeve. The end of the tube is flared.
Flare Fitting
Flareless Fittings
This type of fitting uses a compression nut and compression ring (also called a "ferrule") on each
end of the tube. A grip tool is used to screw a stop into the compression nut at defined torque,
compressing the ferrule and fixing the fitting on the tube.

Flareless Fitting
Hydraulic Valves
Hydraulic systems employ numerous valves for controlling the fluid's flow and pressure. The
most important valve types in hydraulic systems are:
• Check valves
• Switch valves
• Pressure control valves

Check Valves
Check valves are constructed so that fluid can only flow in one direction. The valve bodies use
balls, cones, plates or flaps to restrict fluid flow. VVhen fluid flows through a check valve, it
must overcome a spring force as shown in the image below. Check valves include a marking
which indicated the direction of flow to aid in system installation.
Ball and cone valves can also be used as pressure control valves. The pressure at which the valve
opens is relative to the strength of the spring. Flap style check valves result in smaller pressure
losses because of their reduced spring force. As with other types of check valves, flap check
valves indicate the direction of flow on their valve body.
Some check valves allow a small amount of flow in the locking direction and act as restrictors.
This type of check valve is often used in dampers. Restrictor style check valves are most often a
cone type valve and include a small orifice in the cone to allow limited flow in the reverse
direction to snub or slow down movements. This type of check valve is sometimes found in
aileron or elevator power control units to provide gust dampening for the flight control surface
when it is unpowered.

Check Valve
Switch Valve (Hydraulic Fuse)
Switch valves are often referred to as hydraulic fuses and have defined positions that lock, allow,
or influence the direction of hydraulic fluid flow. The valve only opens when actuated
mechanically. Hydraulic fuses are installed in lines that are prone to rapid fluid loss, such as lines
leading to brake assemblies. In the event of a brake line rupture, the hydraulic fuse will set and
prevent further fluid loss until the line has been repaired and the fuse has been mechanically
reset. The reset function for hydraulic fuses depends on the manufacturer design and installation.

Switch Valve
Hydraulic Fuse

Pressure Control (Pressure Relieft) Valves
Pressure control, or relief, valves provide protection for excessive pressures in hydraulic
systems. The pressure at which the pressure relief valve opens is controlled by the strength of the
spring in the valve body. In its normal state, the valve ball is pushed into its seat by the spring. If
pressure increases, the fluid pushes the ball against the spring and the return line opens.
Excessive pressure is bled off to the hydraulic return line. After the pressure has returned to a
normal value, the spring pushes the ball back into its seat and the flow of fluid to the return line
is blocked.
Pressure Relief Valve
Indication and Warning Systems
Hydraulic systems include indication and warning systems to provide the technician or flight
crew with information about the system. Aircraft include indications for hydraulic quantity,
hydraulic pressure, and in most cases, temperature of the case drain fluid. Some of these
indications use a gauge (pressure, quantity) where others are also monitored by switches that
illuminate a cockpit light or send a warning message to EICAS or ECAM (or their equivalent
warning systems).

Boeing 777 Hydraulic Cockpit Panel
System pressure is usually monitored by a pressure switch on the system's pressure module.
Pressure switches will normally illuminate a low pressure light or send a dedicated low pressure
warning to a crew warning system such as EICAS or ECAM. In addition, pressure transmitters
are installed to provide actual system pressures to the flight deck indicator. These indicators
include color bars to indicate pressures that are low or excessively high. In some cases, the
pressure display itself will change color as low or excessively high pressure conditions are
encountered.
Hydraulic fluid quantity is displayed on an indicator mounted on the hydraulic reservoir and
remotely in the flight deck. A low quantity switch is mounted on the hydraulic reservoir to send a
signal for low fluid quantity. In many cases, the switch also provides automatic selection of
another source of hydraulics or inhibits operation of some components. For example, the nose
wheel steering system on some B737 aircraft uses hydraulic system "A" but provides a backup
from hydraulic system "B" unless system "B's" low quantity switch has been activated. In order
to prevent further fluid loss in hydraulic system "B," the nose wheel steering backup feature is
deactivated by the low quantity switch.
Hydraulic fluid temperature monitoring is provided by an overheat switch that is mounted in the
case drain fluid line or in some cases, on the electric hydraulic pump body. The overheat switch
illuminates a cockpit light or sends a crew alerting message but some electric pumps also provide
an auto shutdown feature for overheat. This type of auto shutdown system normally resets itself
when the pump temperature or case drain fluid temperatures drop below a preset temperature
value.
Interfaces with Other Systems
The main purpose of an aircraft hydraulic system is to provide powered flight controls and
landing gear extension/retraction but it can also be used to power a number of auxiliary systems.
Hydraulic pressure is often used to power auxiliary systems such as loading ramps, cargo doors,
rescue winches, and loading systems. These auxiliary systems are sometimes powered by their
own dedicated hydraulic systems that provide pressure to their specific end-user. For example,
some large cargo doors installed on cargo aircraft use a local system with its own built-in pump
and reservoir to isolate it from the main aircraft systems. This has the benefit of a reduction in
weight as well as improved reliability for both the main and associated auxiliary system.
Servicing for the auxiliary system may be performed without effect on the aircraft's main
hydraulic systems.
Electric pumps are normally used to activate these auxiliary systems and are normally powered
from the aircraft's ground handling or ground service electrical bus. These auxiliary systems may
also include hand pumps to generate auxiliary system pressure in the event the system's electrical
pump fails. These systems are monitored for low hydraulic quantity and the auxiliary system will
not be available in the event of low quantity condition. The cause of the fluid leakage must be
determined and the reservoir refilled before auxiliary system operation can be resumed. Most
auxiliary systems have no interconnection with the aircraft's main hydraulic systems with
exception to a few specific designs which utilize a fuse to prevent total fluid loss in the event of a
hydraulic line rupture or a damaged actuator.
Ice Formation, Classification and Detection
Ice Formation
Icing is one of the biggest challenges operating in any aviation environment. In addition to
increased weight, icing causes aerodynamic airflow disruption over the wings, stabilizers and
flight control surfaces. This can lead to accidents and crashes, often with fatal consequences. It is
therefore important to understand the cause of ice formation and take appropriate actions to
prevent ice from accumulating and to get rid of ice that has built-up.
Ice can accumulate on an aircraft during flight or even while on the ground. Ice can even form on
an aircraft surface when the air temperatures are slightly to well above freezing points.

Aircraft which fly into clouds during below freezing temperatures will usually impact
supercooled water droplets which are below freezing but still in water form. V%en these water
droplets impact a cold soaked airframe, such as the nose of the aircraft or wing leading edges,
they will give up any remaining latent heat and instantly freeze. If enough ice accumulates, the
aerodynamic shape of the airframe could be lost which can cause airframe vibrations and
eventually an aircraft stall.
Ice accumulations inflight can have the following negative effects on an aircraft:
• Decrease in lift due to aerodynamic foil shape change

• An increase of aerodynamic skin friction
• Increase of weight especially on aerodynamically critical areas
• Blockage of pitot and static sensor input ports
• Loss of engine power/flameout
• Decrease of propeller efficiency
• Reduced and total loss of vision through the cockpit windows
Ice can also form on the airframe, especially on top of the wings, on a warm summer day. If the
relative humidity is at the right conditions, the cold aircraft skin and the cold-soaked wings, due
to the internal fuel tanks, will cause condensation and freezing of the moisture.
Effects of Icing

Ice Classification
Water particles hitting the airframe cause continuously increasing ice formation. The following
types of ice are very typical:
• Clear ice
• Rime ice
• Mixed ice
• Hoar frost
Clear Ice
Clear ice is generally very smooth and often difficult to visually detect. It will follow the contour
of the airframe and flight control surfaces as well as add an extreme amount of weight. Clear ice
is most likely to form in freezing rain conditions. Clear ice is very difficult to remove and will
require a specially trained individual to verify an ice-free aircraft.
Clear Ice
Rime Ice
Rime ice usually takes on a rough and milky white appearance. Rime ice forms when small,
cooled water particles hit the surface and freeze before spreading. Air is included in between the
individual water droplets, giving the ice surface a white appearance. Rime ice is lighter than
clear ice, forming irregularly and exhibiting a rough surface. Most of this ice can be removed or
prevented with the use of deice and anti-ice systems typically employed on many aircraft.

Rime Ice
Mixed Ice
Mixed ice is a combination of clear and rime ice. If water droplets of different sizes, mixed with
snow or ice particles, hit the aircraft's surfaces, the remaining mass freezes immediately. The
icing may even assume a mushroom shape, for example on wing leading edges. Ice particles are
embedded in clear ice, forming a hard and rough mass.
Mixed Ice

Hoar Frost
Hoar frost accumulates in clear air on a surface which is at a temperature below freezing and also
below the frost point of the adjacent air. It is formed when water vapor condenses on a cold-
soaked surface and is immediately converted to ice. It accumulates with a white coating and a
feather like appearance. Hoar frost is especially common on cold soaked wings with internal fuel
tanks. It must be treated like all ice accumulations and removed before flight.
Ice Detection
The purpose for having an ice detection system installed is to warn the flight crew that ice is
accumulating (building up) on an airframe during flight. Some aircraft crashes have been
attributed to airframe icing which had not been detected in time.
Detecting ice which has accumulated while on the ground is also extremely critical, especially
for aircraft with engines mounted on the rear of the fuselage. The easiest method is a visual
check of the aircraft by maintenance personnel and the pilots. Looking into inlets and static ports
is extremely critical. Blocked passages can cause operational problems with the aircraft. It may
be extremely difficult to impossible to visually inspect the top of the fuselage and tops of the
horizontal stabilizers. In these cases, operator procedures and best judgment must be used.
Exterior lights in the fuselage and hand-held flashlights will aid in visual ice detection
procedures while on the ground and during flight.
Ice detection components that are part of the aircraft include visual and electronic detectors.
Highly modern and technologically advanced aircraft ice detection systems will use moisture,
ground speeds and various air data inputs to determine icing conditions in addition to the
dedicated ice detectors. These data inputs are individually shared on what is known as a
Common Core System. The anti-ice and di-ice controller functions within the common core will
use this data to determine the correct operational status of their related system.
Visual Ice Detector Probes
Visual ice detector probes are built into the exterior of the fuselage so that they protrude into the
windstream yet can still be visually monitored by the pilots. Normally, they are short aluminum
alloy tubes that protrude into the windstream and accumulate ice when icing conditions are
present. They can extend from the side of the fuselage just below cockpit windows or in front of
the windows, usually as an extension of the windshield wiper post. Probes may or may not be
heated to get rid of ice which has built-up.

Pressure Sensing Ice Detector Probes
Pressure sensing ice detector probes transmit an electrical signal to the avionics system to warn
the pilots that ice may be accumulating on their aircraft. It consists of a unit mounted into the
fuselage with a probe protruding into the windstream. On the leading and trailing edges are holes
that allow the passage of an airflow. When ice builds-up and blocks the leading edge holes, the
trailing edge holes are still ice free. A pressure-differential will develop causing a pressure
sensor internal to the probe assembly to send an electrical signal to the avionics system. Visual
and aural warnings may then be presented to the pilots and on some aircraft types, additional
functions may occur. A heating element is part of the probe to allow the probe portion to be
deiced when necessary.
Vibrating Ice Detector Probes
This probe extends into the windstream and will have a vibration of approximately 40 kHz.
When ice forms on the housing or sensing element, this will change the frequency pitch of the
vibration and aural and visual indication are made in the cockpit. A heating element will be
activated, usually for about 60 seconds, to get rid of the ice which has accumulated and allow the
cycle to begin again. Pilots will take additional actions based on the icing message.
Electrical Anti-lcing Systems
Before trying to understand an anti-ice system, you must first understand the differences between
anti-ice and de-ice.
• Anti-ice is the prevention of the formation of ice
• De-ice is the removal of ice after it has formed
Electrical anti-icing systems prevent ice build-up on the pitot tubes, windshields and pressure
ports that are connected to instruments and avionics. Some aircraft will also use electrically
powered heating mats built into the wing and stabilizer leading edges to perform anti-ice or de-
ice functions. Other components and systems that use electrical freeze protections include water,
waste supply, drain lines and components, antennas and some door operating mechanisms.
Electrical anti-ice systems are normally powered with alternating current.
Heated cockpit windshields are found on almost all aircraft with the majority of the heating
systems being electric. A primary component of this type is the windshield heating element.
They are also often integrated into multi-layer windshields. One of the intermediate layers of the
windshield, usually the layer immediately under the most outer glass layer, consists of a
conductive layer element on a transparent film. As soon as a current is applied to the conductive
element via a terminal block, it heats up and protects the windshield from icing. The system is
monitored and controlled by multiple windshield temperature sensors.
Electric Anti-lcing System
Having a windshield made of multiple layers of glass and plastics multiplies the overall strength
immensely. As with all materials of this type, they become very hard and brittle at very low
temperatures. Anything impacting the windshield such as a bird or stone, could cause the
windshield to break and require replacement.
At the heart of the windshield anti-ice system is a controller which will monitor the windshield
temperatures with the use of temperature sensors imbedded in between the layers of the
windshield. When electrical power is applied to the heating element, the controller will ensure
that full heating power is not immediately applied through a process called "ramping up". This
will ensure the even distribution of the heat energy and will help to prevent the windshield layers
from disbonding.
When the optimum temperature is reached, power is removed from the circuit. If the windshield
should overheat for any reason, the pilots are given a warning signal and power is removed from
the system. Strong sunlight is generally enough on a typical summer day to cause the overheating
protection function to activate.
On wing leading edges with electrical thermal anti-ice protection systems, the heating mat is
normally bonded to the inner surface of the leading edge skin. Redundancies built into the
components negate the effects of a single component failure. A wing anti-ice controller will
apply power to the heating mats in a sequential sequence. Using the Boeing 787 as an example,
the Wing Ice Protection System can operate in an anti-ice or de-ice mode depending on the phase
of flight altitude and ice detected conditions.
Hot Air Anti-lcing Systems
In Wing Thermal Anti-Ice (VVTAI) hot air anti-icing systems, hot air from the aircraft
pneumatic system is ducted through the leading edges of wings and depending on the aircraft
type and design, through the leading edges of the stabilizers. The air flows through ducts and
channels formed by the leading edge skin and internal structures. The air is then exhausted to the
atmosphere through holes in the bottom of the wing surface. In the case of extendable wing
leading edges, a telescoping duct will extend and retract with the leading edge slats and provide
heated air regardless of position.
Hot Air Systems
A cooling airflow over the wing is required to prevent thermal damage to leading edge skins and
structures. On most aircraft, wing thermal anti-ice is inhibited until the aircraft is airborne.
Turbine engine aircraft may also inhibit wing anti-ice while in takeoff mode due to the extreme
high pressures in the pneumatic systems.
A typical WTAI system will include thermal sensors for normal operations, thermal switches to
protect the system from an overheating condition and WTAU shut-off and check valves. A
switch in the cockpit allows the pilots to activate a system manually or select it to operate
automatically when ice is detected. System and component faults are annunciated in the cockpit.

Engine Nose Cowl Anti-Ice
As air is being sucked into an engine inlet, it undergoes and extreme velocity increase and
pressure drop. Especially in high moisture conditions such as flying through clouds, this can
result in ice accumulating on the engine inlet and breaking off in pieces large enough to damage
the engine. To prevent this from happening, turbine engines are equipped with an engine anti-ice
system that operates completely independent of the airframe pneumatic and anti-ice systems. Hot
air is extracted from the engine compressor, cooled using cold engine fan air, passing over
temperature sensors and switches and through pressure regulating and shutoff valves before
being supplied to the front of the inlet structure. The hot air is then exhausted, usually at a point
which is 180 degrees opposite in where it came in.
Engine Nose Cowl Anti-Ice System
Turbine engine anti-ice systems can only be supplied by its' onside engine.
Chemical Anti-lcing Systems
Fluid Systems
On-board systems distribute fluids on surfaces, protecting them from ice build-up. This method
is mainly used to prevent icing on windshields. Isopropyl and glycol based fluids are stored in a

reservoir and pumped through tubing lines to discharge nozzles located at the windshields. If the
system is used as an anti-icing system, the fluid serves to lower the freezing point. The fluid
distributes along the surfaces to be protected before icing forms. If the system is used for de-
icing, the fluid meets the surface between the airframe and ice layer. It breaks the ice layer's
adhesion with the airframe and the airflow carries it off.
Fluid Systems
In addition to probes and windshields, propeller blades may also be equipped with electric
heating elements for icing protection. They are generally thin mats with AC powered heating
elements inside them. The mats are bonded onto the leading edges of each propeller blade. In an
anti-icing mode, heating power is constantly applied to prevent a build-up of ice. In a de-icing
mode, heating power is sequentially applied in an alternating manner to have ice shed off the
propeller blade at a certain angle to prevent departing ice from striking the leading edge of the
wing. The blade heating system checks itself and provides a continuous built-in-test (CBIT)
recording parameters and faults and providing indication to the pilots of system status.
Most systems only heat sections of the heating element in order to minimize energy
consumption.

In this type of ice protection system, ice is allowed to form on the surfaces before it is removed
using various applications depending on the location on the airplane.
As a refresher, keep in mind the following: Before trying to understand an anti-ice system, you
must first understand the differences between anti-ice and de-ice.
• Anti-ice is the prevention of the formation of ice.

• De-ice is the removal of ice after it has formed.
Electrical de-icing systems remove ice which has built-up on the probes, sensors, airframe and
wing sections and the engines. This will usually involve an electrical heating element to warm
the surface of the aircraft part and allow the ice to be carried away in the windstream. The heat
generated will cause the ice to disbond from the surface where it has accumulated and then be
removed by the windstream. They are also often integrated into multi-layer windshields. One of
the intermediate layers of the windshield glass consists of a conductive mesh on a transparent
film. As soon as a current is applied to the mesh, it heats up and protects the windshield from
icing. The system is monitored and controlled by multiple windshield temperature sensors.
Hot Air De-lcing Systems
Hot air de-icing systems work in very similar methods as the anti-icing systems. The visible
difference is that ice is allowed to accumulate before getting rid of it. This can be done with hot
or cool air or electrically. The design and purpose for using a de-icing system rather than an anti-
ice, will depend a great deal on the type of aircraft and the type of flying for which it is intended.
Using the curvature of the wing leading edge as an example, ice is allowed to build up to a
certain extent. This accumulation will take the shape of the leading edge. Hot air is supplied to
the inner surface in much the same manner as an anti-ice system. The warming skin will cause
the bond between the skin outer surface and the ice to separate with the result of the ice breaking
away and being carried away by the airflow.
Aircraft with a de-ice system, especially at the wing leading edges, may require extra attention
during after flight and routine maintenance inspections. Very rarely, pieces of ice large enough to
cause small damages to the stabilizers and aft external areas of the fuselage occur.
Pneumatic De-lcing Systems
Pneumatic de-icing systems are used primarily for inflatable rubber boots which are bonded to
the leading edges of wings and stabilizers. They operate on a time cycle inflating and deflating

breaking away any accumulated ice on the inflation part of the cycle.
This principle is primarily used on turboprop aircraft.
Most of the types of systems are either manually activated from the cockpit or integrated with the
ice detection system. A controller, which controls all of the leading edge boots, will operate on a
cycle, commanding pneumatic valves to open inflating the boots, shedding any ice
accumulations, and then to close. When the valve is closed, the airflow and pressure that was
used to inflate the boot is now being used as a vacuum source to deflate it and to keep a suction
pressure on the boot so that it maintains a form to the wing leading edge.
Air enters the deicing boot from the rear and inflates tubes within the boot. These tubes may be
spanwise (horizontal) or chordwise (vertical) depending on the aircraft type and location on the
airplane it is installed. When inflated, the tubes cause a very uneven surface on the boot. When
deflated, the vacuum pressure ensures a surface so smooth, to the untrained observer, an
inflatable boot would not be noticed.
Pilots and maintenance personnel perform visual inspections on a regular basis. An extended and
detailed inspection of the boots is carried out with the boots inflated by maintenance on a
schedule determined by the airplane manufacturer.
Chemical De-lcing Systems
Rain repellent and chemical de-icing systems are not used much anymore due to the increasing
awareness of the detrimental effects to the environment. Some aircraft operating in specific
environments and mission types may use them in limited applications to supplement other safer
systems which perform with greater efficiency.
Chemical deicing systems for wings are generally limited to smaller aircraft where the deicing
chemical is release from outlets at or near the leading edge. Taking advantage of the airflow, the
chemical flows to the rear of the wing causing any ice to disbond from the wing surface and
carried away by the windstream.
The chemical would be stored in a tank and drawn out by a pump which would be activated by a
switch in the cockpit.
Rain Repellent

Most windshields have a hydrophobic layer on the outer surface that will prevent water drops
from beading up and obscuring vision. These water drops will be carried away in the airflow
over the front of the aircraft. The coating must be occasionally reapplied to maintain forward
vision capabilities.
When it must be used, applying rain repellents to windshields keeps them free of water and icing.
These isopropyl based fluids decrease the water's adhesion to the windshield, preventing it from
sticking to the surface.
A typical fluid system consists of:
• Fluid tank
• Manual or electric pump
• Fluid supply lines
• Spray jets
Most aviation approved rain repellants have little to no odors. Manufacturers will typically add
an aroma for easy leak detection since many of the chemicals involved are toxic to humans.
Probe Heating
In order to ensure their full functionality, probes and drains must be free of icing during
operations. They are supplied with AC or DC electrical power for internal heating elements to
prevent ice formation.
Pitot tube heating systems are usually activated automatically as soon as one engine is running.
An aircraft's temperature sensors and static pressure ports are also often heated.
It is important to ensure all protective covers have been removed from the sensors before testing
the system as these covers may melt and irreparably damage the sensor. Never touch sensors
while on the ground, as they are hot and can cause severe burns.
Pitot tubes are equipped with two heating elements, one of which heats the shaft and the other
the head. The heaters are supplied with a primary 115 VAC from the on-board power supply and
controlled using logic inputs to a controller or pilots using onboard data to determine proper
settings. Caution and warning indications are given to the cockpit in case of malfunctions. The
system's functionality can be checked on the ground by manually switching it on and off. Data
from a probe whose internal heating element has failed will usually be disregarded by it's related
system controller.

Pitot Static System
Drain Heating
Drains are usually heated to prevent freezing which can cause blockage of drain ports. This
applies to gray water drains from galley and sinks.
Waste from the toilet systems is not drained overboard although the drain connection is heated
for easier servicing on the ground.
The heating source for the drain mast is a heating element within the housing of the drain mast
housing. Heating power to the drain mast is constant and automatic when power is on the
airplane and operate without any input from the crew or ground staff.
The drain mast heating elements operate on these two voltages:
• 115 VAC inflight for higher heat application

• 28 VAC on the ground for lower heat application due to the reduced airflow over the drain
mast housing.
Wiper Systems
Windshield wiper systems are another approach to keeping the windshields free of water
accumulations. One or more motor-powered wipers remove the water from the windshield's
surface. The system is powered by electric motors and controlled by cockpit controls using
different settings as determined by the pilot flying the airplane.
The cockpit controls dictate the wipers' speed. If the switch is set to "high", the wiper blades
move through their cycles at higher speeds and with the switch set to "low" the blades move at
lower speeds. The exact speed of the cycle will depend mostly on the aircraft types and size of
the windshields.
In the "off' position, the wiper moves into its parking position and remains there.
Landing Gear (ATA 32)
Construction
An airplane's landing gear must be attached to extremely strong fixtures on either the fuselage or
the wing structures, so that the landing loads can be absorbed and transferred safely to the
aircraft structure. Very large aircraft may have the main landing gear attached to the wing and
fuselage (body) structures.
The landing gear (or undercarriage) supports the weight of an aircraft during ground operations
and absorbing the landing loads. The landing gear is a complex assembly comprised of many
highly advanced components that are crucial for the safe operation of the aircraft during all
stages of flight. A car does not generally drive much faster than 200 km/h and only weighs about
two tons. An aircraft, on the other hand, can weigh up to 550 tons and reach ground speeds of up
to 250 km/h or more.
Early model aircraft had fixed position gear which means there were no retraction and extension
systems to install and maintain. As the size of new aircraft became larger and heavier, larger gear
assemblies were required to handle the increased loads. While some landing gear types for small
aircraft may be discussed, this learning module will focus on larger aircraft appropriate for the
license ratings (EASA CAT A and B1).
Construction and Function of Aircraft Landing Gear Arrangements
The undercarriage generally serves to move an aircraft during ground operations, especially
when parking and taxiing, and during takeoffs, landing impacts and roll-outs after landing. It is
designed to absorb ground loads, i.e., forces and loads relating to the weight of the aircraft and
the corresponding accelerations in the longitudinal, transverse and vertical directions. The
requirements for the arrangement of the undercarriage result from the major forces that occur
during landing operations (e.g. landing impact) and the lateral forces exerted on the control
(steering) of the aircraft during high-speed takeoffs. The total weight of an aircraft, which can go
up to nearly 450 metric tons (990,000 pounds) in the case of the B747-8, must be supported by
and transferred to each of the wheels on the ground. The loads exerted on each wheel in large
aircraft are in the region of several tons. This increases even more during landing impact as a
result of vertical acceleration. The landing gears of passenger and corporate aircraft are designed
according to the fail-safe principle. If any of the wheels of the landing gear fail, the aircraft can
still be controlled.
Main Landing Gear of a B747-800
Types of Landing Gear
Landing gear arrangements can be differentiated as either being fixed, quasi-non-retractable or

retractable. Hybrid arrangements are also in use in which either the main or auxiliary landing
gear is retracted. A retractable landing gear enhances the aerodynamic characteristics of an
aircraft considerably and allows for higher speeds and/or much lower fuel consumption (less
resistance). Conversely, their construction is of course much more expensive and the systems
that are required to control these gears result in an increase in the overall weight. This is one of
the reasons why smaller aircraft in general aviation are not usually equipped with a retractable
landing gear. However, airliners and corporate aircraft are generally equipped with a retractable
landing gear. In addition, the landing gear can be categorized according to the way in which it is
attached to the fuselage and wings.
Landing Gear Configurations
Tricycle Landing Gear

To alleviate the disadvantages and challenges of the tail-wheel aircraft, the tricycle configuration
was developed. This style is used almost exclusively on all new-build aircraft today.
A tricycle landing gear is comprised of non-steerable Main Landing Gear (MLG) just aft of the
aircraft's center of gravity on the left and right sides of the aircraft longitudinal centerline. The
MLG absorbs the primary loads exerted on the aircraft during landing. The Nose Landing Gear
(NLG) is located at a distance further away, forward of the center of gravity and usually remains
in the air during the "flare" mode of touchdown.
The primary purpose of the NLG is for supporting the weight of the front of the aircraft and to
provide a method of steering the aircraft on the ground. The NLG absorbs a significant amount
of energy generated by the landing forces. The main advantage of the nose gear is its reduced
tendency to "jump" after landing as the center of gravity is forward of the MLG and the dynamic
reduction of the angle-of-attack on touchdown and wing lift reduction. This results in a much
higher stabilization of the roll-out process after landing.
Tricycle Landing Gear Arrangement with Nose Wheel - Extra 500 (Source Extra Aircraft)

Tail Wheel (Tail Dragger) Landing Gear
An early landing gear design had two main wheels positioned forward of the center of gravity
and a rear wheel which was installed at a rear point of the fuselage and far behind the center of
gravity. The forward main wheels supported most of the weight of the aircraft while the rear
wheel supported the weight of the aft fuselage and also provided a ground steering capability.
Especially during landing, these airplanes need to be carefully configured to a "three-point

position". If the opposite were to be done, as in nose wheel aircraft, the center of gravity would
dynamically increase the angle of attack of the aircraft. This would then increase the lift on the
wing. This would result in "jumping". If the aircraft pitches nose down slightly during takeoff or
after landing, the center of gravity can move forward of the main wheels and can lead to what is
known as a ground loop.
One other disadvantage of this configuration is the pilot's forward view while on the ground is
restricted. It is very difficult to see directly in front of the aircraft due to the nose up attitude. Tail
draggers therefore often have much tighter operational limits within which the aircraft must be
operated. They do however, have the general advantage of a very short takeoff and landing
distances which makes them ideal for use on rough dirt tracks in the bush.
Tail Dragger Aircraft - the Extra 330 (Source: Extra Aircraft)

Tandem Undercarriage
In tandem undercarriage arrangements, the nose wheel and primary landing gear have a similar
design and are located at more or less the same distance from the front and rear of the aircraft's
center of gravity. There is no designated nose landing gear. Instead, the nose wheel arrangement
is used primarily for steering on the ground. These undercarriage arrangements are generally
supported by smaller gear arrangements on the wings for example on the B-52 aircraft of the
United States Air Force.
Boeing 777 Main Landing Gear

Boeing 737NG Main Landing Gear
Shock Struts
Shock struts absorb impacts and shocks in a vertical direction (especially those resulting from
landing impact) and usually also bear the weight of an aircraft. To do this, shock struts have
integrated compression and damping mechanisms. The damping or compression mechanism
stores elastic energy for a short period before it is gradually released (dissipated). This reduces
mechanical accelerations and the loads exerted on the aircraft structure.
The damping mechanism regulates the absorption and dissipation of energy (damped spring-
mass system). From a structural point of view, the shock strut consists of a cylinder and a solid
forged piston that acts as a pneumatic spring or cushion. The upper part of the shock strut is
filled with nitrogen gas (a principle similar to that in a bicycle pump) and the lower part is filled
with hydraulic fluid. An integrated valve (orifice plate or metering valve) regulates the transfer
of energy. If the valve is small or almost closed, the process of compression and relaxation is
rather slow (progressive damping/cushioning). If the valve is larger or is open to a greater extent,
this has hardly any effect on the compression and relaxation process (slightly damped). The
twisting of the strut is prevented by a torsion link assembly connect to the inner and outer
cylinders of the shock strut.
The MLG shock strut has an inner cylinder that moves up and down in an outer cylinder. The
wear surface of the inner cylinder is tungsten carbide. Further details of how the shock absorbing
feature works will be discussed in the Shock Absorbing sub-chapter of this module. When the
shock strut retracts or extends it rotates about two trunnion bearings and pins at the top of the
outer shock strut. Each pin extends through a trunnion bearing and support in the wing and beam
assembly. Trunnion bolts keep the trunnion pins from backing out during landing gear operation.
Support Struts
MLG support struts are classed as either drag brace assemblies and side brace
assemblies. Nose Landing Gear (NLG) support struts are commonly referred to as drag strut
assemblies.
MLG Drag Struts (Brace) Assembly
The MLG drag brace assembly transmits forward and aft landing gear forces to the airplane
structure during airplane movement on the ground. Longitudinal drag struts stabilize the landing
gear in a longitudinal direction and prevent bending moments in the shock struts about the
transverse axis. Longitudinal loads result from resistance to rolling on the ground or from the air
resistance exerted on the landing gear during flight. During landing impact on the runway, these
shock struts absorb particularly immense loads and transmit these loads into the landing gear
suspension and body of the aircraft.
The MLG side brace assembly transmits inboard landing gear forces to the airplane structure
during airplane movement on the ground. The side struts stabilize the gear in the transverse
direction and thus prevent bending moments about the longitudinal axis of the strut. By far the
greatest loads exerted on the side struts are generated on the ground when rolling on the runway
and on taxiways.
Lock Links
Lock links hold the drag and side brace assemblies in the over-center locked position when the
gear is fully extended. Springs will hold the lock links in the over-center locked positions.

MLG Downlock Pin Installation
Downlock Pins
remove before flight
Downlock pins are installed in the lock links to prevent MLG retraction. Hydraulic pressure on
an actuator will assist the springs. If the hydraulic pressure is lost, spring pressure is more than
enough to keep the links locked. The hydraulic actuator will retract causing the lock links to
unlock and allow for gear retraction.
Torsion Links
The torsion links prevent the inner shock strut from rotation in the outer shock strut. This also
permits an up and down movement of the inner shock strut in the outer shock strut. The torsion
links consist of two parts, an upper and lower link connected in the center. The upper end of the
upper link connects to the outer shock strut. The lower end connects to the inner shock strut.
A shimmy damper can be installed on MLG with two-wheel bogies. Vibration between the inner
and outer cylinders causes the inner cylinder to turn inside the outer cylinder. This causes the
main gear shimmy damper piston to move from side to side inside the housing assembly. The
damper is attached to the torsion links to reduce shimmying of the MLG wheels during high
speed operations and heavy brake usage, especially at the landing phase. Hydraulic pressure
from the landing gear circuit is used to provide an equal pressure on both side of a metering

piston. The NLG does not have a shimmy damper due to the shimmy damping function of the
nose gear steering system.
Nose Landing Gear Torsion Links
Bogies
The bogie is a type of transverse beam (bogie beam) construction that allows the attachment of
multiple wheels on multiple axes (axles). Single-axle, two-wheel bogies are typical for smaller
narrow body aircraft. Double-axle, four-wheel bogies, or triple-axle, six-wheel tandem or twin
bogie arrangements are the most commonly used configurations on large passenger aircraft.
Bogies with four or more wheels are usually referred to as "Trucks' .
At the bottom of each bogie or truck, are jack pads to allow you to move the inner cylinder
upwards for wheel and brake replacement. Practice the Safety First concept and refer to the
aircraft maintenance manuals before beginning this or any other maintenance procedure on the
airplane.

Main Landing Gear Truck Assembly
Four or six-wheel MLG trucks will also require a method of tilting the gear and positioning the
truck at the right angle for gear retraction into the wheel well and to ensure equal alignment of all
MLG trucks during the landing phase. This will be discussed in further detail in the Extension
and Retraction subject of this sub-module.
The axles attached to the bottom of the inner cylinder, two-wheel bogies, or to the transverse
beam on multi-wheel bogies. The wheels and brakes attach to the outer part of the axles.
Installed inside the axles are wheel speed sensors that are used primarily as part of the MLG
brake antiskid function.
Over-Center Locks

Over-center locks are generally combined with shock struts. Depending on the direction in which
the landing gear is retracted, either the longitudinal or the transverse side struts can be designed
as over-center locks. An over-center lock derives its name from its ability to bend in the middle
and thus change its length. These enable the initial stages in the retraction of the landing gear to
take place. A locking mechanism with dead center locking prevents the accidental bending of the
strut, together with other components that hold the over-center lock in its dead center and locked
position. The main landing gear usually bends on the side strut and then retracts or extends
sideways. Nose gears, on the other hand, generally bend in a longitudinal direction and retract or
extend in the direction of the fuselage.
Retraction Mechanism
The retraction mechanism can be operated hydraulically, pneumatically, mechanically or

electrically. Due to the dimensions and weight of the landing gear in passenger transport and
corporate aircraft, the retraction mechanism is normally controlled by hydraulics. In smaller
aircraft, however, gear retractions and extensions can also be controlled by an electrically
powered rack and pinion gear. Manually operated retraction systems have also been developed
for smaller aircraft. Whatever the case, the over-center lock always needs to be unlocked before
the gear can be retracted. Finally, the gear bay doors (gear doors) are opened by sequential
valves, after which the gear is retracted into the gear bay. After the gear is retracted and locked,
the gear bay doors are then closed once again. During normal operations, each individual process
in this sequence of events is controlled and monitored by an electronic or mechanical logic
device.
Nose Landing Gear
The NLG has two wheels and a drag brace that folds. The drag brace and outer cylinder
trunnions are the primary structural load paths when the gear is down and locked. The other two
attach points are for the retract actuator and the lock link. Torque links that connect to the shock
strut inner cylinder and a steering collar let the inner cylinder move up and down. Nose wheel
steering can turn the inner cylinder in the outer cylinder through the steering collar.

Nose Landing Gear

NLG Drag Strut Assembly
The drag strut assembly has upper and lower struts which attach by a hinge in the center. The
upper drag strut is trunnion-mounted to the side walls in the nose wheel well. The lower drag
strut attaches to a hinge on the shock strut.
Lock Link Assembly
The drag brace has a lock link assembly that locks in the up and down positions by an over-
center mechanism. Lock springs pull the over-center mechanism into the lock position.
Shock Absorbing
The shock strut is the primary supporting member of the main landing gear and provides a
dampening effect for both the landing impact and taxiing shocks. Most modern aircraft will use a
strut assembly filled with nitrogen in the upper chamber section of the strut and oil in the lower
chamber section. This shock absorber is referred to as an Oleo Strut.
The main landing gear shock strut assembly has a high strength steel inner piston and outer
cylinder. The cylinder is attached to the aircraft structure while the piston has the landing gear
wheel assembly attached at the bottom end which moves freely up and down inside the cylinder.
Torsion links keep the upper and lower strut assemblies in alignment and prevent them from
separating.
The outer cylinder contains an upper bulkhead, an orifice plate and support tube. Upper and
lower bearings give sliding surfaces and keep the inner cylinder concentric with the outer
cylinder. The lower bearing contains active and spare seals. The inner cylinder contains a tapered
metering pin which moves up and down through the orifice plate when the strut is compressed or
extended.
The shock energy being introduced into the strut during landing or while taxiing is absorbed by
compressing the oil from the lower chamber into the nitrogen chamber through the metering
plate. This energy is being converted to heat during the landing gear compression. The inevitable
rebound of the landing gear is controlled by the nitrogen pressure forcing the oil to flow back at a
restricted rate into the lower strut section through recoil orifices. If the oil flows back too
quickly, the aircraft will have a tendency to bounce. If it flows too slowly, the strut will not be
able to return to its normal position and will lose the shock absorbing ability. A check valve or
flapper valve will ensure the oil flows freely in one direction but is flow restricted in the opposite

direction. During taxi operations on the ground, the nitrogen being compressed will provide the
majority of the shock absorbing function.
Main Landing Gear Shock Strut with Seals

Upper Bearing / Seal Carrier
Metering Pin Assembly

Lower Bearing I Seal Carrier
Shock Strut Seals
A static seal and a dynamic seal keep the nitrogen and the hydraulic fluid in the shock strut. The
static seal is between the lower bearing and the outer cylinder. The dynamic seal is between the
lower bearing and the inner cylinder. There are two spare static seals in the shock strut.
There are also two spare dynamic seals and dynamic seal backup rings in the shock strut. The
spare seals permit the change of faulty seals without the removal of the inner cylinder.
Training Information Point
The dynamic seal is not the same as the spare dynamic seals. The spare dynamic seals are more
flexible. This permits installation of the spare dynamic seals on to the larger diameter of the
spare seal carrier.
A gas charging valve is normally on the aft upper side of the MLG shock strut. The oil charging
valve would be located on the lower side. Some smaller aircraft which use Oleo struts may have
a combined oil/nitrogen servicing valve located on top of the strut assembly.

A servicing chart is located nearby for example, on the main landing gear shock strut door or in
the main wheel well. The strut should be clean and free from damage, especially the extendable
piston at the lower part of the strut, before servicing. Improperly serviced struts can lead to
damage to the aircraft. An overserviced strut can extend too much after takeoff and prevent the
gear from fitting into the wheel well during retraction.
Oleo Struts
The internal design features may vary between Oleo struts. This learning material will cover the
principles of the basics and fundamentals of how the strut works.
When the weight of the aircraft is lifted off of the landing gear, as during takeoff, the orifices in
the metering plate slows the rate of extension by controlling the rate or oil flow returning to the
lower chamber of the piston. This ensures that the piston does not bottom out with great force
when the strut reaches its internal stops.
During landing, when the weight of the aircraft is settling onto the landing gear, oil flows, or is
forced, through the metering plate (orifice) into the upper chamber. A snubber tube in the upper
chamber will provide support to the metering pin as it extends upwards.
Metering pins are designed for a nearly constant load application throughout the stroke of the
shock absorber, even under transient loading conditions. To obtain maximum efficiency, we
need a relatively small orifice at the beginning of the stroke when the piston velocity is relatively
slow. During the middle part of the travel, a larger orifice is desirable and at the end of the travel
a larger orifice is desirable. The end of the metering pin extends above the metering plate as the
strut begins to compress. Its tapered shape steadily decreases the area of the orifice as it
compresses. The landing energy is absorbed by the oil as it is forced through the orifice and by
the nitrogen which is being compressed as the oil is forced into the upper chamber.
The momentum of the aircraft landing compresses the strut beyond what is required to support
the weight of the aircraft. When the point of maximum compression is reached, the aircraft
attempts to bounce as the landing pressure is no longer increasing and the excess oil pressure
flows back into the lower part of the chamber either through the snubber or recoil orifices. This
flow restriction prevents rapid extension of the strut causing the aircraft to bounce and possible
strut damage.
Extension and Retraction Systems: Normal
Flying with the landing gear extended is not very efficient because of the parasitic drag. Fixed

landing gear type aircraft have no choice but as the speed of aircraft has increased with
advancing technologies, the benefits of a retractable gear system far outweighs the added weight
and maintenance costs. Most passenger aircraft now have retractable landing gear allowing to
retract the gear and stowing after takeoff. This is often referred to as "aerodynamic cleanup" of
the aircraft.
Depending on the aircraft size and gear design, most Main Landing Gear (MLG) will retract and
extend in a sideward direction into and out of compartments in the unpressurized areas of the
fuselage known as wheel wells. Nose Landing Gear (NLG) generally retracts and extends in a
forward/aft direction. Some aircraft, especially turbo propeller aircraft with wings mounted on
top of the fuselage, known as high-wing aircraft, may have the main landing gear installed in a
nacelle behind the engine. These types of gear usually retract in an aft direction and extend in a
forward direction.
A hydraulic system for retracting and extending a landing gear usually has engine driven
hydraulic pumps as the power source. Electric pumps may be available as an alternative in case
of a hydraulic system failure or, in smaller aircraft, as the standard. The landing gear hydraulic
systems on small aircraft are usually referred to as Power Packs. These Power Packs include a
pressure reservoir (accumulator), a pressure source such as an electric pump and the necessary
selector and check valves required. This type of system normally provides for powered retraction
of the landing gear, extension being by 'free-fall', with the assistance of spring struts.
The landing gear control system controls the extension and retraction of the main and nose
landing gears. The flight crew input to the landing gear control function is primarily with the
landing gear lever. This gear lever usually has two or three positions:
• Extend/ Down
• Neutral/Off (not on all aircraft)
• Retract/Up
The lever is safeguarded against unintentional movement with a linked or slotted lever lock.
Moving the gear lever up triggers the retraction of the landing gear or keeps the landing gear
retracted. Moving the gear lever down triggers the extension of the landing gear or keeps the
landing gear extended. Moving the gear lever up triggers the retract sequence. The neutral/off
position, if designed into the system, depressurizes the landing gear hydraulic system to prevent
unnecessary wear on the components.
Status and motion indicator lights are used to monitor the operation of each gear arrangement
during the extension and retraction process. Depending on the type of aircraft, green lights
typically indicate the position of the landing gear in their fully extended down and locked
position. Red steady or blinking lights generally indicate an unsafe condition such as a
malfunction in the retraction or extension process. This may also indicate a gear in transit or not
in the commanded position. A steady red light during approach with the thrust levers at idle may
also be a warning trigger on some aircraft. Attempting a landing while red lights are illuminated
poses a serious risk. Amber lights may be used to indicate the open or closed status of the
landing gear doors. If no lights are displayed, the landing gear is either fully retracted or a failure
has occurred in the landing gear control system. Some aircraft types are equipped with mirrors or
small windows that can be used to check the status of the gear visually. The Boeing 737 Classic
series of aircraft, for example, has viewing ports, accessible from the passenger cabin, from
which the pilots can view the status of the main landing gear.
B737 MLG Components

Landing Gear/Undercarriage Operation
Main Landing Gear Retract Actuator

Retracting or extending the landing gear is carried out either hydraulically or pneumatically.
Pneumatic landing gear systems are very uncommon on most of today's aircraft. Specialized
training is usually provided by certified training centers.
The process begins with a crew input to the landing gear system with a landing gear selector
lever in the cockpit. Depending on the type of technologies used in the aircraft, the lever may be
linked mechanically to a selector valve or electrically to a Landing Gear Control Unit (LGCU).
The LGCU will receive an electrical signal, extend or retract, from the landing gear lever. Before
sending any retract commands to the landing gear selector valve, the LGCU will check for
different conditions such as:
RETRACTION
• Landing gear lever in the UP position
• Aircraft is Weight-Off-W11eels
• Hydraulic pressure is available
• Nose landing gear is centered
After meeting these conditions, the LGCU will send a command signal to the LGCU to begin the
retract process. The reason the nose gear must be centered is that on most aircraft, it will not fit
into the nose wheel well unless precisely centered in the neutral position. Steering pressure for
the nose wheel is usually supplied from the nose gear extension hydraulic circuit. The steering
function is also normally supplied with a centering command as soon as the nose gear lifts off
from the runway (Weight-Off-Wheels).
In a landing gear system which is electronically controlled from an LGCU and hydraulically
operated, the selector valve will have three solenoids which direct hydraulic pressure to three
different circuits. At this point, electronically controlled landing gear systems become very
similar to manually operated systems with a cable linking the landing gear lever to the selector
valve.
The selector valve can have three different hydraulic circuits:
• Extension: Ports hydraulic pressure to the landing gear extension components

• Retract: Ports hydraulic pressure to the landing gear retract components. A Transfer Valve
installed in the system, before the selector valve, will be used to manually or automatically
switch to an alternate retract pressure source in the event the normal source fails during a
normal retraction.
• Bypass: Diverts hydraulic pressure away from the other two circuits when the landing gear is
fully up and locked plus a short time delay. The retract solenoid can also serve this same
purpose when it is closed.
When the selector valve retract circuit is pressurized, hydraulic pressure is sent to a sequencing
valve which controls a basic order of operations:
• Landing gear doors open

• Retract side of the retract/extension actuator is pressurized
• Brake pressure is applied to stop the main gear wheels from spinning
• Uplock actuator secures the gear when the uplock roller on the landing gear strut makes
contact with the uplock hook.
• Gear doors close
• After a brief time delay to ensure the gear is fully up and locked and doors are closed, the
retract solenoid will deenergize causing hydraulic pressure to bypass the selector valve.
Mechanically operated landing gear systems may use a pressure operated valve for this
function or the landing gear lever may be moved to its center OFF position
Landing gear indications should no longer show or be illuminated unless there is a fault or
anomaly in the system.
Landing gear and landing gear door positions are sensed by proximity switches or
microswitches. These sensed positions normally go to a Proximity Switch Electronics Unit
(PSEU) which then controls the cockpit indications and shares the information with other
systems onboard the aircraft.
A command to extend the landing gear is similar to but opposite of a retract command. The
electronic LGCU receives the landing gear lever DOWN or EXTEND input and will then
perform the following actions:
• Retract circuit is deenergized and depressurized (should already be in this state)

• Sequencing valves will open the landing gear doors
• Landing gear extends
• Landing gear doors close. Some landing gear doors are mechanically linked to the gear and
will move with the gear remaining open with the gear extended even with the hydraulically
operated doors closed

MLG Uplock Hook Assembly
Hydraulic pressure will remain on the extend circuit to ensure that any force which attempts to
put the gear in its retracted position will by hydraulically blocked. Hydraulic pressure remains on
the downlock actuators for this same purpose. When the nose gear is on the ground, weight-on-
wheels, nose gear extension pressure is diverted into the nose gear steering system.
Airflow around the gear and the induced drag is also used to the advantage of the extension
process. The nose gear extends in an aft direction (front to aft). The airflow around the nose gear
is used to force it into a down and locked position. The main landing gear doors can also help
during the extension process into the down and locked positions. The very heavy weight of the
landing gear is also used to this advantage.
While the gear is in transit, red landing gear lights will illuminate indicating to the pilots that the
gear is not in its commanded position and may be unsafe to land. When the gear extension
process is complete, each landing gear assembly will have a green indicator to show that it is
down and locked.

Retracted Main Gear
Extension and Retraction Systems: Emergency
Even in the best built and maintained systems, faults do occur. V%en the normal landing gear
extension system fails, an alternate or redundant method of extending the landing gear is
available to the pilots to be able to extend and lock the gear into a safe position for landing. The
Alternate Extension System is also known as an Emergency Extension System or Manual
Extension System.
The alternate extension system operates independently of the normal extension and retraction
system. Wide body aircraft typically use hydraulic power packs with an electrical signal from the
cockpit to initiate the alternate extension. Narrowbody aircraft, including turboprops, will
normally employ manual cable operated alternate extension systems for each landing gear
assembly. In the cockpit, a handle is attached to each cable end which is kept under a guarded
panel. These handles are installed in a position that is within easy reach of both pilots.

Most landing gear systems are hydraulically operated. The alternate extension system permits
you to extend the landing gear when the normal hydraulic system pressure is not available or if
normal extension fails. The alternate extension system is also used by maintenance personnel to
open the landing gear doors on the ground for most aircraft.
The landing gear doors open and the landing gear extend by airloads and their own weight. The
landing gear tires may contact the landing gear doors during an alternate extension.
Since activating the alternate extension system also stops the hydraulic pressure supply to the
landing gear system, landing gear doors will remain open during landing.
Alternate Landing Gear Extension Access Panel
Manual extension control cables go from each cable quadrant to the release mechanism of the
nose landing gear and the extension linkages of the right and left main landing gear.
Pull on manual extension handles to operate the control mechanism. The handles pull on the
manual extension system control cable which goes to the right or left Main Landing Gear (MLG)
or Nose Landing Gear (NLG) manual extension linkage.
The manual extension linkages move an uplock mechanism for that MLG to the unlocked
position. The NLG linkage is attached to a cam which when rotated by the cable pull, will push
on the uplock arm of the nose gear causing it to unlock.

Initially, the landing gear starts to extend using the force of its own weight (gravity drop/free-
fall). This can be supported by hydraulic or pneumatic pressure accumulators. The airstream will
help to pull the landing gear down and force in into its fully extended and locked position (down-
locking). The locking mechanism on the drag strut allows both the inertia and/or the operation of
other support drives (hydraulic accumulator, nitrogen pressure cylinder). Small hydraulic
actuators pressurized with a hand-operated pump can also assist the alternate extension process.
When you open the access panel to the manual extension control mechanism, an access door
position switch sends a signal to the manual extend solenoid valve in the landing gear selector
valve. This moves the bypass valve in the landing gear selector valve to connect all the hydraulic
components in the normal landing gear extension and retraction system to the hydraulic system
return. On some smaller aircraft, this access panel may instead be connected to the bypass valve
with a cable circuit.

Landing Gear Control Panel with ALTN GEAR Switch

ALTN GEAR Switch in the DOWN Position
Large aircraft, including some narrowbodies, will use an alternate extension system requiring an
electrical signal from the cockpit. Electrical power is supplied to a solenoid on a hydraulic power
pack. This power is coming from the aircraft battery or a dedicated power source. The pilots will
activate a guarded switch which will signal the solenoid to allow the accumulated hydraulic
pressure to be supplied to the landing gear uplock release actuators.
The MLG alternate uplock release actuators supply the force to unlock the MLG uplocks. The
MLG alternate uplock release actuators turn cranks which touch the gear uplock mechanisms to
release the overcenter locks of the gear uplock mechanisms. This permits the MLG to extend by

gravity and airloads. Springs inside the actuators return the actuators to the retracted position
when there is low alternate extension hydraulic pressure.
There is one MLG alternate uplock release actuator for each main landing gear.
AURA
The nose landing gear alternate uplock release actuator supplies the force to unlock the nose
landing gear lock link mechanism. The nose gear alternate uplock release actuator moves a
crank. A roller on the crank moves and unlocks the nose landing gear lock links. This permits the
nose landing gear to extend by gravity and airloads.
A spring inside the actuator returns the actuator to the retracted position after an alternate
extension.
Indications
An error or malfunction in the system is displayed by mechanical and visual status indicators.
Some types of aircraft are equipped with mirrors (on the engine nacelle of the PA42, for
example) or small windows that can be used to check the status of the gear visually.
Warnings
There are various safeguard mechanisms to prevent the inadvertent retraction of the landing gear
on the ground. Depending on the type of aircraft, when passenger and corporate aircraft are
parked on the ground, a mechanical locking pin (ground pin lock) is used to lock the respective
over-center lock (generally in the nose wheel strut assembly) in position. In addition, an electric
circuit or interrupt locking pin can be used to interrupt the retraction mechanism or close the
mechanism's switch circuit. These pins must be manually removed during the pre-flight
inspection before the flight can commence.

Lock-Pins
Depending on the type of aircraft, the landing gear may also have an additional weight-on-
wheels (WOW) switch that prevents the premature retraction of the landing gear when the
aircraft is still on the ground (i.e. when taxiing, taking off and during landings). A corresponding
lock on the gear lever (controlled by the WOW switch) also prevents any operating errors by the
pilots during ground operations.
Due to the mechanical components used in a demanding multi-functional environment, the

landing gear is exposed to very specific loads during flight. In addition to the pure ground loads
resulting from rolling and landing (especially the landing impact), air resistance is the major
contributor to the enormous loads exerted on an aircraft. Furthermore, the undercarriage and
landing gear are also exposed to adverse weather conditions (low temperatures, ice, snow, rain,
hail, volcanic ash, etc.) and this can also damage mechanical components.
The maximum permissible speed with an extended undercarriage must be defined during the
design and construction stage. This is designated as VLE (landing gear extended velocity) and is
a hard value. If this value is exceeded, the air resistance can seriously damage the landing gear.
VLO = for retraction
Furthermore, the maximum permissible velocity for the operation of the retractable landing gear
of an aircraft must also be determined during its development. This is referred to as VLO
(landing gear operating velocity) and limits the operation of the landing gear by the pilot. If this
speed is exceeded, the air resistance would exert excessive loads on one or more mechanical

components during operation, which could eventually lead to the failure of the landing gear
itself.
Wheels
Wheel Rims on Aircraft
The wheels on the landing gear provide for supporting the aircraft on the ground and during
takeoff and landing. Wheels and tires on early aircraft were much like those found on bicycles of
the time. The wheels had spokes and the tires were installed using the same methods as installing
bicycle tires. Most light aircraft today are using one-piece wheel assemblies with the tire
installed using a lever tool.
As the size and service demands of aircraft wheels and tires have drastically increased, so to
have the component designs to accommodate the new requirements.
The tires are much more rigid to handle the load bearing requirements. This stiffness makes it
impossible to install onto a wheel without damaging the tire and the wheel. To make the tire-to-
wheel installation possible, the wheels are designed as two pieces known as an "inner wheel half'
and an "outer wheel half'.
The "split" wheel assembly has an inner wheel half assembly and an outer wheel half assembly.
The bolts, washers, and nuts hold these wheel half assemblies together. An O-ring between the
two wheel halves prevent the leakage of the nitrogen gas used to pressurize the tire. The nuts and
bolts used to assemble to two wheel halves together should never be loosened or removed with
any pressure remaining on the tire. A spacer at the hub register surface keeps contamination out
of the bearings.
Each wheel assembly contains two tapered roller bearings. Care must be taken during installation
of the wheel onto the axle that these bearing assemblies do not dislodge from their bearing cones
(cups).
Inserts, or drive keys, give protection to the torque lugs on the inner wheel half. These inserts
engage the brake rotors to turn the rotors with the wheel.
The tire is inflated through an inflation valve assembly (not included in the wheel assembly).
Thermal relief plugs in the inner wheel half assembly have a special metal core that melts and
releases tire pressure if the wheel gets too hot. The wheel pressure will dump into the area
between the brake disks and the wheel.
The over-inflation plug releases tire pressure if the pressure becomes higher than the limit. This
will be located on the outer wheel half.
Heat shields give protection to the inner wheel half assembly from the brake heat.
It must be noted that wheel assemblies for aircraft with carbon brakes are different than those
which have steel brakes. This is due to the torque requirements and drive key designs.
The hubcap on outboard wheel half, which covers the axle, has a drive key that rotates a wheel
speed sensor which is part of the antiskid system. If this hub cap is missing, there will be no
antiskid protection for that wheel.
To be as light and strong as possible they are usually constructed from aluminum or magnesium
alloys and may be cast or forged. Aluminum wheels have a higher corrosion resistance than
magnesium and are less expensive. They are also much heavier than their magnesium
counterparts. The strength and performance ratings of both are similar.

Since magnesium is used to produce many wheel assemblies, especially those on larger aircraft,
one must be aware of the dangers of burning metals. Magnesium, if ignited, can burn very hot
and can be a very explosive material.
When magnesium is in its metal form, it will burn very easily in air. However, in order to start
the reaction (the burning) the magnesium metal needs a source of energy such as a hot flame.
When the magnesium metal burns it reacts with oxygen found in the air to form Magnesium
Oxide. A compound is a material in which atoms of different elements are bonded to one
another. Oxygen and magnesium combine in a chemical reaction to form this compound.
Magnesium is also capable of converting water into highly-flammable hydrogen gas. The heat
from the burning metal will ignite the hydrogen. Magnesium also reacts with carbon dioxide to
form magnesium oxide and carbon. Water based and carbon dioxide fire extinguishers cannot be
used for extinguishing magnesium fires. Burning magnesium is best extinguished with a Class D
dry chemical fire extinguisher. Class D fire extinguishers should be pre-positioned wherever
routing aircraft operations and maintenance activities take place. Covering the fire with sand to
remove its air source is also a possibility.
Heat generated by braking action is dissipated by radiating into the airflow through the brake
area and conduction through the wheel and tire.
Thermal Relief Fuse Plugs
High brake temperatures can cause excess tire pressure which may result in a tire burst which is
very dangerous. To avoid this as much as possible, various fusible plugs are installed in the
wheel rim. These fuses are usually of the melting type, containing a eutectic solder which melts
at a very specific temperature.
Many thermal fuses are color coded using a dyed anodize coating on the plug surface. The color
denotes the temperature at which they melt and release the nitrogen pressure inside the tire.
Wheel Inspection
A very limited inspection of the wheel assembly may be carried out with the wheel installed on
the aircraft. A detailed inspection is made when the wheel is removed for tire replacement
following operation with a deflated tire (or with the companion tire deflated on a twin wheel
arrangement), and at the intervals specified in the approved Maintenance Schedule. Some wheels
may require overhaul after a specified number of landings.
For static and dynamic balancing purposes, a red dot or mark is placed on the tire bead usually

within five centimeters of the inflation valve port on the wheel. This will help during the
assembly process. Many pilots and technicians will use this red dot or mark as a visual alignment
aid to determine if the tire has slipped on the wheel. This slippage would normally occur during
heavy braking action or landing. It is generally a maintenance reason to remove and replace the
tire/wheel assembly as the friction during slippage can damage the tire bead where it makes a
sealing contact with the wheel.
Wheel Markings
Important information about the wheel assembly (not the tire) is included as part of the wheel
forging process or stamped or engraved onto the wheel before a final production certificate is
issued.
This information is normally on the outer wheel half rim flange and includes but is not limited
to:
• Part Number
• Assembly Number
• Serial Number
• Lot/ Die Number
• Date of Manufacture
• Size of Wheel & Tire
• Weight and Balance Values
• Manufacturer and Location of Manufacture
• Alteration Data
• Safety Information
• Warning & Safety Information
Brakes
Aircraft brake systems convert kinetic energy from the motion of the aircraft into heat energy,
which is generated by the friction between the brake linings and the brake drum or disk. The
amount of friction can be influenced from the flight deck by regulating the pressure force placed
upon the pressure stator disks with hydraulic, electric or pneumatic actuators. By varying the
pressure, the increasing or decreasing force is exerted on a non-moving or stationary stator disk
against a rotor disk that rotates with the wheels. This power is called the actuating force. This
can be directed at 90 degrees to the wheel axle (radial) or parallel to the heart line of the wheel
axle (axial).

Modes of operation for the aircraft braking system include:
• Normal. This is the normal or default mode for routine brake system application and
operations. Some faults may exist in this mode and normal function will still remain.
• Alternate. An alternate hydraulic pressure or electric power source will be made available to
The brakes in the event of a normal source failure.
• Accumulator/Emergency. Normally found in a hydraulic or pneumatic brake system, the
accumulator will store a predetermined amount of hydraulic pressure. This pressure will be
made available to the brakes in the event of a normal and alternate pressure source failure.
It is also the normal pressure source used to set the parking brake with the hydraulic
systems unpowered. It can be used to apply a braking action during taxi, takeoff or landing
however a steady application of the brakes must be applied. "Pumping" the brakes will
quickly deplete the pressure from the accumulator.
• Parking. The parking brake system will maintain a brake application pressure when the
aircraft is parked. This can be accomplished using normal, alternate or accumulator brake
pressure. Since hot brakes will have a tendency to become sticky or freeze in position as they
cool, the parking brakes are released immediately after the aircraft wheels are chocked.
• Antiskid. An electrically controlled antiskid system senses and monitors braking action for
maximum efficiency. The antiskid system monitors wheel deceleration and controls the
metered brake pressure application to prevent skid conditions.
• Autobrake. The autobrake system monitors wheel deceleration and controls metered
pressure on touchdown to maintain what the pilot selected on the AUTO BRAKE select
switch until the airplane comes to a full stop.
• Gear Retract. When the normal brake system receives pressure during landing gear
retraction, hydraulic pressure is applied to the brakes through the normal or alternate brake
system. This stops wheel spin before they go into the wheel well preventing any damage to
components in the wheel well.
The pilots' brake pedals provide independent control of brake pressure through left and right
metering valves or an electronic brake control unit. Antiskid protection is provided through the
antiskid valves and actuators to all main gear brakes. The normal brake hydraulic system is
powered by at least one hydraulic system. If the normal hydraulic pressure source fails, an
alternate source is selected automatically or manually by the pilots.
An electrically controlled antiskid system senses and monitors braking action for maximum
efficiency.
Expander Tube Brakes

These types of brakes are normally only found on older large aircraft. Expander brakes use a
heavy neoprene tube. Hydraulic brake fluid under pressure is directed into the expander tube.
When the tube expands it pushes the brake block linings outward against the brake drum and the
friction between the linings and the drum reducing the speed of the wheel and aircraft.
Mechanical Drum Brakes
Drum brakes have two brake shoes with segmented pads and a piston. They are part of an
assembly included with an adjuster mechanism, an emergency brake mechanism and springs.
The braking is accomplished by the piston pushing the brake shoes against the drum. This
braking force is at a 90 degree angle to the wheel axle (radial). As the brake shoes contact the
drum, a wedging action has the effect of pressing the shoes into the drum with more force.
Due to the wedging action, the shoes must be pulled away from the drum when the brakes are
released. This is the reason for the larger springs in the drum assembly. Other springs help hold
the brake shoes in place and return the adjuster arm after it actuates.
Two basic types of disk brakes are in use today. Most common on light aircraft on which braking
actions are mainly used to help maneuver the aircraft on the ground, effective braking is
achieved using a single disk keyed or bolted to each wheel. These small types of brakes do not
require the dissipation of great amounts of kinetic energy and therefore generate less heat and are
lighter in weight.
Braking is accomplished by applying friction to both sides of the rotating disk from a non-
rotating caliper bolted to the landing gear axle flange. Pistons in the caliper housing under
hydraulic pressure force wearable brake pads or linings against the disk when the brakes are
applied. Hydraulic master cylinders connected to the rudder pedals supply the pressure when the
upper halves of the rudder pedals are pressed. When brake pressure is released, the return spring
in each piston assembly forces the piston back away from the disk.
The materials used to produce these types of brake linings usually contain an organic material
that has a high coefficient of friction and good thermal characteristics. Previously, an asbestos
based compound was used but due to the health hazards associated with asbestos, improved and
safer materials were developed. Additional cylinders and linings can be added in order to
increase the capacity of the single disk brake.
Organic and metallic friction materials have different properties that you should be aware of.
Brake lining materials with visible metal in them are not necessarily metallic. Organic linings are
also known as "semi-metallic" linings.

There are two distinct layers when looking at a metallic brake lining: the pad and the plate.
Metallic brake pad linings contain a metal which is bonded to a metal backing plate. The friction
surface material is a powdered metal that is applied through a sintering process. Sintering is a
process in which heat and pressure weld the powdered metal together and to the backing plate.
Most brake assemblies of all types will have a wear indicator pin measuring the thickness of the
brake disks and brake pad linings. When the pin has worn to a minimum length or is flush with
its housing, the brake assembly is considered as "worn to limits" and must be replaced.

Brake Wear Indicator Pin Extended
Multi-Disk Brakes
The gross weight of the aircraft and the ground speeds involved during various phases of normal
and non-normal operations play a key determining roll in determining the proper brake sizes for
the aircraft. The requirements for the dissipation of vast amounts of kinetic and heat energy, even
on smaller jets and turboprops have dictated the need for multiple-disc brakes.
Modern brakes use a sintered copper and iron base friction-material which is bonded to the steel
rotating discs. A series of small circular pistons, providing a uniform pressure, force the pressure
plate against the stack of disks applying a clamping force. These small pistons, better known as
actuators, have an automatic adjustment mechanism to compensate for disc wear which
eliminates the need for manual brake adjustment.
A multiple-disk (multi-disk) brake assembly has carbon stators and rotors. The stators and rotors
are "stacked" in pair configuration with an end plate assembly. For example, a 3-pair
configuration consists of three stators and three rotors. The stator making contact and being
pushed by the actuators acts as a pressure plate. The stack of pairs is pushed up against the end
plate creating friction causing the kinetic energy to be transformed into heat.
The brake assembly rotor disks are keyed to the wheel. The rotors are segmented to allow for
cooling and for expansion caused by the high temperatures generated during braking. Space
between the rotor segments and brake linings permit an improved brake cooling.
Brake housings for single and multiple-disk brakes are usually made of cast aluminum or
magnesium alloy. Chambers within the housing contain the pistons that provide the clamping
action as they force the pressure plate against the stack of discs. The pressure applied by the
hydraulic or electric actuators compresses the front stator plate assembly onto the adjacent rotor
plate assembly. This braking force is parallel with the wheel axle (axial). The stators do not
rotate while the rotors do rotate with the wheel. This input transfers into the other stator and rotor
plate assemblies with the rear stator plate assembly acting as a back stop. The increasing
compression causes increasing friction converting the motion energy of the wheel/brake
assembly into heat.
Depending on the aircraft and landing gear design, the brake-to-axle mounting pins, studs or the
brake torque arm will prevent the brake assembly from rotating and transfers the braking torque
into the main landing gear.
Many aircraft use multiple-disk brakes which have carbon stators and rotors. These are lighter in
weight and have greater heat-dissipating qualities in comparison to steel brakes. This allows the
carbon components to function at higher temperatures. Advancements in material technologies
and production techniques have made them more cost efficient even for small aircraft.
Electric Brake Assembly

On a hydro-mechanical brake system, normal aircraft hydraulic system pressure is delivered to a

brake control metering valve. The brake control metering valves are normally connected to the
brake pedals in the cockpit with cables, control rods, bell cranks and quadrants connecting to two
levers on the control valves. Movement of the brake pedal mechanism controls the brake
metering valves that send out metered brake pressure to the brakes.
The pilot and co-pilot left brake pedals are connected to one lever while their right brake pedals
are connected to the other lever. Depending on the aircraft, there may be a brake metering valve
for each main landing gear (left and right). Pushing at the top of the rudder pedals will give the
input to the brakes. An input to the left brake pedal will cause braking application on the left
main landing gear brakes while an input on the right pedal will cause the right brakes to be
applied. The "summing" mechanism of the pedals is under the cockpit floor. This differential
braking action is useful in the event of loss of nose gear steering. From the brake control
metering valve, hydraulic pressure is allowed to flow to the brakes in direct proportion to the
amount of input at the brake pedals.
Brake pressure flows from the metering valve to the brakes via the antiskid valve. The antiskid
valve, controlled by the antiskid control unit, will divide the pressure flow to each individual
brake. In the event that a skid situation is sensed (one wheel rotating slower than the others), the
antiskid valve will reduce or stop the flow of hydraulic pressure to that brake until the wheel
speed catches up with the others. Only hydraulic pressure is delivered to the brakes. There is no
return circuit from the brakes to the hydraulic return system. This return, or bypass, is
accomplished at the antiskid control valve. An Alternate Brake System may use hydraulic
pressure from another system if the normal system pressure is not available.
The hydraulic pressure return circuit contains a Parking Brake Valve. With this valve open, any
return pressure from the antiskid control valve is allowed to flow back to the hydraulic system
and the brakes will release. M,llen the parking brake valve is closed, the return pressure is
trapped and the brakes will not release until the valve has reopened. The parking brake valve is
connected to a solenoid controlled electrically or via a cable input from the parking brake lever
in the cockpit. A quick tap or application of the normal brake pedal action will cause the parking
brake to disengage. Never trust a parking brake valve to hold brake pressure for an extended
length of time. Use wheel chocks in accordance with the aircraft manufacturer and company
regulations. Local airport regulation may be even more stringent on securing an aircraft with
wheel chocks. Parking brake pressure function is normally only available in the normal brake
hydraulic pressure circuit. If normal pressure is not available, an accumulator is available to
pressurize the circuit up to the parking brake control valve.
The Autobrake Valve will take normal system pressure and deliver it to the brakes via the normal
Brake Control Metering Valve. The Autobrake Valve is controlled by the Autobrake Control

Module and will set, or meter, the hydraulic pressure according to a level set by the pilot before
takeoff. A quick tap or application of the normal brake pedal action will cause the autobrake to
disengage.
Hydraulic brake systems do not like air (compressible gasses). Even small amounts of air in the
system or deterioration of the flexible brake lines will result in spongy braking action. Since
hydraulic brakes receive pressure only and there is no return system downstream of the antiskid
valves, air is easily accumulated. Bleeding the brakes removes air from the brake housings and
lines, which will restore proper brake function.
The actions of an electric brake assembly are very similar to that of a hydraulic brake. The
difference is how the electric brake is controlled. A Brake Systems Control Unit monitors the
inputs from the brake pedals which will command a level of braking intensity in direct
proportion to the amount of brake pedal input.
The rotation of the wheels on a retractable landing gear must be stopped completely before the
gear can be retracted. Any rotation of the wheels during retraction would otherwise result in
excessive rotational and centrifugal forces being exerted on the whole landing gear assembly.
Under certain conditions, the friction resulting from a rotating wheel could also cause serious
damage to the gear bays. An independent system called an "auto-retract brake system" or "in-
flight brake system", in which the brake lever is operated from the cockpit, stops the rotation of
the wheels and prevents this situation from occurring.
Hydraulic brake actuators contain an internal spring. When hydraulic brake pressure input is
removed, the spring load generated during the braking application will retract the adjustor pin
and insulator assembly thereby removing the braking input to the disks. These actuators are
normally not adjustable outside of a designated shop facility nor can the be individually replaced
on a brake assembly.
Electric Brake Actuators (EBA) will use electric power only when it changes position. A friction
brake locks the EBA in place when no position change has been commanded. A load cell
monitors the amount of force being applied by the EBA. EBA motors can normally be removed
and replaced individually without removing the entire brake assembly from the aircraft. The
EBA motor is an electrical motor, which changes the electrical power to the mechanical power.
The EBA motor is typically supplied with a 115 V AC, three phase, 360 to 800 Hz variable
frequency AC power supply. Through a splined shaft, it drives a gear train which provides the
movement and torque power to the actuator. The actual design of the EBA motor installed on a
particular type of aircraft may differ from that given in the image below.

Slowing an airplane requires the dissipation of kinetic energy. Kinetic energy that is not
absorbed by the thrust reversers and speed brakes is converted to heat energy by the wheel
brakes. The weight and speed of the airplane during landing and taxiing determine how much
energy the brake friction (i.e., heat stack) material absorbs. Factors that lead to uneven brake
heating include variation in brake wear, inadvertent asymmetrical braking, and wind conditions.
Brakes that are approaching wear limits can become much hotter than brakes with less wear. The
variations in temperatures simply reflect the difference in the amounts of brake friction material.
Temperature differences between brakes on the left and right gears often arise from inadvertent
asymmetrical braking. When the brakes and rudder pedals are used concurrently to maintain
heading and keep speed under control, it is easy for flight crews to inadvertently apply
asymmetrical braking inputs that - unknown to them - are being compensated for by the rudder.
When the pedal brakes are applied lightly during taxi braking and landings, temperature
differences among the brakes on each landing gear can increase quickly.
The Brake Temperature Monitoring System (BTMS) receives brake temperature signal inputs
from the main gear brakes and supplies this data for flight deck indication. Brake temperature
probes or sensors send brake temperature data to the Brake Temperature Monitor (BTM). The
brake temperature probes are a type K thermocouple that measure the wheel brake temperature.
The temperature sensor assembly has a sensor, mounting flange and connector.
Reference ambient air temperature are supplied by dedicated independent temperature sensors or
the aircraft air data system.
Brake Temperature Sensor

Brake temperature monitoring for indication is generally found in aircraft cockpit with electronic
display systems.
Brake temperature between approximately 38 C (100 F) and 1038 C (1900 F) shows as a number
on a linear scale between 0.0 and 9-9.
On the landing gear synoptic display, the values less than 5.0 show in white. A solid white brake
symbol shows the hottest brake on each main gear truck between 3.0 and 4-9. If two brakes on
one truck are the same temperature, the solid white brake symbol shows the brake that first went
to that temperature.
Electronic Brake Temperature Indications

When the brake temperature is 5.0 or more, the number changes to amber and the brake symbol
changes to a solid amber. All brake temperatures above 5.0 will show this indication. The amber
indication stays on until the brake temperature decreases to less than 3-5.
A BRAKE TEMP message shows to the pilots if there is an amber temperature indication.
Training Information Point
If the brake temperatures are more than 5.0, the wheel thermal fuse plugs may melt.
In addition to indications, some aircraft may use the Brake Temperature Monitoring System for
other functions such as:
• Prevents takeoff with a hot brake. Aircraft with overheating brakes may not have enough
braking effectiveness to execute a Rejected Takeoff Function.
• Prevent landing gear retraction with a hot brake. Brakes can continue to heat up even after
takeoff. Once fully retracted, the landing gear and brakes do not have the cooling airflow.
Brakes which are too hot can cause damage and fires in the wheel well.
• Monitors for residual braking due to a dragging brake. On hydraulic brakes, this would
normally be caused by an actuator with a broken spring. On electric brakes, this could be
caused by an actuator failing to retract.
The differences in aircraft brakes are mostly in the materials used to construct the rotors and
disks. Steel brakes and carbon disk brakes are the most common. Most large aircraft and many
small aircraft including military aircraft types employ the use or carbon brakes. Steel brakes are
heavy but relatively easy to manufacture compared to carbon brakes.
Carbon brakes offer significant weight savings compared to steel brakes, up to 40 percent
reduction in weight. This translates into a lighter aircraft which directly contributes to decreased
fuel consumption and associated reductions in engine emissions and operational costs.
Carbon brakes are well-suited to the high-performance braking demands of commercial

airplanes. Carbon brake material is characterized by high temperature stability, high thermal
conductivity, and high specific heat. Carbon brakes have a number of operational advantages
relative to steel brakes:
• Longer life: Carbon brakes offer up to twice as many landings per overhaul as steel brakes
• Cost effectiveness: For most operations, the life-cycle costs of carbon brakes are now similar

to those of steel brakes

• High performance: Carbon brakes have greater energy absorption capability than steel
brakes
• Lightweight: Carbon brakes are significantly lighter than steel brakes
Steel brake wear is directly proportional to the kinetic energy absorbed by the brakes. Maximum
steel brake life can be achieved during taxi by using a large number of small, light brake
applications, allowing some time for brake cooling between applications. High airplane gross
weights and high brake application speeds tend to reduce steel brake life because they require the
brakes to absorb a large amount of kinetic energy.
Carbon brake wear is primarily dependent on the total number of brake applications - one firm
brake application causes less wear than several light applications. Maximum carbon brake life
can be achieved during taxi by using a small number of long, moderately firm brake applications
instead of numerous light brake applications. This can be achieved by allowing taxi speed to
increase from below target speed to above target speed, then using a single firm brake
application to reduce speed below the target and repeating if required, rather than maintaining a
constant taxi speed using numerous brake applications. Carbon brake wear is much less sensitive
to airplane weight and speed than steel brake wear.
Carbon brakes are able to tolerate temperatures fifty percent higher than steel component brakes.
The maximum designed operating temperature is controlled by the ability of adjacent
components to withstand the high temperature, namely the wheel assembly and the axle and strut
components. Carbon brake components also dissipate heat faster than steel. A carbon rotor
maintains its structural integrity, strength and dimensions at high temperatures. Carbon brakes
also last up to fifty percent longer than steel brakes, which results in reduced maintenance. The
increased thermal overload capability does not cause "fading" of the braking effectiveness. The
braking torque being produced will be mostly consistent.
One other difference between carbon and steel brakes is a negative tendency of components on
steel brakes to weld together under extreme heat environments. Steel brakes usually have steel
rotors and stators with a copper/iron mix. Specific other alloying elements may be incorporated.
This can even happen before the airplane comes to a full stop, particularly in the last several
knots where the antiskid system is not effective.
A specific negative aspect of carbon brakes to look for during visual inspections and wheel
changes is brake oxidation. Carbon brakes can rapidly degrade due to carbon oxidation which
can also cause brakes to disintegrate leaving bits and pieces of carbon brakes on the hangar floor,
the ramp and anywhere the aircraft may be moving such as taxiways and runways.

Two types of oxidation may affect carbon:
• Catalytic Oxidation: Catalytic oxidation of carbon occurs when a catalyst, such as an alkali
metal(s), is present. When a catalyst is present, the temperature at which thermal oxidation
occurs is lowered. Alkali metal (i.e., organic salt) runway de-icers have caused catalytic
oxidation of carbon brakes, resulting in mechanical damage to the brakes, and have the
potential to degrade airplane stopping performance. Mitigating actions can reduce the
severity of catalytic oxidation of carbon brakes but cannot eliminate the occurrence of
catalytic oxidation of carbon brakes as long as cold weather airports continue to use alkali
metal runway de-icers.
• Thermal Oxidation: Thermal oxidation occurs as the temperature of the carbon material is
increased and an oxidizer, such as oxygen, is present. If the brakes absorb too much heat,
carbon oxidation increases. The presence of alkali based runway de-icing fluids only makes
this problem more challenging. This will occur even after the fluids have dried.
These alkali metal de-icing formulations - containing primarily, but not limited to, potassium,
sodium, and calcium - were introduced because of environmental concerns over the use of urea-
and glycol-based runway deicers. Once the carbon brakes are exposed to the alkali metal runway
de-icers, the alkali metal cannot be removed from the carbon disks. Subsequent exposure to these
alkali metals on successive takeoff and landing cycles, combined with the braking action of the
airplane, leads to the mechanical and structural degradation of the carbon disks.
Antiskid
Especially in larger aircraft with two or more wheels on the same landing gear assembly, the
pilot will not be able to determine the status of each wheel only by "feel". An antiskid system is
installed which senses the rate of rotational speed of each wheel and compares that speed with
the speed of the other wheels. If any wheel is sensed as rotating slower than the others, an
impending skid is sensed and determined. The Antiskid Control Unit will command the antiskid
valve to release or divert the hydraulic pressure from that wheel back into the system return
manifold, thus preventing a skid by that wheel.
The antiskid system limits metered brake pressure from the hydro-mechanical or the autobrake
systems to prevent wheel skid. This permits maximum braking effectiveness with any runway
condition. The antiskid system monitors wheel speed deceleration and controls brake pressure to
prevent skid conditions. It also releases one third of the brakes during taxi to extend the brake
service life. Antiskid components for each MLG include:

• Antiskid transducer (wheel speed transducer): The transducer produces an alternating

current as the wheel rotates. The sine wave signal of the transducer goes to the antiskid
controller which converts the sine wave frequency into a wheel speed reference.
• Antiskid valve: Antiskid valves control normal hydraulic brake system pressure to each
individual brake assembly.
Antiskid Valve
Antiskid functions include:
• Skid control
• Locked wheel protection
• Hydroplane/touchdown protection
• Gear retract inhibit
The normal brake metering valves send metered pressure from the hydraulic system or the
accumulator through the autobrake shuttle valves to the normal antiskid valve modules. The
antiskid or brake systems controller sends signals to the normal antiskid valve modules to control
the metered pressure to each brake. The metered pressure goes through the antiskid shuttle valve
modules to the brakes.
When a wheel skids, the antiskid control unit sends signals to the antiskid valves. If the normal

brake system has pressure, the antiskid valve in the normal hydraulic brake system releases
pressure for that wheel. This permits wheel speed to increase and stop the skid condition.
The normal antiskid valve releases unwanted brake pressure through the parking brake valve.
The antiskid system monitors the correct operation of the parking brake valve to make sure the
unwanted brake pressure can be released.
If the alternate hydraulic brake system has pressure, the antiskid system operates almost the same
as the normal system. If a wheel on one main landing gear skids, the antiskid valve in the
alternate hydraulic brake system releases the brake pressure to the two brakes on that main
landing gear.
An antiskid surge accumulator absorbs pressure surges in the return lines from the left normal
antiskid valve module. The pressure surges can occur during antiskid operation. It is not
necessary for the right normal antiskid valve to have a surge accumulator since it is near the right
system reservoir.
Antiskid in Aircraft with Electric Brakes
The basic antiskid principal functions on aircraft with electrically operated brakes such as the
Boeing 787 are very similar to those with hydraulic brakes. Rather than all of the hydraulic
components and tubing, the electronic brake systems controller will receive wheel speed signals
from the wheel speed sensor and command the electric brake actuators on the slow wheel to
release the braking action and retract the actuator pins.
There are no autobrake or antiskid valves in this process.
Autobraking
The antiskid system and the autobrake system share many of the same components for their
functions including a single controller providing command and control for both.

Antiskid/Autobrake Control Panel
The autobrake system monitors wheel deceleration and controls metered pressure on touchdown
to maintain what the pilot selected on the AUTOBRAKE select switch until the airplane comes
to a full stop. These are the autobrake functions:
• Autobrake for Rejected Takeoff

• Autobrake for Landing
The autobrake system is armed (and active if necessary) during takeoff. The rejected takeoff
(RTO) position commands the autobrake system to apply maximum regulated pressure to the
brakes and stop the airplane. There is no time delay and the effect is immediate.
The autobrake system operates in the RTO ARMED mode when the switch has been placed to
RTO and the aircraft has reached a minimum groundspeed. When the pilot initiates a rejected
takeoff after the system is armed by pulling the thrust levers back to IDLE, the autobrake system
will transition from ARMED to ACTIVE and the autobrake controller will command a
maximum brake pressure application. The spoilers and speed brakes on top of the wing will also
extend to maximum extension as part of the RTO mode function.
The latch solenoid releases the selector from the RTO position to the OFF position when the
airplane goes in the air.
During the landing phase, autobrakes are used to reduce the pilot workloads.
Using the autobrake selector, Positions 1 through MAX AUTO set the rate of deceleration for
autobrake operation after landing. For each level of deceleration, the autobrake control unit
controls the autobrake pressure to a maximum limit. A short time delay of 0.1 to 0.5 seconds will
occur for autobrake application after landing to ensure aircraft stability.
If the MAX AUTO is selected, deceleration is limited to the AUROBRAKE 4 level until the
pitch angle of the aircraft is less than one degree, then deceleration is increased to the MAX
AUTO level.
This deceleration level will continue until the aircraft is at a full stop.
If a disarm condition occurs, such as a manual application of the brakes by pushing on the brake
pedals or a system fault, when the selector is in 1 through MAX AUTO, the latch solenoid
releases the selector to DISARM.
During the landing phase braking procedure, the antiskid system controls the brake pressure
required for providing the optimum braking pressure to match the desired skid/ slip.

Tires
Aircraft tires, tubeless or tube type, provide a cushion of air that helps absorb the shocks and
roughness of landings and takeoffs: they support the weight of the aircraft while on the ground
and provide the necessary traction for braking and stopping aircraft on landing. They must be
carefully maintained to meet the rigorous demands of their basic job to accept a variety of static
and dynamic stresses dependably in a wide range of operating conditions.
Bias Ply Aircraft Tire

Radial Play Aircraft Tire
Two different and distinct aircraft tire constructions are manufactured for aviation according to
approved standards.
• The Bias Tire (cross-ply construction)

• The Radial Tire (found on most commercial jet aircraft)
Many of the components of bias and radial tires have the same terminology. However, the
engineering designs and manufacturing methods utilized are quite different requiring different
design parameters, compounds, and materials. While the technologies between bias tire and
radial tire perform very differently, their in-service maintenance procedures and removal limit
criteria remain similar. The casual observer would not see the difference while a trained
technician and most experienced pilots can easily spot the differences and any defects and
damages.
Some of the differences between radial ply and bias ply tires include:
• In radial constructed tires, each nylon casing ply is laid at an angle approximately 900 to the
centerline or direction of rotation of the tire. Radial constructed tires of the same size have a
fewer number of casing plies than tires of a bias construction because the radial tire uses the
casing cords more efficiently.
• Radial tires are constructed with two high strength steel wire bundles, one in each bead.

A tire is made up of several different components:
•Tread: The tread layer is applied on top of the intermediate layer and serves as a contact
surface between the tire and the runway. The circumferential ribbed pattern is widely used
because it provides good traction under widely varying runway conditions. The tread or
"Crown Zone" extends from shoulder to shoulder. The grooves in the tread provide a path
for water under the tire to escape. It also acts as a visual indicator of tread wear by
measuring the depth of the grooves.
•Tread reinforcement: One or more layers of reinforced nylon cord fabric strengthens the
tread for high speed operation. This is used mainly for high speed tires.
• Breakers: Not always used, these extra layers of reinforcing nylon cord fabric are placed
under the tread rubber to protect casing plies and strengthen tread area. They are
considered an integral part of the carcass construction.
• Carcass: The carcass defines the shape and mechanical strength of a tire. The more fibres
that are used in the carcass, the greater the strength of the tire will be. This is referred to as
the ply rating. The two different types of layers in a carcass are diagonal reinforcing layers
(as in cross-ply tires) and radial reinforcing layers (circumferential bias).
• Casing plies / carcass plies: Diagonal layers of rubber-coated nylon cord fabric (running at
opposite angles to one another) provide the strength of a tire. Completely encompassing the
tire body, the carcass plies are folded around the wire beads and back against the tire
sidewalls (the "ply turnups"). The term "Casing" refers to a grouping of casing plies and
other tire components. It represents the structural part of the tire.
• Beads: The tire bead serves to connect and seal the tire to the wheel rim. The bead is
typically reinforced with the use of steel wire. If tire creep occurs in the tire bead in relation
to the rim collar, the resulting heat can cause the tire to burst.
• Bead toe: The inner bead edge closest to the tire center line.
• Bead heel: The bead heel is the radius that forms the intersection of the sidewall and bead
flat. It rests in the radius between the wheel flange and the flat portion of the rim base.
• The bead flat is the area of the tire that is in contact with the rim seating surface of the
wheel.
• The bead flange area is the part of the bead which is in contact with the wheel flange.
• Apex strip: The apex strip is additional rubber formed around the bead to give a anchoring
circumference for the ply turnups.
• Flippers: These layers of fabric and rubber insulate the carcass from the bead wires and
improve the durability of the tire.
• Chafers: Layers of fabric and rubber that protect the carcass from damage during mounting
and demounting. They insulate the carcass from brake heat and provide a good seal against
movement during dynamic operations.
• Innerliner: On tubeless tires, this inner layer of less permeable rubber acts as a built-in tube;
it prevents air from seeping through casing plies. It extends from bead to bead on the inside
surface of the tire.
•Tread reinforcing ply: Rubber compound cushion between tread and casing plies, provides
toughness and durability. It adds protection against cutting and bruising throughout the life
of the tread.
• Shoulder: The shoulder zone is between the tread and the sidewall.
• Sidewall: The sidewall zone extends from the molded shoulder ring toward the bead area in
the vicinity of the top of the wheel flange. Most tires have a molded ring in this area. The
sidewall is also the location of the tire that has important markings as it is always visible.
A special sidewall construction, the "chine tire," is a nose wheel tire designed with built-in
deflector to divert runway water to the side, thus reducing water spray in the area of rear
mounted jet engines.
Tire Sizes
Tires are described by a combination of their physical dimensions. The dimensions described
will depend upon the intended application of the tire. Given that the tire size dimensions are for a
tire mounted on the proper wheel assembly (rim) and inflated to rated pressure at ambient
temperature.

Bias tire dimensions are for a "New" tire that has been inflated to the specified pressure for 12
hours minimum.
Radial tire dimensions are for a "Grown" tire that has been rolled the equivalent of 50 takeoff
cycles.
Tire Markings
Markings are molded into the rubber surface during manufacturing and remain there throughout
the tire's life. Markings provide information that describes the tire, its design capabilities,
manufacturing information, and certification. Tire markings will vary depending on the intended
application, type of tire (bias or radial), and reflect the requirements in place at the time of
certification.
Tire markings include but are not limited to:
• Qualification Standard: The legal standard according to which the tires are manufactured.
TSO-C62 is the Federal Administration Agency (FAA) Technical Standard Order (TSO) used
to define the minimum performance standards for aircraft tires. ETSO-C62 is the European
Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) equivalent.
• Part Number: A part number is a unique manufacturer identification for each aircraft tire
size/ply rating/ speed rating.
• Serial Number: The serial number is a unique identification number for each tire
manufactured.
• Ply Ratings: Ply rating for a given size is an index indicating the maximum load rating or
airplane tire strength in relationship with the inflation pressure. Ply rating is an index
number. The ply rating of an aircraft tire is used to identify the maximum static rated load
capacity and corresponding inflation pressure applicable to specific operational
requirements. It may not indicate the actual number of casing plies applied in the tire
construction.
• Load Rating: Load rating is the maximum static load for a tire at rated pressure. Ratings
may be expressed in kilograms or pounds. The rated inflation pressure is often provided for
an unloaded tire (without any deflection). A loaded tire will deflect and reduce its internal
volume which increases the inflation pressure about 4%.

• Inflation Pressure: This is given in Bars or Pounds per Square Inch (psi) (1 Bar 14-5 psi).
Rated pressure is the maximum inflation pressure to match the load rating. Aircraft tire
pressures are given for an unloaded tire; i.e, the tire is not supporting the airplane weight.
When the rated load is applied to the tire, the pressure increases by four percent as a result
of a reduction in air volume. Specified Service Inflation pressure is required for a tire, at
maximum aircraft load, to maintain the designed loaded radius. It is determined by the
airplane manufacturer and not branded onto the tire.
• Speed Rating: Speed rating is the maximum allowable ground speed for which the tire is
certified. Speed Ratings are given in Miles per Hour (MPH).
• Casing Construction Code Identification: This is used for some radial and bias tires to
provide the actual construction.
• Retread markings: Retread brandings provide information related to the retread and are
molded into the shoulder. New tire branding will remain on the sidewall of a retreaded tire.
Some retreads will have additional brandings applied to the sidewall during the retread
process. In addition to the markings already included from when the tire was newly
manufactured, retread markings will include retread groove depth and retread level.
Tires can be differentiated depending on whether they come with or without a separate inner
tube. From a historical point of view, the tasks of the inner tube and tire were strictly separated.
Whereas the inner tube was used to maintain gas pressure (air or nitrogen) in the tire, the actual
tire casing served to withstand external loads and forces. Tubeless tires currently prevail in
general and commercial aviation. The three advantages of tubeless tires are their 75% lower
frictional heat when rolled, their 10% weight reduction/ saving and their lower or reduced
vulnerability to punctures.
The tire is a composite of a number of different rubber compounds, fabric material and steel.
Each component and rubber compound serves a specific purpose in the performance of the tire.
Most aircraft tires are designed to be retreaded. Retreading is the process of removing and
replacing the tread of the tire allowing the carcasses or casings to be used multiple times.
Damaged tires may also be repairable. Retreading and repairing extends the service life of a
casing, reducing operational costs and minimizing environmental impact.
Inflation
The correct air pressure is particularly important for the safe operation of tires. A tire can only
survive its' environment over a longer period of time if properly pressurized. FAA and EASA
regulations require any aircraft with a maximum certified takeoff weight greater than 75,000
pounds (34,000 kilograms) to use dry nitrogen for tire pressurization. Any measurement below
95% of nominal inflation pressure requires maintenance action. Under inflation increases the
deflection of the tire which may result in overheating, abnormal tire wear, shortened tire life, and
possible tire failure.
The total pressure is derived from the filling pressure and from the weight of the aircraft exerted
on the tire. Usually, the filling pressure (no aircraft weight on the tire) is about 4% lower than the
total pressure. Tire pressure is also affected by the temperature of the tire. For these reasons, the
manufacturer's specified nominal pressure is always given for a stationary wheel on the ground
whilst in a cooled state.
A "cold" tire is defined as a tire which is the same temperature as the surrounding ambient air
temperature. A tire can reach this temperature after the aircraft has not taxied or has not been
towed for at least three hours.
A tire is considered "hot" when the aircraft has taxied or has been towed within the preceding
three hours and has not been allowed to cool to ambient temperature.
Tires operating on the same axle or bogie should be operated at the same pressure within a 5
percent range. Tires with a higher inflation pressure will carry a greater portion of the load
causing a shorter life on both tires due to casing fatigue or abnormal wear.
Effects of Overinflation:
• Tread cutting
• Foreign Object Damage (FOD)
• Abnormal tread wear
• Wheel stress
Effects of Underinflation:
• Underinflation or underinflation over time can cause casing fatigue which can result in
partial or full tire failure
• Reduced retreadability
• Excessive shoulder wear
• Tires can creep or slip on the wheel during braking. Valve stems on tube-type tires can be

damaged or sheared off and the tire, tube or complete wheel assembly can be damaged
• High lateral (side) forces or landing impact may cause the wheel to pinch the tire, strike the
runway or the tire to interfere with other landing gear components
Tires will wear as part of their normal in-service life. Removal criteria for normal wear is based
on remaining tread rubber as determined by groove depth or exposure of textile/steel ply
material. Remove and replace the tire when the wear level reaches the minimum depth level
(worn to limits) as specified in the aircraft maintenance and company manuals.
Wear beyond limits occurs when tires are worn into the top belt plies (radial) or top casing plies
(bias).
Surface cuts in a "V" shape, referred to as Chevron Cuts, are common on aircraft tires, especially
those higher pressure tires with higher landing speeds. They can occur in single cuts or in small
groups. Most of the cutting occurs during aircraft touchdown at "spin-up". The forces required to
accelerate the tire from zero to ground speed causes a tearing action in the shape of a chevron in
the tread ribs. Chevron cuts can also be caused during taxiing and ground operations. The tire
should be removed from service if the cutting causes chunking of the tread or exposes the tread
plies. Chevron cutting spanning the full width of the rib is also a cause for removal.
Tread Separation
Tires should be stored in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight. Temperatures should be
between 0oc (320F) and 30oC (850 F). Items such as fluorescent lighting, electric motors and
generators, battery chargers, electric welding equipment and similar items should not be operated
in the same vicinity as stored tires. These items create ozone, which has a deteriorating effect on
rubber.
Tires, whether stored or installed on the aircraft, should not come into contact with oil, hydraulic
fluid, jet fuel and other chemicals as these materials have components which cause the rubber to
deteriorate. Affected surfaces on a tire should be cleaned using denatured alcohol and then
washed with soap and water before a final inspection.
Steering
Commercial, charter and private passenger carrying and freighter aircraft utilize a nose-wheel
steering system on the ground for normal directional control of the aircraft. Very small aircraft
may utilize a castoring nose wheel. Differential braking will provide the steering function on
these aircraft types.
Steering command inputs from the pilot and co-pilot positions are transmitted via cable circuits
or electronically. The pilot inputs can originate from rudder pedal inputs or a hand steering input
called a Tiller Wheel.
Large aircraft are steered on the ground using hydraulic pressure supplied to hydraulic actuators
and shimmy dampers. A control wheel operated by the pilot or co-pilot makes a mechanical
input to a steering control unit which directs fluid under pressure into one of the steering
cylinders. Fluid pressure from the opposite side of the cylinder piston is returned to the system
reservoir through a pressure relief valve that maintains a constant pressure on the system to
prevent shimmying. This is also true when the steering control valve is in its neutral position or
when pressure to the steering damper system is lost.
Steering actuators can also function steering dampers because they are constantly pressurized.
Any uncommanded nose wheel steering movement will be prevented with the equal pressure on
both sides of the cylinder pistons. Small aircraft may employ a piston type shimmy damper.
On most aircraft with hydraulically operated nose wheel steering systems, the hydraulic steering
pressure source is the nose landing gear extension circuit. An electronic squat switch or a weight-
on-wheels operation valve will allow the hydraulic pressure to be directed to the steering system.
This same action will allow the rudder pedal steering mechanism to also make the input to the
rudder and nose gear steering at the same time.
When the rudder pedals are moved while on the ground, the steering control valve is operated via
a cable system and a summing lever. The steering valve connects the hydraulic power system to
the steering cylinders. The pistons in the steering cylinder are moved under influence of the
hydraulic pressure. As a result, it turns a steering collar which is installed round the outer strut.
The upper torque link, which will also rotate, is attached to this steering collar. Because the
lower torque link is attached to the inner cylinder of the landing gear, the inner strut will, in
sequence, also rotate in relation to the outer strut.
Many modern aircraft steering systems designs are using the electro-hydraulic principle in which
the control and feedback signals are carried by electrical cables to a control computer. This
makes the systems lighter in weight and easier to maintain.
Tiller Steering
Pilots can make inputs to the steering system by using rudder pedals or a hand-controlled
steering input called a Tiller Wheel.
A tiller wheel in an aircraft is a small wheel or lever allowing the pilot to make steering control
inputs by hand. Most older aircraft are equipped with a single tiller wheel on the left side of the
cockpit available to the pilot. New aircraft, especially those with electronic steering systems, will
have a second tiller wheel available to the co-pilot on the right side. Depending on the aircraft
type, tiller steering can rotate the nose wheels for steering up to 78 degrees left or right of center.
This method of steering the aircraft is used for slower speeds such as maneuvering on the ramp
or taxiways. This contrasts to the rudder pedal steering mode which provides up to eight degrees,
left or right, of steering and is used at higher ground speeds such as during takeoff and landing.
Zero-position indicators are at the base of each tiller. These show when the steering tiller is in the
neutral position. The nosewheels should also be centered when the tiller wheel is in the neutral
position. Tiller position transducers supply signals to operate the main gear steering systems.

Nosewheel Steering Angle Limits
Castoring Mode
If there is a mechanical or electronic command system failure, a hydraulic system failure or a

towing pin engaged in the Steering Bypass Valve, the XTWS can freely rotate or castor in the
direction of aircraft travel. With the nose wheel hydraulic steering circuit in bypass during
towing, the nose wheel will also be in the castoring mode.
During nose wheel castoring, the nose wheel steering hydraulics are essentially unpressurized
however a minimum pressure remains in the system with the use of check valves to prevent the
actuator chambers from cavitating. The hydraulic fluid in the actuators can move from one
actuator to the other. The anti-shimmy damping function is the same as in the powered steering
mode.
Differential Braking
Differential braking depends on asymmetric application of the brakes on the main gear wheels to
turn the aircraft. For this, the aircraft must be equipped with separate controls for the right and
left brakes by applying pressure to the tops of the rudder pedals. Pressing at the bottoms of the
rudder pedals will make inputs to the rudder controls and nose wheel steering.
Nosewheel Centering
The nose wheel wells are very narrow with very little space on either side of the nosewheels. In
order for the nosewheels to properly fit into the wheel well during the retraction process, the
nosewheels steering must be centered. A nosewheel which is not centered will prevent the gear
from being retracted. A steering position sensor on the steering collar will make an electronic or
mechanical input to the steering and landing gear retraction systems to generate a centering
command when the landing gear lever in the cockpit is placed in the UP position. Additionally,
when the weight of the aircraft lifts off the nose gear during takeoff, a separate input is made to
the steering system to center the gear. Internal centering cams in the nose gear shock strut center
the wheels when the strut is extended after takeoff, and keeps the gear centered when it is
retracted and unpressurized during flight.
Nosewheel Shimmy
Shimmy is an oscillation in the landing gear of an aircraft that can occur during taxiing, takeoff
or landing. In addition to being very uncomfortable for those onboard, it causes excessive wear
on components and can cause loss of control of the aircraft. Shimmy is an oscillation of the
wheel assembly about this vertical axis as well as lateral and torsional oscillations of the landing
gear. Usually due to wear on nose gear and steering components, the shimmy effects can be
intensified by a rough and uneven runway or taxiway surface.
Shimmy dampers, sometimes called "Dynamic Load Dampers", are normally small piston-type
hydraulic cylinders that control the movement of fluid between the two sides of the piston. The
restricted flow prevents rapid movement of the piston but has no effect on normal steering.
Electronic Steering Control
Advancements in technologies and systems have allowed for cable operated nosewheel steering
systems to be replaced by electronic steering command systems on very large jumbo jet aircraft
and small turbo-prop aircraft and everything in between. The system design details will vary
slightly among different manufacturers but the principles are the same. Movements of rudder
pedals and tiller wheels in the cockpit are measured by various sensors which convert the
movements into electrical signals. These and other signals are used to command movements of
the
nose wheel, main and body gear steering systems. In addition to the decreased weight due to the
absence of the cable circuits and related components, the electronic circuitry provides a higher
factor of system reliability and lower maintenance requirements.
The electronic Nose Wheel Steering (NVVS) system gives right and left directional control of
the airplane during movement on the ground just like the hydraulically operated system. The
input to the tiller wheel is converted into an electrical signal at the tiller wheel assembly. This
signal input is then transmitted to an Electronic Steering Control Unit (ESCU) which is
monitoring all of the parameters, sensors and inputs related to the nosewheels steering system.
The inputs from the rudder pedals are also converted into electrical signals and transmitted to the
ESCU.
The ESCU takes the steering command inputs, checks the status and position of the nosewheel
steering angles and will then command an Electro-Hydraulic Servo Valve to direct hydraulic
pressure to the turn left or turn right circuits. This pressure will go to the proper side of the
pistons in the actuators or to a hydraulic steering motor which makes a mechanical rotary input
to a geared transmission. The geared transmission for nosewheel steering is usually found on
smaller aircraft.
The ESCU continues to monitor the angular position of the nosewheels and will command a
movement stop when the actual sensed position is the same as the commanded position.
Main and Body Gear Steering
The main and body gear steering systems turns the body gear in a direction opposite to the
nosewheels to help move the airplane on the ground at slower ground speeds. This decreases the
force necessary to turn the airplane and reduces tire scrub and airplane turn radius.
The body gear steering system turns the body gear in a direction opposite to the nose gear to help
move the airplane on the ground.

Main Wheel Body Steering
The needs for steering capabilities of main and body gear are a result of the growing size of large
aircraft. Some aircraft, such as the Boeing 777, will have a steering actuation system for the aft
pair (rear axle) of main gear wheels. Very large aircraft with traditional main gear under the
wings and body gear under the fuselage will provide the capabilities to pivot or steer the rear
axle of the body gears.
The steering controller receives inputs from the NLG steering tiller position transducers and
sends signals to operate the left and right main and body gear steering power control actuators
(PCA) or servo valves. Both PCAs move the same amount in the same direction.
Arm/Unlock Logic and Steering Control Law
The arm/unlock logic energizes the arm solenoid and the unlock solenoid for the PCAs when the
NLG steering input is more than a specified angle, usually 13 to 15 degrees. The steering control

law sends signals to the Electro-Hydraulic Servo Valves (EHSVs) for both PCAs to turn the
main or body gear in proportion to the nosewheel position. On the Boeing 777 main landing
gear, a maximum of 6.4 to 8 degrees of aft axle turning command occurs when the nosewheel
command angle is at 70 degrees.
Air-Ground Sensing
Air/Ground systems monitor the compression of the landing gear shock struts. Compression
sensors are on each landing gear. One sensor sends inputs to air/ground system 1 and the other
sensor sends inputs to air/ground system 2.
Sensor signals go to the PSEU. The two air/ground systems in the PSEU monitor signals from
the sensors in their air/ ground system. The proximity sensing system uses inductive-type
sensors. The PSEU sends a signal to energize the magnetic core in the sensor. The inductance of
the sensor changes when a steel target gets near the sensor.
The PSEU then sends air/ ground discrete signals to operate air/ground relays. Airplane systems
use the air/ ground discrete signals and relays for airplane air/ground inputs. The air/ ground
sensing system supplies air/ground discrete signals to many airplane systems. The purpose of the
proximity switch system is to provide position sensing for landing gear, doors and slats.
The air/ ground relays and sensors on the airplane provide an input to many aircraft systems from
the ground to the air mode when the airplane lifts off (Weight-OFF-Wheels) during takeoff. The
on ground (Weight-ON-Wheels) signal is given when the airplane lands and the weight of the
airplane is resting on the landing gear. On large aircraft with multiple axles on one landing gear
assembly, the truck tilt sensor signal will also be used to change the state of some systems.
Flight Compartment Displays
Position indications, warnings, and annunciations for the landing gear system are provided on the
main instrument panel. All sensor positions are dual installations that have a system 1 and system
2 input.
Landing Gear Indications
Landing gear positions are indicated on electronic displays such as EICAS or ECAM. A green
DOWN indication shows continuously when the landing gear are down and locked. A white UP
indication goes out of view 10 seconds after the landing gear are up and locked. A white hatched
indication box shows that the gear is in transit. During an alternate landing gear extension or a
non-normal condition, an expanded indication shows the position of each gear.
The air/ground relays send air/ground status to many airplane systems. The status is from a relay
system that is operated by these items:
• Main gear truck tilt proximity sensors

• Nose gear proximity sensors
• Associated electronics
Sensors
Two tilt sensors on each main gear truck provide dual system bogie tilt information to the PSEU.
Proximity System Sensors provide position inputs to the PSEU for these airplane systems control
and indication:
• Door control and indication

• Landing gear indication and air ground sensing
• Leading edge slat indication and failure protection.
The sensor has two-wires that produces a magnetic field. It is contained in a stainless steel case
with wires connected to the PSEU proximity switch card.
Either cylindrical or rectangular sensors are used depending on installation requirements.

Operation is identical for all sensors with differences in rigging procedures. The sensor operates
with a steel target. The change in inductance as the proximity of sensor and target changes from
near to far or far to near is detected by the proximity card which changes its output to its logic
card from 0.3 volt to 13.1 volts (near to far) or 13.1 volts to 0.3 volt (far to near).
Redundancy is provided by utilizing two (dual) separate air/ground sensing systems. The outputs
from the systems are supplied to separate and independent channels within the PSEU which
processes both signal pairs before sharing them with the aircraft systems.
Main Gear Truck Tilt Sensors
Dual sensors are on each side of the left and right main landing gear truck beam. The sensors are
on a bracket on the truck beam. The target is pivot mounted on the aft side of the sensor bracket.
A target link connects the target with the strut. As the truck beam tilts, the link causes the target
to rotate near the sensor.
Nose Gear
Dual sensors are on the left and right side of the nose gear strut. The targets are on brackets fixed
to the upper torsion link.
Strain Gauge (Sensor)
Some aircraft may use strain type sensors to determine if the aircraft is Weight-on-Wheels
(WOW) or Weight-off-Wheels (WoffW). With the main landing gear extended and WOW, a
slight bend in the main landing gear structure beam is produced. The strain sensors will measure
this bend and report to the monitoring control unit of the level of bending force being applied.
This data will be translated into a WOW or (WoffW) condition. As the WOW level of bending
force will change depending on total aircraft load, the data can also be used to determine total
aircraft weight (fuel, cargo, passengers and the aircraft itself) and the level of ground forces
applied to the aircraft during landing or ground movement of the aircraft. Additional proximity
switches and sensors in the landing gear system will also monitor the up and locked or down and
locked status of the gear, truck tilt position sensing and landing gear doors.
Air/Ground Fault Indications
The PSEU processes the sensor signals and will generate discrepancy messages for the pilots to
alert them of a fault. On aircraft with a Common Core avionics system, fault messages can be
viewed and troubleshooting can be performed almost entirely without leaving the cockpit.
• AIR/GND DISAGREE - monitors disagreement between system 1 and system 2 for main
gear tilt and is stored for status and maintenance pages
• NOSE A/G DISAGREE - monitors disagreement between system 1 and system 2 for nose
Strut compressed and is stored for status and maintenance pages.
Lights (ATA 33)
An airplane has several important lighting systems which are critical to the safe operation of the
aircraft. These are split into external and internal systems.
The exterior lighting includes:
• Position/ Navigation lights - these help to detect the position and flight direction
Anti-collision lights - gives other aircraft and observers a visual detection of your position
• Landing and approach lights - for lighting the landing site\

Exterior Lights on a Boeing Aircraft
All lights can be controlled from the cockpit. For the majority of the systems, the switches are
located on the overhead panel.
Boeing 777 Cockpit Panel
Airplane internal lighting includes:
• Cockpit area lighting - used as area illumination lights and secondary panel lighting
• Instrument panel lighting - used to illuminate consoles and control panels
• Cabin lighting - General illumination lighting for passenger and galley areas including
individual reading lights and information signs

• Cargo lighting - lighting in the cargo compartments

• Emergency lighting
Most lights, with the exceptions of cabin and cargo compartment lighting, can be operated from
the cockpit. For the majority of the lighting systems, the switches are located on the overhead
panel. Reading lights and galley lights in the cabin are controlled from nearby switches. Cabin
ceiling lights are controlled usually at the main cabin attendant station. The cargo compartment
lighting is controlled at panel in the relative cargo compartment or a door operated switch in the
door operating mechanism or door frame.
Under some national aviation regulatory systems, pilots may be allowed to replace some lights if
they fail. Commercial aircraft usually have a spare light bulb set located in the cockpit.
Navigation
A basic task of both maintenance personnel and pilots is to ensure that all required and installed
lighting is functioning. Each airplane must meet certain minimum requirements in regard to the
lights that must be in working order.
Navigation and position lights are installed at the wingtips and sometime at the tail to help
observers and other pilots determine the airplane position, direction and attitude.
Navigation and position lights have very specific requirements. An inoperative light can cause
the aircraft to be unairworthy.

Mandatory Lights on an Aircraft and Their Illumination Angles

Position Lights
A steady red light on the port side (left) wingtip that illuminates on a horizontal plane, both
upwards and downwards, at an angle from the longitudinal axis of 110 degrees.
A steady green light on the right wingtip that illuminates both upwards and downwards. The
angle from the longitudinal axis must be 110 degrees.
A white light on the rear of the airplane (wingtips and/or tail) that illuminates both upwards and
downwards. The angle from the longitudinal axis must be 140 degrees (700 to the left and 700 to
the right).

Position Lights
The lighting units consist of a classic light bulb covered with colored plastic. In more modern
systems, LEDs are used. These use less energy and last significantly longer than incandescent
light bulbs. The position lights are supplied with power from the on-board power supply and
their circuits are protected by circuit breakers.
Anti-Collision
The anti-collision light is a flashing light covered by red lens and is installed at the top and
bottom of the aircraft. It alerts other aircraft and ground observers to the presence of the airplane.
Depending on the type of light assembly, the "flashing" of the light may be a result of an
electronically timed pulse of electric power or as a result of a rotating reflector. The flashes of
light must alternate in intensity. The anti-collision light circuit is protected by its own circuit
breakers.

Rotating Reflector Anti-Collision Light
In addition to the red anti-collision lights, some aircraft are fitted with white strobe lights at the
wingtips and the upper and lower areas of the airframe. The different flash rates of the read and
white anti-collision lights provides extra visibility, especially for smaller aircraft, in areas with
high amounts of light pollution.
The power supplies cause drive signals for these components:

• Trigger circuit
• Flash timer
• Energy storage capacitors
Note: Even if the electrical system is switched off, there can be high voltage in the anti-collision
light system. When working on the anti-collision light, wait at least 15 minutes after it has been
switched off before starting to work on it.

Anti-Collision Light
Landing
The landing and approach lights help the pilots to see the runway during the takeoff and landing
phases. Landing lights are normally attached to the nose gear and integrated into the leading
edges of the wing structures. Landing lights may be fixed or retractable, separated from other
components.
Landing lights are pointed forward inline with the horizontal axis of the aircraft and slight angled
inboard.
Approach lights are also pointing forward but angled downwards to illuminate the path of the
aircraft while flared during approach to the runway.

Landing Light
Landing and approach lights have these basic parts:

• Lens assembly
• Lamp
• Step down transformer
Landing Light Assembly

Lighting assemblies may have LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) or high intensity discharge lighting
elements. The landing lights are supplied with 115 V AC from the aircraft busses before going
through a step-down transformer.
Landing lights attached to the nose gear will usually be inhibited from operating unless the nose
gear is in a down and locked position.
Taxiing
The nose gear landing lights and the wing landing lights give light to the runway for takeoff and
landing.
The runway turnoff lights give light to the side of the airplane so the crew can see the runway
and taxiway turnoffs.
The taxi lights give light in front of the airplane for taxiing and are usually inhibited from
operating unless a nose gear compressed (weight-on-wheels) signal is received. They are pointed
slightly downwards to the ground surface.
A separate taxi light switch in the cockpit will allow pilot control of the taxi lighting system.
Nosegear Lights on a Boeing 787

Ice
Certain weather conditions bring icing into the equation of safety of flight. In order for a pilot to
be able to determine if ice is accumulating on the wings inflight, dedicated lights, usually built
into the fuselage, will illuminate the wing leading edges and most critical surfaces. Pilots may
also use portable flashlights to supplement the aircraft lights. Additional ice detection lighting
may be provided to illuminate visual ice detection probes at the front of the aircraft.
Wing illumination lights are provided for scanning the wings and engines inflight for the purpose
of visual ice detection by the crew. These same lights are also used on the ground to illuminate
the immediate area for performing ground inspections. The lights are mounted in the fuselage to
be aerodynamically flush, one on each side of the fuselage forward of the wing leading edge and
above the wings level. Additional wing ice detection lighting may also be installed on the
outboard side of engine pylons depending on the aircraft type and design.
Cabin
The passenger cabin is illuminated with area lighting found in the ceiling and at the top of ceiling
panels. There are a variety of types of lights found in the interior areas of passenger aircraft.
Following are some definitions of basic lighting types:
• Incandescent lights use a small filament which will produce light when an electrical current
flows through it. A negative side-effect of this type of light is a strong heat source being
produced. Using a potentiometer to control the current to the light through a transistor, the
intensity of the light can be controlled. Fluorescent lights.
• Fluorescent lights are cylindrical glass tubes which are coated on the inside with phosphors.
They are filled with a small amount of mercury and a small quantity of argon or krypton
gases. An alternating current passes through the lamp via electrodes at each end. The end
result is a visible light. Due to the toxicity of the materials used to produce fluorescent
lamps, extreme care should be used when handling these lamps and any broken lamp will
require a careful and detailed cleaning procedures.
• The technology involved with LEDs has rapidly advanced from being used as indicator lights
on a panel to being able to produce enough light intensity, measured in Lumens and Lux, to
be used as aircraft landing lights. Depending on the type of material used to make the LED
and the voltage applied, the visible light spectrum produced spans a wide range of colors.
See Module 3, Electrical Fundamentals for details on diodes.
These lights are generally controlled from the primary cabin attendant station. Additionally,
passenger reading lights are installed above the passengers' heads in panels called Passenger
Service Units (PSUs). These lights are individually controlled by the passengers.
Flight attendant call buttons, located on the PSUs, will illuminate a light and cause a single
chime in the cabin to alert the cabin crew that a passenger has a service request.
In addition to the reading lights and flight attendant call lights, PSU also have lighted passenger
information signs. Their illumination status can vary depending on the status of the aircraft such
as altitude or flap extension. The exact messages may vary on the type of aircraft and country of
registration but the following are often found:
• Fasten seat belt lights

• No smoking
• No PED (Personal Electronic Devices)
Lighting and controls, including passenger information signs and galley lighting, may also be
found in lavatories, galleys and crew rest areas.
Most passenger information signs in the cabin require an electrical power supply. Some may be
of the photoluminescence type whose materials will absorb ambient lighting in the cabin and
then give off light, or glow in the dark, when the ambient light intensity falls below a given level.
Self-illuminating signs act as a lighting source regardless of the electrical power status on the
aircraft or ambient lighting in the cabin. These types of signs contain a tritium gas which is
mildly radioactive and therefore, the signs should be handled carefully to avoid breakage.
If the sign suffers damage or breakage, the aircraft should be evacuated and all doors opened to
allow maximum ventilation. In addition to notifying emergency services, the company safety
office must be notified for proper actions to be taken. Disposal of damaged or broken signs are
subject to local and national regulations pertaining to the handling and disposal of radioactive
substances. All self-illuminating signs should be checked for luminosity (light intensity) levels at
initial installation and at periodic intervals as specified in relevant maintenance schedules.
Cockpit
Flight compartment lighting provides illumination for the general and specific areas (flood
lighting), instruments and panels, and specific lighting to assist crew members in the
performance of their tasks.
Dome lights illuminate the general area of the flight deck and can be controlled from a switch in
the cockpit in addition to a switch located near the entry door to the cabin.
Lights in the center glare shield and above the front panels illuminate these areas and also act as
storm lights helping to maintain pilot visibility on the most critical indications when lightning
flashes occur in the vicinity of the aircraft.
Instrument panels integral lighting and flood lights will provide lights for a specific panel and
flood lighting for a group of panels in a specific area such as the center pedestal (P8).
Individual map and chart lights, compass and circuit breaker panel lighting are also available for
the pilots.
Console and floor lighting provides localized illumination of stowage areas, side consoles and
floor areas of the cockpit.
Cockpit and Instrument Lighting

Instrument Lighting
The instrument lighting system is used so that instruments can be seen in lighting conditions and
night flights in particular. The intensity of the instrument lighting is controlled by the pilots
according to the operational demands at any given time. The intensity level switch acts on a
potentiometer.
The system is supplied with electrical power by the on-board power supply and protected by
independent circuit breakers. The cockpit lighting control units have a voltage output of either
28 v or 5 v.
Cargo
The cargo and service compartment lights supply light to help maintenance personnel and
ground crews. Cargo lights may be found in the cargo compartment ceilings and on the inside of
the cargo door. This door light is to provide illumination of the area outside of the aircraft around
the cargo door during periods of darkness.
The controls for cargo compartment lighting, other than the circuit breaker, is generally located
in the vicinity of the relevant cargo door or in the door frame. In some aircraft configurations, the
cargo compartment lights will come on automatically whenever the access door is opened.
The light assemblies are usually sealed as part of the fire protection function within the cargo
compartments.
Emergency
The emergency lighting system puts lights on areas inside and outside of the airplane. The
emergency lights also show the exit paths.
The emergency lights operate at these times:
• When emergency light system is on or

• When there is a loss of airplane DC power and the emergency light switch is in the ARMED
position
The lighting system must be able to adequately illuminate the cockpit and specific areas of the
cabin such as a floor path to the emergency exits. Emergency lighting is not as intense as the

normal lighting. This is because the emergency lighting, when operating in the emergency mode,
is powered by its own batteries which must discharge a certain level of power intensity for a
minimum amount of time. Normal power is supplied to the system from the aircraft power
supply.
Emergency Lighting
Specific regulatory requirements exist for the emergency lighting system depending on the
aircraft type, cabin size and design and regulations in effect in the country of registration.
Floor path lighting provides visual guidance to an emergency exit in the case of a cabin
evacuation. The floor path lighting may be powered from the emergency light batteries or may
be the photoluminescence type which absorbs ambient lighting in the cabin and gives off light
when the cabin light intensity falls below a certain level. Floor path lighting of this type dictate a
higher standard of cabin lighting intensity and reliability.
Lighted signs above and below the emergency exit doors indicate their presence. These lights are
powered by the emergency light batteries. Most passenger aircraft will have lights to illuminate
the ground area at the bottom of the emergency exit slides. These lights may be built into the

airframe while other aircraft types will have these lights integrated into the bottom of the slide.
Emergency lights are considered part of the aircraft emergency equipment. Personnel performing
any maintenance on the system must have the appropriate training, qualifications and
authorizations to sign the airworthiness for the maintenance release.
Emergency Lighting Operation
The emergency lights (6.4 V) are powered from multiple battery packs. Under normal
conditions, these battery packs are receiving a trickle charge from the aircraft main electrical
system. The 6.4 V lights operate according to the position of a three-position switch in the flight
deck. The three positions are:
1. OFF
2. ARMED
3. ON
Emergency Lights Guarded Switch
OFF - The battery packs are being charged but automatic operation is prevented. The emergency
lights remain unpowered even in the event of a main electrical power failure (DC Bus). This
switch must normally be in the OFF position before turning off the aircraft main battery switch.
ARMED - This is the normal position of the switch inflight or whenever passengers are onboard
and the doors are closed. In the event of a power loss on the main aircraft DC electrical busses, a
relay will change position and allow the power from the emergency light batteries to go to the
emergency lights. In this switch position, the emergency light batteries are connected to a
charging source.
ON - The emergency lights on the aircraft are on. The battery packs are not being charged.
The NOT ARMED and MASTER CAUTION lights are illuminated when the emergency light
switch is in the ON or the OFF positions.
Depending on the cabin size and design, an emergency exit switch may be integrated into the
cabin attendant control stations. The emergency exit switch on the attendant panel has two
positions, ON and NORMAL The ON position makes the emergency lights come on. The
NORMAL position sets automatic operation. The attendant panel switch will cause the lights to
come on even if the P5 switch is OFF.
Emergency exit lights operations and battery pack charge/discharge logic
Oxygen (ATA 35)
A modern commercial airliner has separate oxygen systems that protect the crew and passengers
against oxygen deprivation and severe health dangers in the event of a sudden loss of pressure in
the cabin.
These three systems are:
• Flight crew oxygen system

• Passenger oxygen system
• Portable oxygen system

Oxygen Systems
Cockpit Oxygen Supply
The oxygen system in the cockpit protects the flight crew against a sudden loss of pressure or the
presence of smoke or other dangerous gases in the cockpit. Each cockpit seat has quick-donning
masks with breathing regulating valves.
The oxygen is supplied by an independent high-pressure oxygen cylinder. These are generally
located under the cockpit and can be reached through flaps in the airplane's outer skin. If the
pressure in the cylinders drops below a value specified by the manufacturer, technicians must
replace or refill the cylinder.
Portable oxygen systems, consisting of portable oxygen cylinders and masks, are located in the
cockpit and can be used by the flight crew in the event of an emergency.
The crew oxygen system on a Boeing 737NG is described below as an example. This is required
for airplanes that can reach flight altitudes of up to 41,000 ft (12,500 m). The system has three
parts:

• Oxygen storage
• Oxygen distribution
• Indicator system
Oxygen Storage
The oxygen is distributed to the corresponding stations in the cockpit via a supply circuit. This
comprises:
• A low-pressure supply valve with connector

• Stainless steel low-pressure pipes
• Flexible supply hoses and storage boxes
• Full-face masks with quick donning system
Indicator System
The donning system makes it easier to regulate and monitor the crew oxygen supply. A pressure
switch in the pressure regulator generates a cylinder pressure notification in the cockpit.
Cockpit Oxygen System

Oxygen Cylinders
The oxygen cylinder is located in the left avionics compartment below the cockpit and is
accessed directly via a hatch in the outer skin of the airplane. Two brackets with quick locking
mechanisms hold the cylinder in position. The brackets fix the cylinder in position and withstand
accelerations of up to 10 G in case of damage.
The oxygen cylinder is made of fiber composite and has a capacity of approximately 17L. The
oxygen is stored with a pressure of around 128 bar. Therefore, the following amount of oxygen is
available to the flight crew: 171 * 128 bar 2176 1.
Oxygen Cylinder Position
The head of the oxygen cylinder is a valve unit that consists of the following three components:

• A manual stop valve with metal seat

• A pressure indicator
• An overpressure discharge with discharge indicator in the outer skin of the airplane
Overpressure Discharge
The overpressure discharge consists of a breakable disc that breaks at a pressure of around 172
bar. The oxygen flows through a discharge pipe into the environment. The discharge indicator
clearly shows externally that the overflow discharge has activated and the system must be
maintained. The disc is green in colour and shows a yellow indicator in the event of activation.
The discharge indicator is activated at a pressure of approx. 3-7 bar.
Overpressure Discharge
Pressure Regulator
The pressure regulator is located directly on the head of the oxygen cylinder. It down-regulates
the high pressure from the oxygen cylinder, before this oxygen flows into the system. The
regulator has a high-pressure and low-pressure area internally. The oxygen flows at the
corresponding cylinder pressure of up to 128 bar into the high pressure area of the regulator and
acts against a spring- loaded plate there. This regulates the pressure to a working pressure in the
low pressure area of approx. 4.5 to 6.5 bar. If the pressure in the low pressure area increases to
12 bar, a spring-loaded low pressure safety discharge valve opens and the oxygen is discharged
into the environment via drain lines.
The pressure regulator has a pressure switch, which gives the pilots in the cockpit an electronic
indication of the pressure in the cylinder.
Pressure Regulator
The oxygen cylinders can be filled without disassembly. Technicians use an external filling
connector for this. This is often an option when ordering an airplane. If this is not available, the
cylinders must be disassembled and must be replaced with a new one.

External Filling Connection
Storage Boxes
The storage boxes are located in the cockpit, right next to each seat. Each box has a connection
for full-face masks with a quick donning system that are stored in the boxes. The box is closed
with two flaps. If the pilots take the masks from the box and open the flaps, the oxygen supply
starts to flow automatically and a flow indicator on the box starts to blink. The crew can check
this function using the test button on the storage box.
The storage box supply valve has a pressure switch. This responds if the oxygen supply is
activated and activates the on-board communication system microphones in the full-face masks.

Storage Box
Full-Face Mask
Using the quick-donning system, a pilot is able to put on the mask in five seconds. A mask has
the following parts:
• Inflatable head harness

• Face part
• Breathing regulator
• Microphone
The masks are stowed in the storage boxes with the head harness emptied. If the pilot takes the
mask out of the storage box and presses on the red knob on the side, the head harness inflates
with oxygen. The pilot puts the mask on, releases the knob and the oxygen flows out of the head
harness again. In this way, the mask is pulled tight to the pilot's face.
Full-Face Mask
Monitoring
The system is monitored via the pressure indicator on the oxygen cylinder and a display in the
cockpit.

A fill indicator is located near the oxygen cylinder and the external filling connection. It is used
to read the cylinder pressure when filling with oxygen and has a scale with a red and a green
area. During filling, the red indicator area (filling pressure too high) should be avoided.
The pilots can read the oxygen pressure in the container from the system display in the cockpit.
If the pressure is in the range from 28 - 128 bar, the display is green. If the pressure falls below
28 bar, the indicator is amber. If the pressure falls below the minimum operating pressure of
3-5 bar, the warning "REGUL LO PR" appears on the display.
Monitoring
Cabin Oxygen Supply

The passenger emergency oxygen supply is provided via chemical oxygen generators and
pressurized oxygen cylinders. These are located:
• Above the passenger seats

• In the lavatory ceilings
• Above the flight attendant seats
• In galley working areas
Each cylinder contains a chemical oxygen generator and two or more oxygen masks. The
pressurized cabin has a pressure switch that records a sudden drop in cabin pressure and opens
the cylinders via an electrical circuit. If the passengers pull on the mask, they automatically
trigger the chemical oxygen generators. If the pressure switch malfunctions, the pilots can
manually activate the oxygen masks in the cabin via a control panel in the cockpit.
Portable oxygen systems are also available in the cabin. The flight attendants can use these in an
emergency or for first aid.
The masks in the containers automatically drop down when the cabin altitude is above 14,000 ft
or they are activated by the pilots with the "MASK MAN ON" button in the cockpit. The "SYS
ON" indicator light appears in the cockpit if the system is electrically powered.
After the masks have been packed into the containers, technicians can reset the system from the
cockpit. The containers can be opened for maintenance purposes using a special tool.
Cabin Oxygen System Logic

If the oxygen masks drop down from the cabin ceiling, the passenger information system
automatically plays a recorded message with instructions. The oxygen supply in the cabin is
sufficient for approximately 13 minutes.
Thirty seconds after the pressure switch for the cabin altitude has been activated, a time-lag relay
that caps the oxygen flow activation.
The "TMR RESET" button is used in the cockpit to reset the system. Using the "PRE REC
ANN" the flight attendant can end the automatic announcement.
Cabin Oxygen System
Container
The chemical oxygen generators consist of a stainless steel housing with a sodium chlorate core.
There is a heat-insulating material between the housing and the core.
If the passengers pull on the masks, the connection to the generator release pin is tightened. If
this is triggered, the chemical generation of oxygen is started. A filter at the oxygen generator
outlet protects the system against contamination. A discharge valve in the housing, protects the
generator against dangerous overpressure in the event of a malfunction of the discharge valve.

An indicator on the oxygen generator changes colour due to the heat generated during the
chemical process. The colour changes from black to yellow if the chemical process is triggered
and the generator is no longer usable.
Container
PSU Oxygen Components

Portable Oxygen
The portable oxygen system has the following sub-systems:
• Portable equipment for the flight crew

• Portable equipment for the cabin crew
The portable oxygen systems are placed in the following positions in a commercial airliner:
• Galley/food preparation areas

• Flight attendant seat areas
• Luggage racks
• Other storage compartments in the cabin
Portable equipment supplies a person with oxygen. It is used when extinguishing a fire
(protection against smoke and combustion gases) or in the event of a sudden loss of pressure in
the cabin.
The portable equipment contains approx. 3111 and provides a supply of oxygen for at least
approx. 15 minutes at a flow of 201 per minute. In the cockpit, a full-face mask with quick-
donning system is connected to the cylinder. The mask can be separated from the cylinder and
connected to any storage box with an oxygen supply in the cockpit.
Cockpit Portable Unit
In the cabin, full-face masks with a head harness are connected to the cylinder. The flight
attendants fit the masks on their face and must pull the straps of the harness firmly so that it fits
tight to the face.
Pneumatic/Vacuum (ATA 36)
System Layout
Pneumatic systems used in fixed wing aircraft and rotary wing aircraft (helicopters) are based on
the principle of the compressibility of air and are commonly described as a vacuum or
pressurized air, to be used as an energy source. Air is used as the typical medium because it is
always present and available and can be exhausted into the atmosphere after use with very little
to no degrading consequences to the environment. However, high-pressure air is not suitable for
the operation of many large capacity components. Leaks can be difficult to locate and the results
of a duct rupture or component failure can be very dangerous.
Low pressure pneumatic systems on an airplane are used as an energy source for consumers such
• Flight instruments whose function require a positive or vacuum air pressure

• To induce airflows over components such as a total air temperature probe
Other systems and components use air pressures and flows with higher parameters such as:
• Engine start
• Cabin pressure
• Air conditioning systems
• Pressurization of the water tanks and hydraulic reservoirs
• Deicing systems such as wing and stabilizer leading edge inflatable boots
The advantages of pneumatic systems include:
• Unlimited quantities of air are available everywhere

• Pneumatic systems components are simple and lightweight
• There is no requirement for return lines
• Pneumatic systems are not a fire hazard
• Contamination is prevented by using filters
The following safety instructions are to be followed when working on pneumatic systems:
• Bleed air is hot - never touch lines or outlets

• Never lean against pneumatic lines, as bends create hot spots

• Brackets or struts may never put tension on the lines
Pneumatic System
Most aircraft use either hydraulic pressure and/or electrical power to operate landing gear and
flight controls. Aircraft which primarily use air pressure have the advantage that an air supply is
unlimited. Most air system components are of relatively simple construction and lightweight.
The risk of contamination is reduced with the use of water separators, air cleaners and filters.
Basic Components of a Pneumatic System

The type of aircraft and the aircraft/engine configuration will have a major impact on the type of
pneumatic system installed in the aircraft.
As each aircraft type is different, we will explain only the basics of the two main types of
pneumatic systems in the following paragraphs.
In small piston engine aircraft or in turbine engine that do not have bleed air, a separate method
is used to produce the pressure or vacuum source used by various instruments.
Non-Bleed Air Pneumatic System
Stand-alone pneumatic pumps or compressors provide an additional pressure or vacuum source

for instruments and reservoirs. The air pressure and temperature must be as stable as possible so
that the various loads are sufficiently supplied. Control valves are used to regulate, control and
monitor the temperature, flow direction, pressure, etc.
Intake air filters: These are used to filter out the contaminants from the air.
Air pump / Compressor: These air pumps or compressors are typically driven by a mechanical
input from the engine or from an electric motor.
Air cooler/Dryer: During compression operation, air temperature increases. Therefore coolers are
used to reduce the temperature of the compressed air. Sometimes, a water separator is included
as part of the cooler component.
Reservoir: A reservoir is sometimes also referred to as an accumulator. The compressed air is

stored at a much higher pressure than that which is used by the downstream system. Restrictors
and pressure regulating valves will control the airflow delivery.
Pressure regulator: A pressure regulator is installed in a pneumatic system to control the

minimum and maximum pressures within a system. If the pressure is too low, additional air
supply will be allowed to enter the system or a control valve will be closed until the supply
pressure has increased to the point that the minimum pressure can be maintained under normal

conditions. If the pressure is too high, a relief valve will open venting excess pressure. The
pressure regulation function can be as simple as a spring loaded valve to a highly complex
system involving electronic sensors and controllers.
Pressure control valve: A control valve can be operated through human input or from a system
controller to control the amount of pressure and flow allowed into the system consumers.
Oil and water trap: An oil and water trap is usually installed at a low point in a pneumatic system
taking advantage of the effects of gravity to separate fluids from the pneumatic airflow. Turbine
engines will use the advantage of the bleed airflow to cause a low pressure in the drain lines and
exhaust collected fluids overboard.
In large commercial aircraft with turbine engines, a bleed air source is usually taken directly
from the engines. A few large jet aircraft designs have eliminated the traditional bleed air system
and have opted for electric compressors to fulfill these duties.
Turbine engine bleed systems usually consist of the following components:
Bleed ducts: The low and high pressure sections of a turbine engine provide an ideal source of
bleed air to be used during high and low engine speeds.
Check valves: It must be ensured that the airflow moves only in one direction and that the high
pressure sources cannot enter the low pressure areas.
Shutoff valves: Airflow must be regulated for pressure and temperature. These shutoff valves can
regulate at any point between full-open and full-closed.
Heat exchanger: These are components which allow a transfer of heat energy from one gas
stream to another without the two gas streams coming into actual contact. Ram air, or an engine
fan supplied airflow, provides the cooling source medium to cool engine compressor air.
Compressed air extracted from a jet engine is extremely hot. To protect the downstream
components and reduce the temperature of the air to safer levels, heat exchangers are placed very
close to the engine source and, usually placed above the engine inside the pylon area.
A basic heat exchanger is a sealed unit with an internal arrangement of fin-plates containing the
engine bleed airflow. As the fan air or ram air passes over the surface of these fin-plates, the heat
energy is extracted and then exhausted overboard.

Sources
The source of the air supply and arrangement of the system components depend on the aircraft
type and system employed. However in general, there are at least two different sources of
pneumatic air pressures and flows.
Turbine engine aircraft will often use a bleed air system with the engines as the source. Air is
taken, or bled, from the low pressure and high pressure sections of the engine compressor.
Before the airflow enters the pneumatic bleed air system, it passes through temperature and
pressure control system functions. which will ensures that the pressure and temperature of the air
will never exceed the capabilities of the components downstream of the engine bleed source. The
various bleed air consumers will further reduce the temperatures and pressures locally to match
the desired parameters.
Engine Bleed Air System
There are significant differences of air pressures within the engine compressors during low and
high engine speeds, such as ground idle and takeoff power. Complex air pressure and flow
measuring/regulating functions are used to ensure the airflow never falls below a minimum and
never exceeds a maximum flow.
During an increase of engine power to the point of automatically switching from the low
pressure compressor bleed source to the high pressure compressor, the change in bleed airflow
sources can be observed on the engine bleed air pressure indicator. This is referred to as a "bleed
shift”.
If the pressure and temperature regulators are unable to maintain control of the parameters, the
engine bleed air flow is designed to automatically shut down.
Source: Auxiliary Power Unit (APU)
Most APUs have the capability to provide an independent source of pressurized bleed air to the
aircraft pneumatic system either while on the ground or while inflight. There is normally a single
bleed air source on an APU, controlled and regulated for temperature, pressure and flow
direction before passing through the APU bleed air valve and into the aircraft pneumatic system.
The auxiliary power unit can supply the pneumatic system with bleed air through a bleed air
valve and a check valve. The bleed air valve is controlled by the APU controller in response to
APU operating parameters and inputs from the cockpit.
Once the APU is started and is allowed a warming-up period of a few minutes, it can be
subjected to pneumatic load demands. The purpose of the warm-up period is to ensure all of the
APU shaft seals have reached their normal operating temperature and are able to prevent any oil
from entering the bleed air supply.
Some APU types take bleed air from a load compressor and other types will take the bleed air
source directly from the APU engine compressor. In either case, applying a bleed air load on the
APU can cause it to slow down from its normal 100 percent rpm operating shaft speed. The APU
controller will adjust the fuel flow to maintain the constant speed. Should any faults occur with
the APU during normal operation, the priority logic of the APU controller will reduce the APU
bleed air flow delivery before completely shutting it off.
At altitudes above 10,000 feet mean sea level, the lower atmospheric pressures will reduce the
capability of the APU to maintain a full pneumatic pressure. This capability is further reduced as
altitude increases up to 18,000 feet where many APUs will no longer have any bleed air
capability. Lower atmospheric pressure densities degrade the capability of the APU to deliver the
same pressures and airflows to the pneumatic system as it does on the ground. Putting a load on
the APU electrical generator will reduce this capability even more.

Source: Compressors
A compressor is a mechanical device which converts mechanical energy into fluid energy. Air
acts like a fluid during compression in that the compressor raises the air pressure and in doing so,
reduces the volume of air. Depending of the desired capabilities of the compressor, most will be
either a positive displacement or dynamic displacement compressor. Check valves and regulators
will ensure a positive flow in the correct direction and the proper pressures.
Positive displacement compressor types typically found in aviation include piston type and
diaphragm type.
In a piston compressor, the piston moves towards the crankshaft during an inlet stroke, the inlet
valve opens and air is pulled into the cylinder. As the piston moves up, the inlet valve closes and
the exhaust valve opens allowing the air to be ejected. The valves are spring loaded to the closed
positions. A single cylinder compressor can produce significant pressure but with a noticeable
pulse.
This pulsating effect on a system can be reduced with the use of a double acting compressor.
There are two sets of valves, a crosshead and a single piston. As the piston moves up or down,
the air is compressed on one side while on the other side, air is sucked in. An advantage of this
type of reciprocating design is that the air is compressed and delivered twice in a single piston
stroke.
Compressors with two or more pistons are referred to as multi-stage compressors. Mechanical
inputs to the pistons in the compressors can be from the engine or from a motor that is
electrically or hydraulically driven.
A diaphragm compressor has the advantage of being able to produce an airflow which is not
contaminated with any amount of the lubricating oil used by the piston. In a diaphragm
compressor, the piston is moved by a crankshaft and connecting rod. As the piston moves down,
hydraulic fluid is pulled into the cylinder causing the diaphragm to contract and the air is sucked
into the diaphragm chamber. When the piston moves out, the fluid being pushed up causes the
diaphragm to expand into the chamber causing the ejection of air from and outlet.
Source: Reservoir
In a pneumatic reservoir, air is held under pressure until a pneumatic demand is placed upon the
related system causing a pressure drop. The pressurized air inside the reservoir is then allowed to
pass through a control valve before entering the system. The pressurized air source can also be
used to smooth the ripples in the primary air supply to a pneumatic system.
The reservoir can be a round sphere or on oblong shape tank with rounded end caps to ensure
even pressure distribution. As additional air pressure is being added to the reservoir, the
increasing pressure will cause the surfaces of the reservoir to begin to heat up. As the pressure is
being released from the reservoir, the dropping pressure will result in the reservoir surface
becoming much cooler.
A reservoir must be monitored for pressures and temperatures. At a minimum, a pressure sensor
and a temperature sensor must be installed for remote indication. Some aircraft pneumatic
reservoirs may even have direct reading gauges. In the event of an overpressure, a pressure
safety relief valve is provided to exhaust the reservoir pressure directly into the area which it is
installed or via a discharge line to the outside of the aircraft. A water drain can be found at the
lowest point of the reservoir. This allows water and other fluids, which may collect at the bottom
of the reservoir, to be easily drained. Large reservoirs may also include a larger size opening
which can be removed to inspect and clean the interior of the reservoir pressure area.
Source: Ground Supply
A ground pneumatic supply, as its name implies, can only be used while the aircraft is parked on
the ground. This external pressure flow can be supplied to the aircraft for engine or auxiliary
power unit starts. Depending on the size and configuration of the aircraft, a second or even a
third external ground pneumatic supply may be required to start an engine.
High Pressure Pneumatic Ground Supply Connection

There are some basic safety and operating rules for use of a ground pneumatics cart which must
be strictly adhered to in order to ensure safety of staff, passengers and the aircraft. A certificate
of specialized training is usually required in order to be allowed to operate these devices.
The ground cart is basically a centrifugal or axial compressor driven by an engine which can use
jet fuel or diesel. The output flow and pressure from the compressor is regulated to ensure the
maximum capabilities of the aircraft are not exceeded. A hose is connected from the cart to the
aircraft service panel. The maximum aircraft system pressures are shown on a placard usually on
the interior side of the service access panel.
Most aircraft manufacturers and operators prohibit using the ground pneumatic supplies for
operating the air conditioning packs.
Pressure and Vacuum Pumps
Older and less technologically complex aircraft may use instruments which are dependent on
having an air pressure differential compared to the air pressure surrounding the instrument case,
such as cabin pressure, or air pressure outside the aircraft. This air pressure differential can be
either positive or negative. Depending on the aircraft type and configuration, a separate,
dedicated pressure or vacuum pump may be installed to satisfy the requirements.
Pressure and vacuum pumps are essentially dedicated compressors.
Dry vacuum/pressure pumps are used to power pneumatic, air-driven gyroscopic instruments
such as the artificial horizon, turn and bank and directional gyros. These instruments are
extremely sensitive to air pressures and require a dedicated and highly controlled pneumatic
source. Due to the constantly changing cabin and atmospheric pressure these pumps are
operating in, they are highly susceptible to increased failure rates if not properly maintained.
A typical instrument using a pressure flow will use a case vacuum method removing air on one
side and allowing a filtered air source to enter the case at another point. In a pneumatic
gyroscope, this incoming airflow will cause an internal wheel to spin.
If a dedicated pressure pump is not available for this purpose on smaller and slower flying
aircraft, a venture tube can be mounted outside the fuselage. According to Bernoulli's principle,
the speed of the air flowing through the venture will be at its highest in the narrowest point of the
venture. This is where the pressure will be the lowest and is also the vacuum source point for the
instruments.

A typical vacuum pump may have steel or carbon-graphite vanes which generate the airflow
movement. These pumps must be lubricated with oil typically taken from the engine oil system
through a metering valve. An oil separator will be employed to ensure no oil can reach the
instruments.
Vacuum and pressure pumps are also used in potable water and waste systems (ATA 38)
providing for the movement of fresh water from the storage tank to the using system. Some
aircraft may have a toilet flush system that operates on a vacuum principle. WIIile on the ground
or below a certain pressure altitude, a pressure or vacuum pump will lower the air pressure inside
the waste tank to a predetermined level below that of current atmospheric pressure (psid). This
will ensure that any waste present will flow towards the waste tank when the toilet flush valve is
opened.
Pressure and vacuum pumps are designed to be able to move significantly more air than what is
actually required by the system. To avoid damage from excessive positive or negative pressure,
positive pressure or negative pressure relief valves are installed with some redundancy involved.
Pressure Control
An aircraft pneumatic bleed air system, including the engine bleed air system, is normally
controlled by a dedicated Bleed Air Controller (BAC) or by the same controller for the air
conditioning systems, Air Conditioning Accessory Unit (ACAU). The controllers usually come
in pairs with each one providing an onside command and control of a system as well as
providing a redundant backup to the other system (left and right).
In a typical turbine engine aircraft pneumatic system, the engines act as the main sources for the
pneumatic system. If the pilots increase the engine thrust, the pressure in the engines also
increases. Changes in thrust therefore causes a change in pressure. This effect is undesirable, as
the users of the pneumatic system require a defined and constant pressure.
A pressure regulator maintains a constant pressure and regulates the bleed air supply at high
engine speeds. This pressure regulator is also known as the bleed valve. If the engines are
running at idle speed and their internal pressure is low, a second additional discharge point is
opened on the engine.

Regulation
The engine Bleed Air Controller (BAC) receives all the necessary input signals from the engine
pneumatic system sensors, valves and bleed air control switches to monitor the system or shut off
the system in case of dangerous conditions. It provides warning and status signals for the
indication on the Engine Warning Display. The BAC operates functionally independent from the
Engine Electronic Controller (EEC) but relies on a constant stream of back-and-forth
communications with the EEC for proper operations.
The compressors in the engines have different stages. The pressure increases significantly within
each stage and moving further aft from one stage to the next. Most turbine engine compressors
consist of a low pressure compressor and a high pressure compressor. The low stage bleed air is
usually taken at the front of the high pressure compressor and the high stage bleed air is taken
just prior to the rear of the high pressure compressor. Check valves in the ducts prevent high
pressure air from entering a lower pressure part of the compressor.
When the bleed air is supplied via the auxiliary power unit, no additional pressure regulator is
necessary, as this operates at a constant speed and does not experience load changes. A shut-off
valve allows the APU bleed airflow to enter the pneumatic system. A check valve prevents a
backflow of bleed air into the APU compressor.
Bleed Ports
The pressure is regulated by valves, known as pressure regulating shut-off valves. The pressure
regulating system in some Boeing airplanes uses two valves instead of a single pressure
regulating valve. The first valve, a pressure regulating valve, regulates the pressure to a value of
around 20 psi above the final value. The second valve, a pressure regulating shut-off valve,
regulates the pressure to the final value. In most pneumatic systems, this value is approximately
45 psi.
The discharge valve is a throttle valve and is pneumatically operated. Its functions include:
• Shutdown
• Pressure regulation
• Check valve
• Overheating regulation
• Backflow function
A computer belonging to the pneumatic system monitors all functions.

Pressure Regulating Valve
The check valve is another function of the discharge valve. An imbalance between the pressure
in the left and right side of the pneumatic system may develop. An imbalance should be avoided,
in particular if the high pressure valve is open in order to protect the engine compressor. A
backflow into the engine compressor disturbs the airflow in the compressor stages and causes a
stall.
The backflow function enables the pressurized air to flow in the direction of the engine.
Backflow is necessary to start the engines. In some cases, the engine starter valve is installed
before the discharge valve. A backflow of air through the discharge valve is not possible.
Nevertheless, a magnetic switch enables a backflow of bleed air to the engine starter when the
engine is started.
The temperature in the pneumatic system must not exceed certain limits. If the pilots increase the
engine thrust, the temperature also increases, and vice versa. An in-built pre-cooler cools the
bleed air. The cooling air comes from external, cool engine airflow. The cooling effect is
dependent on the quantity and temperature of the airflow. An air valve regulates the quantity of
air that flows through the pre-cooler.

Temperature Regulation
A temperature sensor after the pre-cooler monitors the air temperature in the bleed air system. If
the temperature increases, the air valve opens. If the temperature drops, it closes again.
An overheating sensor monitors all abnormal temperature increases that occur after the pre-
cooler. If overheating occurs, the sensor sends a signal to the pneumatic system computer. This
closes the corresponding discharge valve. As this fault is a system error, an error notification
appears on the pneumatic system control panel in the cockpit.
Distribution
Main components in a typical pneumatic system may include (but not limited to):
• Ground Supply Pneumatic Connection: Pneumatic hose adapter with integrated check valve.
This will normally be installed into the right pneumatic system.
• High Pressure (HP) Control Valve: This is used to determine the source of engine
compressor stage. High pressure valve for engine idle and the low pressure valve for higher

engine speeds. Normally or Fail-Safe to the closed position.
• Low Pressure (LP) Check Valve: Usually a spring loaded to a closed check valve. The absence
of high stage air allows airflow from the lower stage of the compressor to flow while the
engine is running. It also prevents reverse flow to the engine low stage compressor.
• Pressure Regulating Shut-OffValve (PRSOV): Regulates and shuts-off the airflow from the
engine to the aircraft pneumatic system. Normally closed but will perform intended function
protecting the aircraft from over temperature and overpressure.
• Fan Air Valve: Regulates the pneumatic supply temperature by allowing cold, engine fan
airflow to be the cooling airflow source in the heat exchanger.
• Heat Exchanger: Using an internal plate/fin and tubing arrangement keeping the pneumatic
airflow separate from the fan airflow to provide a cooling function for the pneumatic engine
source.
• Isolation Valve: This is used to isolate (divide) or connect the different pneumatic systems.
May be controlled automatically or manually via a switch on the bleed air control panel in
the cockpit.
• APU Bleed Valve: Shuts off or allows APU bleed air supply. Normally controlled by the APU
controller rather than the aircraft bleed air control system.
• Manifold Temperature and Pressure Sensors: These are used as a part of the normal control
function with some sensors dedicated to act like a switch to protect the aircraft and
pneumatic system from overtemperatures and overpressures.
The pneumatic system air reaches its user through air ducts. These include:
• Ducts in the engine pylons

• Ducts in the left and right wings
• Auxiliary power unit duct
Pneumatic ducts must be able to withstand extremely high operating temperatures and repeated
heating and cooling cycles. Most ducts are made of titanium or a titanium alloy. With the
flexibility needed at the joints in the ductwork, a compressible seal must be used at joints to other

ducts and components. This compressible seal will take the shape required when the ducts are
put together and clamps are installed and properly torqued.
During inspections or while troubleshooting for possible leaks, keep in mind that when the ducts
are cooled and the material has been allowed to thermally contract (shrink), cracks will be
difficult to see especially at welded joints.
Indications
Pneumatic systems normally operate with a very high degree of reliability and do not need
constant monitoring by the flight crew. Pilots, however, do require the ability to monitor the
normal and non-normal parameters of a bleed air/pneumatic system.
On older aircraft, this is accomplished with the use of dial gauges in the cockpit. In new aircraft,
these indications are normally part of a system electronic display which has the capability to
show more than only pressures and temperatures.

Bleed Air Synoptic 8777
Two bleed air parameters, pneumatic duct temperatures and pressures, are critical indications for
the pilots.
Temperature and pressure sensors and switches are installed at various points in the pneumatic
system. These sensors (transducers) may operate on different principles depending on their
intended function. These sensors transmit an electric signal to gauges in the cockpit or to an
electronic data collection computer which will combine that data with other system data before
sending it to the display system. This data is also used to interface with other aircraft systems
such as anti-ice/de-ice systems and the environmental control system (air conditioning).
In an engine bleed air system, these sensor and switch signals are also used to control bleed air
valves such as the fan air cooling valve and the pressure regulating and shut-off valve. Any
indication outside of normal parameters will also normally activate alert messages, cautions and
warnings to the crew.
In modern aircraft, the pneumatic system operation is completely automatic and does not require
any input from the crew except during preflight checks. Any faults, defects or changes of
parameters are notified to the crew either automatically or during a system message recall task
performed by the pilots or maintenance personnel.
Warnings
If a leak occurs from a pneumatic duct due to a seal failure or duct rupture, the extremely hot,
high pressure air can cause serious damage to other nearby components and systems as well as
structural damage.
Sensors monitoring the ducts will provide warning and indications in the cockpit related to duct
overtempertures and overpressures. Sensors in the engine pylon, the wing leading and in the
wing- to-body areas will provide an indication of duct leaks and ruptures. This can be initially
indicated as an engine compartment fire due to the rapid heat rise in the pylon area around the
engine. This same principle is in effect for the auxiliary power unit compartment.
Overheat Detector/Sensor

When a duct leak or other dangerous pneumatic system fault is detected, the flight crew receives
warning indications in the cockpit. These warning indications may have their own dedicated
indicators or they may also use the same indicators as a collocated system with similar functions
using the same sensors such as engine fire compartment detection and the engine fire handles in
the cockpit.
Engine Fire Extinguishing System Indication And Controls
Bleed Air Control Panel on a Boeing 777

Some advisories, but not all, are combined with warnings which give specific alarms in the
cockpit.
PACK TRIP OFF or PACK OFF - an overheat of the bleed air flow in the pack or some other
pack fault has caused the pack to shut down.
WIXTG-BODY OVERHEAT - the overheat sensors around the bleed air duct between the
engine pylon and into the wing-to-body area have detected an overheat.
BLEED TRIP OFF or BLEED OFF - the onside bleed air system has automatically shut down
due to an overheat or other bleed air system fault.
Cycling the switches for the related system will cause it to reset and if the fault no longer exists,
normal system operation will resume.
Interfaces with Other Systems
The pneumatic systems primary sources are the engines and the auxiliary power unit. Each
engine feeds the left or right pneumatic system with at least one pneumatic isolation valve
separating them. Should one pneumatic source fail during operation or not be available, the
pneumatic isolation valve may be opened automatically or manually using a switch in the
cockpit.
The cross-supply system does not just consist of the cross-supply duct, but also has one or more
cross-supply valves that allow airflow through or blocks it.
Aircraft pneumatic systems may have interfaces with other aircraft systems:
• Air Conditioning System

• Auxiliary Power Unit (APU)
• Wing and Tail Anti-Ice System
• Engine and APU Fire Extinguishing System
• Engine Thrust Control and Limiting System
Interfaces with the Air Conditioning Systems
In some aircraft the pneumatic supply temperature is controlled according to the air conditioning
system flow demand. This allows a more economical pneumatic system operation and therefore a
significant fuel reduction during cruise flight.
On some aircraft the pneumatic supply pressure will be automatically reduced if the pneumatic
supply temperature becomes too high. This should prevent a possible pneumatic overheat
condition by reducing the bleed air flow via the heat exchanger.
Interfaces with the APU
In modern aircraft, the engine pneumatic system supply is automatically cut-off or inhibited if
the APU supplies the respective pneumatic system. The APU pneumatic supply pressure will
automatically increase for engine starting or high air conditioning cooling demand.
Interfaces with the Wing and Tail Anti-Ice Systems
The pneumatic supply temperature from the engine will be automatically increased for wing and
tail anti-ice system operation.
Interfaces with Engine and APU Fire Extinguishing Systems
The bleed air supply from the respective engine or APU is automatically cut-off, if a fire
extinguishing procedure is initiated (fire handle actuated).
Water/Waste (ATA 38)
Water System Layout
A commercial airliner's water system has the following sub-systems:
• Drinking water system

• Water discharge system
• Waste water system
• Toilet system
Drinking Water System
The drinking water system supplies the galley and toilets with water from a water tank via a
supply system. The system is pressurized with bleed air from the engines or the auxiliary power
unit.
Water Discharge System

Using the water discharge system, water can be drained from the drinking water system via
valves and drain ports.
Waste Water System
The waste water system enables water from the washbasins in the toilets and the sinks in the
galley to be drained. Waste water is discharged into the environment through heated pipes and
drain masts on the outer skin of the airplane.
Toilet System
An underfloor tank is used to collect toilet waste. The tank is emptied and cleaned during ground
servicing. Water from the drinking water system is used to flush the toilets. A vacuum drainage
system sucks the water from the toilet bowl and into the tank. An independent control system
monitors and controls the vacuum system.
Water System Layout
Potable Water Tanks

A tank in the pressurized underfloor area of the airplane is used for storing drinking water.
Depending on the size of the airplane, number of galleys, number of toilets and number of
passengers, it has a volume of several hundred liters. (Example B737NG: 227 1)
The pressure created in the system using bleed air ensures a supply to all delivery points in the
airplane. If the engine and auxiliary power unit bleed air is not available, the supply can also be
provided using ground compressors. Supply to the delivery points on the airplane is provided by
a pipe system. The supply pipes to the toilets and galleys run under the cabin floor. All pipes are
covered and insulated. Some pipes are heated so that the water flowing through them does not
freeze. Each toilet can be separated from the drinking water system by a manual valve. There is
an electric water heater below the washbasins in the toilet areas.
Potable water tanks are wrapped with insulation to help them remain thermally stable. In
addition, their placement on the aircraft helps to ensure they are in an area that is not subject to
freezing. Options exist to install electric heating blankets or electric heating tape around various
components for additional protection against freezing. The water tank is filled through an
external port where manually operated or electrically operated valve controls are located to allow
water into the tank and to vent the tank during servicing and draining. The tank can be filled up
to full or partially full at the operator's discretion.
Drainage occurs through the filling and discharge valve and can also occur through a motor-
operated discharge valve.

Water System Plan

Supply
The filling and drain valve must be opened for the water system to be filled. To open the valve,
the service technicians pull the filling lever and turn it to the "fill" position. If the desired fill
level is reached, the process stops automatically and the lever moves back into the "normal"
position.
The filling and drain valve must be opened for the water system to be drained. To open the valve,
the service technician pulls the filling lever and turns it to the "Drain" position. Once the system
has been drained, the service technician must manually turn the lever to the "Normal" position.
A fill level sensor in the water tank sends a signal to the flight attendant control panel. The flight
attendants can see the fill level of the tank in real time.
If the service technician moves the fill lever to the open position, water can be added to the tank.
On some aircraft, this action also opens a vent valve as well as activates an overflow protection
circuit. When the pre-set level or tank is full, excess water will come out of the vent or a level
sensor sends a signal to the electrically operated fill and drain valve which causes it to close.
Servicing levers must be closed or returned to their flight ready condition in order to close the
service panel.

Water Filling Plan

If the service technician pulls the lever during drainage and moves it to "Drain", the filling and
drain valve opens mechanically. The drain limit switch sends a signal to the overflow valve and
the drain valves, which are opened as a result. Green control lights show that the valves are open.
If the service technician pushes the lever in after draining and turns it to the "Normal" position,
the drain valve and the overflow valve close.
The system fill quantity indicator helps the ground and cabin personnel with their work. A fill
level sensor in the water tank measures the amount of water left in the tank. The measurement is
made capacitively. An increase in the water level causes the signal to be strengthened, a decrease
in the water level causes the signal to decrease. The fill level sensor signal controls the indicator
on the flight crew control panel and the service panel outside of the airplane.

Filling Level Indicator
Distribution
Water is distributed via a pipe system located underneath the cabin floor. Insulation and
electrical heating protects the water pipes against freezing in specific parts of the airplane.
Mechanically or electrically operated valves regulate the supply from the drinking water system.
Bleed air pushes the water from the water tank to the delivery points in the airplane.
In the toilet areas, the water is supplied through the water taps on the washbasins. These have a
time delay that stops the flow of water after a specified amount of time. This device helps save
water. The warm water from the boiler under the washbasin can be manually or automatically
mixed in.
The water from the drinking water system flows through the boiler and is heated to 40-500C. The
boiler has a volume of approx. 1.51. The function of the boiler is controlled by a thermostat.
The toilets can be manually separated from the water supply.

The water taps in the toilet areas consist of a self-venting valve, a push button and an outlet. The
water flows when gentle pressure is applied to the push button. The flow of water stops after the
push button is released and the valve delay time has expired. If manual ml.xing is not possible,
the water tap is connected to a mixing unit. A thermostat on this mixing unit regulates the water
temperature to a pre-set value. The water flows the taps at a defined temperature.
Manual valves separate the taps and the toilets from the water supply when they are closed.
Normally the valves are always in the "Open" position. They can be found under the toilet bowl
or the washbasin.
The boiler is located underneath the washbasin. It has a water connection through which it is
supplied with water and a water connection through which the warm water flows to the mixing
unit or directly to the taps. It can be switched on and off manually with a switch. If the switch is
in the "On" position, the heating element is active and a control light comes on. A thermostat
disconnects the heating element from the power supply when a specified temperature is reached.
If the water temperature drops again, the thermostat unblocks the flow of power to the heating
element and the water is heated.
Maintenance
It is necessary to regularly disinfect the water system to prevent bacteria from propagating.
Before a disinfection or in the event of low outside temperatures, it is necessary to drain the
water first to protect the system against freezing.
Draining the water and re-filling the system must be done after three days at the latest in order to
guard against a rapid multiplication of bacteria. It may also be necessary to disinfect the water
system after maintenance work on the system if contamination of the water cannot be ruled out.
Drainage
The drainage system allows the dirty water from the washbasins in the toilets and the basins in
the galley to be drained. The drainage system includes the following components:
• Drain units in the washbasins in the toilets and the basins in the galley
• Discharge valves in the sanitary units in the toilet areas
• Drain lines and drain masts.
The water flows to the drain masts on the outer skin of the airplane through lines. From there, the
water flows into the environment. The drain masts are heated so that they do not freeze in flight.
Drain Units
The washbasins in the toilet areas and the basins in the galley have drain units. These units have
connections for drainage and overflow.
Drain Valves
The drain lines have drain valves. They have connections for inflow and outflow and an internal
diaphragm. They also prevent the cabin air from flowing out of the cabin via the drain lines. A
check valve in the drain valve prevents unwanted backflow of dirty water.
Drain Mast
The drain masts are located on the lower part of the airplane's fuselage. The pressure difference
between the ambient air and air inside the drainage system makes the water flow from the drain
mast into the environment in flight. On the ground, the waste water flows out of the system due
to gravity. Heating elements connected to the airplane's electrical system prevent the drain masts
from freezing.
Toilet System Layout
The toilet system removes waste from the toilet bowl with a vacuum drain and transports it to a
wastewater tank in the underfloor area of the airplane. The toilet bowls are rinsed with water
from the drinking water system. At high flight altitudes, the differential pressure between the
atmosphere and the cabin moves the waste to the wastewater tank.
At lower flight altitudes, a vacuum generator generates the required pressure difference. The
service personnel on the ground empty and clean the wastewater tank and fill it with a set
quantity of sanitary fluid.
The function of the toilet system is ensured by the following components:
• Flushing unit
• Vacuum system regulator
Flushing Unit

A flushing unit per toilet controls the flushing of the toilet bowl when the user presses the flush
button. It controls the timing of the flushing process:
• Preventing the flushing of the other toilets for 15 seconds

• Switching on the vacuum generator for 15 seconds
• Starting flow of water for 1 second if the rinsing button is pressed
• Opening the drain valve for 4 seconds
A fill level sensor in the waste water tank sends a signal to the flight attendant control panel. The
flight attendants can see the fill level in real time.
Flushing
The toilet system is flushed, emptied and filled via a service hatch on the outside of the airplane.
Underneath this there is an operating lever for the drain valve, a drain connection and a filling
connection. The service hatch has a micro switch that generates a signal for the pilots if the hatch
is not correctly closed.
A flushing and drainage procedure runs as follows:
• Opening of the service hatch

• Opening of the drainage and filling connection cover flaps
• Connection of the drain hoses and the filling hoses
• Operating lever is set to "Open"
• System is flushed using the filling hose, until it is closed
• Lever set to "Closed"
• Hoses disconnected
• Connections closed
• Service hatch closed
Maintenance
The operation of the system can be seen by the maintenance personnel via the airplane's
maintenance computers. This shows malfunctions in operation and provides a function test of the
vacuum system regulator via BITE.
The following aspects are subject to monitoring by the maintenance computer:

• Flush unit
• Filling level indicator
• Fresh water tank
• Waste water tank
• Vacuum generator
• Electrical power supply
Corrosion Aspects
The water in the toilet areas and the galley puts these areas at risk of corrosion. A high usage
frequency of the areas by the crew and passengers means that water is dispersed and can
penetrate the structure.
Airplane manufacturers take specific design actions in these area to prevent corrosion from
forming. Regular inspections of the surrounding structure means that any corrosion can be
detected early.
Measures taken by the manufacturer to prevent corrosion include gluing flooring when laying it
and sealing it in the joint areas. Anti-corrosive fluids are applied to the structure. These are waxy
and displace water. They protect aluminium and its alloys in particular.
Onboard Maintenance Systems (ATA 45)
Central Maintenance Computers
The function of the Central Maintenance System (CMS) is to centralize data related to aircraft
systems and maintenance status, and non-routine fault occurrences. The Central Maintenance
System has different names depending on the aircraft manufacturer. Central Maintenance
Computing Function (CMCF) or Airplane Condition and Monitoring System (ACMS) are found
on Boeing aircraft.
The basic purpose of the systems are to acquire, correlate, store and display aircraft status and
fault symptoms from the aircraft systems and in particular from the Built-In-Test Equipment
(BITE) of the Line Replaceable Units (LRUs) and the Line Replaceable Modules (LRMs). This
information can be provided on an electronic display in the cockpit or downloaded to a computer
or other data collection device for distribution to maintenance technicians and engineers. The
information can also be transmitted electronically over a radio data link such as ACARS
(Aircraft Condition and Reporting System). Information can be sent after a query from a ground
It is a modular design concept. In which many separate avionic systems have been put together under one module.
station or automatically when a fault or pre-set parameter occurs. One big advantage of
centralized maintenance systems is the ability to talk to the airplane and prevent problems before
they become faults. Another would be to allow technicians to be prepared with information and
parts for an incoming aircraft that has reported faults in a system or component. Some functions
for example may only be available when the aircraft is on the ground (weight-on-wheels).
Advanced versions of centralized maintenance functions also provide links for ground tests of a
system and/or components in a system, system configuration checks (hardware and software),
engine balancing and proximity sensor rigging.
The Central Maintenance System (CMS) functions and component types will vary slightly
among different aircraft types and what types of avionics systems are installed, Federated or
Integrated Modular systems. Typical components associated with both types of avionic systems
include MCDUs, a printer and a data loading unit. An ACARS function is also required however
in a Federated avionics system, ACARS has its own control box while in an Integrated Modular
avionics system, ACARS is a software driven function within a core computer.
The role of the central maintenance computer is different among different aircraft types even
from the same manufacturer. On some older and newer aircraft, the computer is a separate
component (usually two for redundancy). On other very modern aircraft, the central maintenance
computing function can be found within a centralized computer system. The Boeing 787 has this
function within a common core system. Access and manual control of the system will also vary
as to the aircraft type. Using the same display and keypad inputs as on a control display unit as
the flight management system uses, a technician or pilot can access, read, perform some limited
testing and download information related to aircraft performance. Other aircraft offer the
possibility of using a Portable Maintenance Access Terminal (PMAT) with either a cable or
wireless connection or both. The additional functions of the PMAT and centralized maintenance
functions will depend on the manufacturer options and customer aircraft configurations.

Common Core Cabinet of 8787
Of the two CMCs or CMC functions, the first is active while the second is used in a redundant or
standby capacity. With a failure in the active CMC, the standby will automatically activate. An
input from the cockpit to the CMC function serves to allow the pilots to manually switch
between the active and the standby CMC. This switch also activates a BITE function. If an error
is detected, it is recorded and notification is given to the pilots and maintenance technicians.
If an error occurs in a BITE, the CMC stores this data and generates a report. In addition, the
ECAM notification that is generated by the flight warning computer is saved.
Data Loading System
Data loading is used to install, update or replace software programs and other electronic data in
an aircraft system. One common data load which is performed every 28 days is the navigation
database upload. The aircraft central maintenance computing function is also one system for
which operational software can be maintained or data downloaded via a fixed aircraft built-in
data load point. This can be a disk reader or a cable connection point for an external reading
device such as a laptop computer. With some aircraft, a wireless option is available in place of a
physical connection to the aircraft. Manufacturer instructions must be followed to prevent
introduction of unauthorized or corrupt data to the aircraft.
In most common aircraft, the data is saved in the respective system 's Line Replaceable Units
(LRU).
Portable Data Loader B737NG
Portable data loading systems are equipped with a general ARINC 615 loading system, ensuring
compatibility with nearly all aircraft manufacturers. The user can follow the loading processes
progress on a display. This function may be accomplished with a dedicated unit or a portable
computer (laptop) with the appropriate software. Wireless data loading may also be
accomplished in some instances however, for reasons such as airplane critical security
applications, some systems may only be updated with a hardwire connection to the airplane. Data
loading systems can also read and save information such as maintenance data. This makes the
data in question available for later analysis.

Data Loading Function System Components
Electronic Library System
The Electronic Library System (ELS) is an essential information management tool designed to
provide airline personnel with quick access to the information required to operate and maintain a
single aircraft type or an entire mixed fleet. The ELS may be the primary source of onboard
documentation and information for flight crews (cockpit and cabin), airline operations,
engineering, aircraft maintenance and training. An electronic library is easy to keep current,
allows all concerned personnel to have access to the same information, allows easier portability
and interconnection between all of the data types such as integrating or linking data used by
pilots and maintenance. The system provides information contained in operational manuals and
charts, procedures, maintenance related manuals and documentation and regulatory data.
Electronic library systems store different types of information, for example maintenance or
navigation data.
Whenever possible, information is provided in a task-oriented format so that it can be used more

efficiently and accurately. The objective of the ELS is to eliminate the need to carry the
additional weight of paper documentation on board the aircraft and to improve the speed and
accuracy of updates.
One example is Boeing's Toolbox. It has all of the aircraft data, manuals and related
documentation necessary for maintenance to perform required activities. Depending on the
aircraft type and capabilities, various aircraft testing and operational checks may be initiated
from within an electronic library.
The following schematic shows the basic layout of an ELS (Electronic Library System). The
stored data is accessed through the PAT (Primary Access Terminal) and the CCT (Cabin Crew
Terminal). The ELC (Electronic Library Computer) communicates with a multitude of systems,
for example the FMS (Flight Management System) or CMS (Central Maintenance System).
ELS Layout Schematic

Printing
The flight compartment printing system supplies high-speed hard copy text and graphics for the
onboard systems.
A printer can be found in the cockpit of most modern airliners. It is usually found at the aft end
of the center pedestal between the pilot and copilot but can also be at other locations within easy
reach of the flight crew. Printers in the cockpit or cabin simplify documenting collected data or
received messages. Print commands can come from Control Display Unit (CDU) or a Multi-
Function Display (MFD). If equipped, a print command can also be supplied by a maintenance
laptop.
The printers are usually thermal printers printing on paper rolls. They allow for high resolutions
and print various sizes of paper.
Printers have interfaces to the following systems:

• Common Core System
• ACARS
• Electronic Flight Bag
• Aircraft Condition Monitoring
• Central Maintenance System
• Onboard Information System
• Cabin Maintenance
• In-Flight Entertainment
The flight compartment printer gives a paper copy of data such as:
• Airplane System Messages

• Charts
• Weather Briefings
• Reports
• Faults

Printer System of a B737NG
A typical printer is supplied with 115 VAC from the airplane electrical system. The printers are
equipped with passive cooling and a button for canceling print jobs. Internal temperature
switches will stop any printing process until the unit has cooled down to a minimum temperature.
The buffer storage has a size of about 10MB and an integrated print server. They conform with
the ARINC 429 standard and are equipped with network interfaces.
The flight compartment printer receives data from the print driver within the Data
Communication Management Function (DCMF) of the avionics systems. The input point to send
data to the printer is usually found on the FMS control display unit or it can be an automatic
function from the aircraft systems. The thermal printer works with a special heat sensitive paper
on a roll. Located on the printer are indicator buttons for paper control such as advancing the
paper or to indicate when the paper is near empty. An alert/reset button will indicate to the crew
when a message is waiting to be printed. A test switch, fault indication and a power on/off switch
are also on the printer. Further capabilities will depend on the aircraft and printer types.

When the printer gets more than one print command input at the same time, the request from the
most important system prints first. The typical print priority is as follows:
• Data Communications
• Central Maintenance Computing Function
• Airplane Condition Monitoring Function
• Multi-Function Display
• Navigation Data
Structure Monitoring (Damage Tolerance Monitoring)
During the life of an aircraft, the aircraft structures must endure changing structural loads under
widely varying thermal and mechanical conditions and will develop a variety of defects
including corrosion, cracks, damages while on the ground and inflight, delaminations,
disbondings, ingress of moisture, overloads such as an overweight landing or inflight deployment
of high lift flight controls.
Monitoring for theses damages and defects have traditionally been left to visual inspections.
With the introduction of more electronics and advanced systems onto the aircraft, precision
measurements are now possible that will indicate defects and damages long before they can lead
to grounding of an aircraft or a more serious incident. Combined with other data from the aircraft
and maintenance programs, the structure can be maintained in an airworthy condition with
minimal unplanned disruption to the operational schedule.
Defined analysis methods are used to determine the strength, lifetime and inspection intervals of
damaged components.
There are two approaches to structural health monitoring:
• Damage tolerance
• Damage limit
Damage Tolerance
The ability of structure to sustain anticipated loads in the presence of damage, such as fatigue
cracks until it is detected through inspection or malfunction and repaired. It is assumed that a
crack, for example, will keep tearing and eventually break under the influence of fatigue, stress
and corrosion. A damage tolerant repair is a repair that meets the necessary damage tolerance
conditions.
Damage Limit
The approach of damage limits allows operators to keep using an aircraft with known and
documented damage. Damage does not have to be repaired immediately, if the damage analysis
concludes that the damage does not have a significant impact on the airframe's rigidity and
stability. It must be able to continue fulfilling its design purpose.
A visual inspection by maintenance staff at regular intervals and by pilots during pre-flight
inspections is performed on a regular basis. Accelerometers can detect the lateral and vertical
movement and forces on an aircraft during normal operation and landing. This will be reported to
and recorded by the Aircraft Condition and Monitoring System (ACMS). Other types of sensors
are installed to the wings and aircraft structures at various locations taking measurements of
values in their areas and reported to the ACMS. Analyzing the data for structural health
monitoring and any damage tolerance monitoring will be done by structural engineers. Advanced
monitoring systems will also indicate immediately when an exceedance of any parameters of
structural capabilities has been exceeded.
The term "Damage Tolerance Monitoring" describes the function and program for monitoring for
any indications of defects or faults of the aircraft structure. a structural engineer will be
assigned to this program, it is usually integrated with the overall health monitoring of the aircraft
airframe, systems and power plant health monitoring programs. For stress damages that may not
be easily detected using a visual method, electronic components, such as an accelerometer, will
be able to provide data which will allow engineers to determine if a detailed and in-depth
structural inspection may be necessary such as after a heavy landing.
Accelerometer on a B787 Airframe

Integrated Modular Avionics (ATA42)

It is a modular design concept. In which many separate avionic systems have been put together under one module.
Functions of Integrated Modular Avionics
The term IMA (Integrated Modular Avionics) describes computer electronics units comprising
standardized components. The individual aircraft systems can communicate through hardware
and software interfaces. This allows for multiple usage of computer units by different systems.
Standardization provides a common software interface for the systems. IMA means saving
weight and energy in manufacturing as well as decreased operating and maintenance costs.
Avionics is often defined as the various technologies of electronics, electrical circuits and
components as they apply to aviation. As new technologies are developed, they are implemented
into the individual systems onboard an airplane. This structural integration method for avionics is
characterized as federated which means that each system functions as a stand-alone system
comprised of sensors, processors, actuators and a controller. The controllers are referred to as
Line Replaceable Units (LRUs). In a federated system, data is generally shared from one
individual system controller to other controllers over an ARINC 429 digital data communications
bus or via analog signals.
Federated Avionics System Structure

Avionics LRUs B737NG (Federated System)
Almost every system on the aircraft has its own individual controller centrally located in an
electronics compartment. In addition to the added weight of each control unit, data which is
transmitted from another controller must be processed and converted again by a receiving
controller in order to be useable by the receiving system.
As the various technologies available to aviation matured, the number of avionics and avionic
related functions have increased. This has resulted in growth in the size and complexities of the
federated architecture. Although most were designed to fit into a "box", the various sizes and
differing technologies have presented great challenges to aircraft systems designers. This also
increased the costs of operations and maintenance.
Advanced technologies and practices allowed the Integrated Modular Avionics (IMA) concept to
be introduced. The line replaceable units of the federated avionics structure are being replaced by
software based applications hosted on Line Replaceable Modules (LRM). Each LRM can host,
or contain, several different types of applications each providing a controlling function for their
individual systems.
In the late 1980 s, the need was recognized for the ability to transfer data files as opposed to
individually defined data "words" across ARIXTC 429. The bit-oriented Williamsburg protocol
is used to transfer files between systems over ARINC 429 full duplex (two-way) links. Each

controller or LRU has a separate transmit and receive connection. A control protocol is used to
manage the data transfer.
A victim of its own success, the digital data communications system, ARINC 429, has been
replaced by higher capability versions such as the ARINC 629 and ARINC 653 digital data
systems which have an immense increase in capabilities over the ARINC 429. The larger
capacities suit the increased data communications requirements of the IMA architecture. Data
from all sources and types can be easily processed and shared on a more extensive basis.
Typical functions and systems which are integrated into the IMA architecture include critical and
non-critical systems such as: bleed air, air conditioning and pressurization systems, voice and
data communications, aircraft electrical systems, fuel systems, landing gear control and
functions, cockpit indications, and many others.
The Integrated Modular Avionics (IMA) concept replaces numerous separate processors and
Line Replaceable Units (LRU) with fewer, more centralized processing units. A significant
reduction in weight and an increase in maintenance efficiency is achieved in the new generation
of commercial airliners. From an operator standpoint, a higher commonality and a reduction of
types and varieties of spare parts drives a reduction in costs and improve a higher reliability
standard. Using the IMA approach has helped save over 2,000 lbs of weight on the avionics suite
of the Boeing 787 Dreamliner compared to previous similar aircraft.
Integrated Modular Avionics
• Concept
• Not a specific set of technologies or components. There is no legal or industry definition of
what must be or must not be included in an IMA architecture
Integration
• Multiple systems applications executed on the same module
• Data communications integrated onto a high-speed multiplexed network
Modularity
• A set of standard non-system specific computers
• Computers that can be configured entirely or partially for a specific system application

Common Core Resource Cabinet B787
The IMA concept connects the Line Replaceable Modules (LRM), known as General Processor
Modules - GPM by Boeing and Core Processing Input/Output Modules - CPIOMs by Airbus, to
a data network. Information is routed via data concentrators and data translators to the intended
recipients or subscribers (other systems). This data network along with the associated individual
components is known as a Common Core Network. It also offers an open architecture allowing
for the use of common hardware and software making upgrades and changes both cheaper and
easier to accomplish. An IMA operator can upgrade software without having to upgrade the
hardware, and vice versa.
Integrated Modular Avionics (IMA) replaces the point-to-point cabling with a "virtual
backplane" data communications network. The network connects software-configurable LRMs
that can adapt to changes in network functioning or operating modes. There is a potential path
between any of the LRMs with the software and network defining the active virtual links in real-
time. The system quickly reconfigures in the event of a fault resulting in a very robust system.
The ARINC 653 Standard "Avionics Application Software Standard Interface" describes an
application program interface and operating system for producing a flight-critical avionics
system that partitions critical and non-critical functions so that they cannot interfere with each
other. Not only does this simplify software design and implementation, it allows more flexibility.

IMA shared resources are:
•The avionics communications network: the solution selected is AFDX (Avionics Full Duplex
Ethernet), fully compatible with Ethernet network of Open World and based on common
switch modules
• Modules, i.e. Core Processing & Input / Output Modules or CPIOM, Input/ Output Modules
or IOM) for hosting of several applications and signal acquisition/transmission
Core System
Sharing of data between airplane systems is crucial for normal and non-normal operations and
critical for safety of flight. The Common Core System (CCS) architecture reduces overall weight
and fuel consumption of the airplane.
The CCS is an integrated modular avionics architecture that provides a set of shared computing,
networking, and input/output resources to support the computing and system interface needs for
multiple airplane systems. For functions hosted on CCS the following services are provided:
• Dataload of loadable software parts onto the shared computing resources

• Reporting of installed software configurations on each shared computing resource
• Fault detection, isolation and reporting on shared computing hardware
• Sufficient redundancy in shared resources to meet any availability requirements
• Non-Volatile Memory access on shared computing resources
• Communication services between hosted functions
• Dedicated physical I/O interfaces
Additionally, CCS provides the means for hosted functions of all criticalities to safely share the
same physical resources. The CCS can also accept specialized or legacy components of a
federated architecture into its system.
The three key architectural design elements of CCS are:

• Common Computing Resource (CCR)
• Common Data Network (CDN)
• Remote Data Concentrators (RDC)
CCR - Common Core Resource computers which contain general purpose modules where the
system controlling programs are loaded, digital to analog, analog to digital and fiber optic

translators and power supplies. There are two common core resource computers for redundancy,
normally located in different sections of the airplane.
The CCR computers are located in a cabinet referred to as a CCR Cabinet. Each cabinet will
have a Power Conditioning Module (PCM) which ensures a steady and constant supply of power
to the modules inside of the cabinet. The Cabinet provides the mechanical housing as well as the
electrical interconnections and backplane for the modules within the CCR. The Cabinet external
connectors provide the airplane power, network, and cooling air interfaces for the modules
within the CCR. In addition to housing the modules, the cabinet also provides resources for
cabinet environmental control in the case of the loss of supplied airplane cooling air.
The Common Data Network (CDN) connects the CCRs to the airplane systems and components.
The CDN uses ARINC 664 Ethernet fiber optics and copper bus systems for high speed (100
Mbps)/high bandwidth communications for digital audio, databases, and display data. The CDN
also uses low speed (10 Mbps) communications for control and monitor functions. These
airplane systems include:
• Avionics
• Environmental control systems
• Electrical subsystems
• Mechanical systems
• Hydraulic systems
• Auxiliary power unit
• Cabin services systems
• Flight controls
• Maintenance systems
• Fuel system
• Flight deck
• Payloads
• Propulsion system
RDC - Remote Data Concentrators are the interface for the CDN. Airplane system components
have an interface to the nearest RDC. The interface from the airplane system components to the
RDC can be analog, discrete, or serial digital connections.
Network Components
In order for the Common Core System (CCS) to function effectively, it must be able to cope with
data from almost every system installed on the aircraft. Data signals are generated in analog and
digital formats and must be properly converted or conditioned for use in the CCS. Data travels
from the component to the CCS via electrical and fiber optic cables through data concentrators,
converters, translators and switches.
The ARINC network switches, the fiber optic translator (FOX) modules and the fiber optic and
electrical connections make up a dual redundant Common Data Network (CDN) of the CCS. The
Remote Data Concentrators (RDC) communicate and connect with sensors and systems
throughout the aircraft acting as an interface to the CDN.
Some systems may connect directly to the CDN. The CDN connects the CCRs to the airplane
systems and components. The CDN uses ARINC 664 ethernet fiber optics and copper bus
systems for high speed (100 Mbps)/high bandwidth communications for digital audio, databases,
and display data. The CDN also uses low speed (10 Mbps) communications for control and
monitor functions.
In order for the IMA to be able to process the data safely and efficiently, it has to be
standardized. This happens in a data communication bus; the ADFX (Avionic Full Duplex
Switched Ethernet System). The ADFX bus allows data transfer speeds between the systems of
up to 100Mbit/s.
The CCS normally has two CCR cabinets. One is acting in the primary mode while the other is
in a redundant or standby mode. The roles are reversed after each flight.
Each CCR cabinet is the primary interface between CCS components external to the CCRs, other
airplane systems, and the CCR modules. Each CCR cabinet contains modules that process data
for many airplane systems that connect to the Common Data Network (CDN). Each CCR cabinet
has these modules:
• ARINC 664 network cabinet switch (ACS)

• Fiber optic translator module (FOX)
• General processor module (GPM)
• Power conditioning module (PCM)
Each CCR cabinet contains a cabinet fan and valve assembly for alternate cooling. Normal
cooling function is typically provided by the normal avionics cooling system. The alternate
cooling function will activate when there is a high temperature or low flow from the normal
cooling supply.
Common Data Network Switch

The primary function of the network switch is to control and route data packets. Switches are
located remotely in the airplane as well as in the CCR. The cabinet switches are functionally
identical to the remote switches; however, these cabinet switches are packaged to fit into one of
the cabinet slots.
Each switch contains low speed and/or high speed based on the loaded configuration table. Each
switch controls the data flow from each user based on configuration tables. This routing and
policing function prevents any of the (low-integrity or otherwise) users from interfering with
other users on the network. Source and destination of all data is predefined by the configuration
table.
This means data must arrive at the appropriate physical network port in order to be forwarded on
to the appropriate output ports. This prevents accidental or malicious impersonation from low-
integrity users from passing incorrect data that appears to be coming from a different user.
Fiber Optic Translator Module
The FOX is a relatively simple device as its only job is to translate high speed data between
copper and optical media. The fiber optic translator (FOX) module: Connects directly to some
airplane systems to send and receive data through fiber optic buses
• Changes digital light signals from the ARINC 664 network remote switch (ARS) and airplane
systems to digital electrical signals for the ARINC 664 network cabinet switches (ACS)
• Changes the digital electrical signals from ACSs to digital light signals for the ARS and
airplane systems
• Connects to the same channel FOX in the other CCR. For example, the FOX channel A in the
left CCR connects to the FOX channel A in the right CCR
General Processor Module
Each General Processor Module (GPM) contains computing hardware and software application
programs that calculate and process data for many airplane system functions. Each GPM
contains 2 CPUs. A GPM can continue to operate correctly if one CPU has a fault. It can have
some internal faults and continue to operate safely with full function. A GPM can also have
faults that cause the GPM to stop operation.
The GPMs contain the core operating system (OS) software. The core OS has functions that
control GPM operation with other GPMs and other components in the Common Core System
(CCS). These functions include:

• System initialization
• Resource schedules
• Memory management
• Input/output control
• Fault processors
All the core software functions do general purpose and real time processing for the hosted
applications on the Common Computing Resource (CCR). GPMs also get hosted applications
software that calculates the hosted airplane functions. The position of the GPM in the CCR
cabinet specifies where the hosted software application are loaded. These are examples of some
of the hosted airplane systems functions:
• Display and crew alerting function (DCAF)

• Hydraulic interface function (HYDIF)
• Landing gear actuation system/nose wheel steering (LGAS/NWS)
• Central maintenance computing function (CMCF)
• Flight management function (FMF)
• Data communication management function (DCMF)
Power Conditioning Module (PCM)
The PCM's primary task is converting the ship's 28 Vdc into 12 Vdc to power the modules in the
cabinet; however, it also provides the backup clock when the cabinet is turned off. This is the
source of time for the airplane clock function at power up until such time as the airplane clock
gets updated time from an external source such as GPS. Each PCM has a 28 Vdc input and a
battery input. The primary source of power is the 28 Vdc with the battery input providing
transient protection during bus switching and powering the clock when the cabinet is turned off.
The Power Conditioning Module (PCM):
• Supplies filtered power to the other modules in the common computing resource (CCR)
cabinet. The filtered power prevents non-normal operation of these modules.
• Isolates the airplane power from the CCR cabinet modules.
Each PCM provides an isolated power output to each module in the cabinet. At the module level,
the 2 power inputs, current limiting, and isolation prevents interruption of the modules from a
common mode failure. Each module can get power from either PCM and each PCM can supply
sufficient power for the cabinet. Therefore, the failure of an aircraft power feed, PCM, or module
cannot cause a failure of the cabinet.
Remote Data Concentrator
The RDC provides input/output processing and data consolidation to minimize wire runs on the
airplane. Analog data is converted to digital and transmitted to its hosted function via the CDN.
An RDC can have multiple independent input/output channels. This means multiple critical
systems can share a common RDC with the knowledge that having multiple functions experience
corrupted data simultaneously is extremely improbable.
Remote Data Concentrator B787 Nose Wheel
Cabin Systems (ATA44)
Cabin Systems include communications systems within the cabin for crew to crew, passenger to
cabin crew, passenger to ground and the inflight entertainment (IFE) systems. Older aircraft
which use more analog electronics may not feature all of the systems found on newer, modern
aircraft employing digital and fiber optic systems.
Early IFE systems used video projectors and large screens visible to all passengers. Videos were
stored on videocassettes which meant that was the only program which could be viewed at the
time it was playing. Newer aircraft cabin systems feature individual video displays at each seat
and video is stored digitally. This allows for a massive increase of viewing options and also
"viewing- on-demand".
As with all complex systems and rapid advancements in available technologies, there are
variations in cabin systems and services offered, even within the same aircraft. Different aircraft
models and types have different systems and different features. Some features included in cabin
systems are:
• Passenger Address - for addressing passengers through overhead cabin speakers from a
cabin attendant station or from the cockpit.
• Cabin Interphone - allows cabin-to-cabin and cabin-to-cockpit communications.
• Flight Attendant Calling - allows passengers to call for assistance from the cabin crew. A
sub-function of this feature can include a data communication between individual passenger
seats and the cabin crew as part ofthe cabin service.
• Audio and Video Entertainment.
• Moving Map Displays - showing the aircraft's current location, altitude, and airspeed. An
option may exist allowing the crew to turn off this feature for operational reasons.
• Telephone, Fax and Internet Services.
Cabin Intercommunication Data System
The cabin intercommunication data system is used by pilots, flight attendants and passengers.
Typical user interfaces include the flight attendant media panel, cabin handsets, cockpit handsets
and the emergency button above the passenger seats. There are also information lights and
loudspeakers there. The functions of a Cabin Intercommunication Data System (CIDS)/Cabin
Services System Controller (CSSC) include passenger address (PA), cabin and service
interphone systems and lighting in the cabin. The cabin ready signal used by the cabin crew to
inform the pilots that the cabin is ready for takeoff is also part of the systems. At least one flight
attendant station in the cabin has a Flight Attendant Panel (FAP). If more than one attendant
station is equipped with a FAP, the station located nearest to the cockpit or senior cabin attendant
work station will have the master panel. Except for the master FAP, each control panel will only
be able to control functions within that particular cabin zone. The emergency evacuation signal
function can also be activated through the CIDS/CSSC with an input from the FAP or the
cockpit.
Passenger information sign signals such as No Smoking or No Personal Electronic Devices,
Fasten Seat Belts and Return to Seat are processed through CIDS/CSSC with inputs from the
cabin or cockpit crews.

Passenger inputs which are processed by the CIDS or CSSC include their individual reading
lights and flight attendant call functions. Inputs are made through a handset to the inflight
entertainment systems.
Cabin Attendant Handset
Cabin Services System
The Cabin Services System Controller (CSSC) contains airplane configuration data and control
software for all cabin system functions. Control data and digital audio from the CSSC go to each
of the Cabin Zone Units (CZU) in sequence and then back again to the CSSC. There is a CZU
for each of these 3 cabin areas:
• Forward cabin
• Mid cabin
• Aft cabin
The cabin services system consists of these components.
• Cabin Services System Controller (CSSC)

• Cabin Zone Unit (CZU)
• Cabin Attendant Panel (CAP)
• Cabin Attendant Handset (CAH)
• Speaker Drive Module
• Speakers
• Passenger Service Modules (PSM)
• Passenger Service Units (PSU)
• Master Call Light Module
• Electrically Dimmable Windows
The CSSC supplies cabin configuration data to the CZUs. Each CZU connects:
• Passenger address audio to the speaker drive modules which operate the speakers
• Control and system data to and from a related cabin attendant panel
• Cabin interphone audio from the cabin attendant handset and flight deck handset (FDH)
• Control data to cabin lights and master call lights
• Control data to and from EDWs
• Control data to the passenger service modules
The flight crew can also use the Audio Control Panels (ACP) and Tuning Control Panels (TCP)
to make passenger address and cabin interphone calls with a microphone. The digital audio and
control data for these calls connect to the CSSC through the Cabin Data Network (CDN).
The CSSC provides the following system functions:
• Passenger Address: The PA system distributes announcements from the cockpit and each
attendant station through all assigned passenger loudspeakers.
• Service Interphone: The service interphone system allows the communication via telephone

between the ground crew, the cockpit crew and the cabin crew when the aircraft is on the
ground.
• Cabin and Flight Crew Interphone: The cabin interphone system allows the communication
via telephone between all attendant stations and between the attendant stations and the
cockpit.
• "Cabin Ready" Signalling: The cabin ready signalling informs the cockpit crew about the
cabin status. This is an airline option.
• Passenger Call: The passenger call system controls the illumination of the passenger call-
light and the activation of the call-chime.
• Passenger Signs: The passenger signs system controls the NO SMOKING (NS), FASTEN
SEAT BELT (FSB), RETURN TO SEAT (RTS) and EXIT signs.
• Pre-Recorded Announcement and Boarding Music: The PRAM transmits the pre-recorded
announcement and the boarding music to the related passenger loudspeakers.
• Cabin Illumination: The cabin illumination system controls the illumination of the different
cabin areas independently.
• Reading Lights: The reading lights system controls the passenger reading lights and
attendant work-lights in the cabin.
Cabin Network Services
A Cabin Network Service (CNS) is a digital system that is hosted on a server on the airplane. It
allows access to emails and the internet, for example. It is a local network that is able to
communicate with external networks.
The interfaces within the local networks can have cables or be wireless (W-LAN); the latter
corresponds to the current state of the art. However, as malfunctions of important onboard
systems is possible, the use of W-LAN is limited to certain flight phases. Therefore, for example,
use of W-LAN is not permitted during takeoff and landing. Cabin network services are able to
distribute data saved on servers and connect to satellites. Passengers can make telephone calls
via these connections.
The CNS typically consists of a server with a backup stored on an unrelated server or memory
device. Systems typically interfaced with include but are not limited to data/radio
communications for status reports and health monitoring and the inflight entertainment system.
Passenger status information, departure and arrivals info for connection flights and internet
services for passengers may also be available.

Cabin Services System Controller

Cabin/Passenger Services Control Page
A cabin network service is basically a Local Area Network (IAN) within the aircraft which can
interface with external data networks. Communication with other systems on the aircraft are
usually accomplished through a common data network. The connections to the LAN can be
wired such as from a passenger handset or personal electronic device, or they can be wireless
also from passenger devices or Radio Frequency Identification tags. Many aircraft operators are
choosing to increasingly use wireless systems when possible saving on weight and maintenance
costs. Because of the potential conflicting signals and interference with aircraft systems, use of
wireless functions is restricted to certain phases of flight.
Typical uses of the cabin network service are for access to internet services and the Inflight
Entertainment (IFE) system. The same functions giving access to the internet can also allow for
telephone calls. An airplane may also be equipped with a picocell which acts like a local
cell/mobile phone tower.
Data/Radio Communications
The data and radio communications function is an advanced feature within an aircraft cabin
services network. Separate from the pilot and aircraft communications functions, this feature
allows the cabin crew and the cabin services network controller to communicate directly with a
company operations center on the ground as part of the cabin and passenger services duties.
Inbound and outbound data transmissions can be displayed on the cabin attendant master cabin
control station. Voice communications using a radio function is also normally restricted to the
master cabin attendant station.
These features usually take advantage of the data and radio communications systems installed in
the aircraft such as a VHF radio which can transmit voice and data but usually not both at the
same time. The ACARS (Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System) is also an
ideal platform for cabin services communications as it is already setup for this function. The
frequencies to be used are already programmed into a computer. The correct frequency can be
selected either by aircraft position input (automatic) or by making a manual selection from a pre-
programmed contact list at the master attendant station.
Satellite connected communications are also possible.
The interface with the communications components downstream of a keyboard or handset

usually involves digital wiring pairs and fiber optic signals. In any case, the flight deck always
has priority over the cabin communication systems and either pilot will have the ability to
disable the system from the flight deck.
Cabin Core System
Modern core cabinet systems offer a combination of communication, cabin services, data and
inflight entertainment systems.
Critical information necessary for the safe and normal operation of aircraft systems outside the
cabin which is displayed on a cabin attendant panel may also be viewed in the cockpit for which
the pilots who may also have certain control functions. The status of the cabin doors and cabin
temperature controls are prime examples. Limited testing and troubleshooting capabilities are
provided at the cabin attendant screens. A maintenance laptop can also do CAP maintenance
functions through an ODN connection to the Cabin Services System Controller (CSSC).
The CSSC contains airplane configuration data and control software for all cabin system
functions. Control data and digital audio from the CSSC go to each of the Cabin Zone Units
(CZU) in sequence and then back again to the CSSC. The CSSC supplies cabin configuration
data to the CRTs. Each CZU connects:
• Passenger address audio to the speaker drive modules which operate the speakers
• Control and system data to and from a related cabin attendant panel
• Cabin interphone audio from the cabin attendant and flight deck handsets
• Control data to cabin lights and master call lights
• Control data to the passenger service modules
The CZUs and the CSSC communicate with each other in a loop. Software for the CZUs is
loaded from the CSSC. Program pins give CZU location and network address.
The Secure Communication Interface (SCI) is a link between the aircraft avionics system and the
open network. A basic component function of the SCI is to provide security of the
communications between the inflight entertainment portion of the cabin core system and the
aircraft avionics system.
Cabin Attendant Panel Screen Pages
The Boeing 787 is an example of an aircraft with a with a Cabin Core System featuring multiple
capabilities. In the 787, the Cabin Services System (CSS), both the cabin intercommunication
data system and the cabin network service are included.
The CSS is almost entirely digital and makes extensive use of digital data buses. Three different
data bus systems are used:
• ARINC 629
• CSS Intersystem Bus
• ARINC628
The Boeing 777 ARINC 629 bus connects to the Aircraft Information Management System
(AIMS), which is the primary information management system for the aircraft. The CSS
intersystem bus is a data transfer bus internal to the cabin system. ARINC 628 is a data interface
specifically designed for use with inflight entertainment (IFE) systems. There are several
available IFE systems for an operator (airline) to choose from, and the B777 can accommodate
any IFE system that uses the ARINC 628 interface. Of course, as the technologies available to
aircraft systems designers advance and mature, different ARINC capabilities will also become
available to all parts of the cabin core systems which will impact the offerings of the various
systems.
In addition to the cabin services and entertainment systems supported by the CSSC and Cabin
Core System, another feature available is applicable to the maintenance and reliability of the
cabin systems. All systems controlled by the CSSC are also monitored for their status. This
status is used to notify maintenance personnel of any active discrepancies as well as maintenance
history. Health monitoring is also accomplished which allows for faults to be rectified before
they become apparent to the crew and passengers.
A cabin maintenance logbook application resides on the core network.
• Crew interface is through the cabin attendant panel.

• Fault data entered through a browser, via a touch screen and virtual keyboard
• Data resides in the electronic logbook - only items affecting dispatch will be seen by the
flight crew. All data will be available to maintenance staff on the ground.
• Implemented in English only
• Standard 128-bit security encryption on secure server over isolated data network
Inflight Entertainment System
In modern inflight entertainment systems, each seat in the cabin has a display in the backrest of
the seat in front or on the side armrest of the seat itself. Sockets allow headphones to be
connected. Buttons or touch-sensitive displays are used to control the system and to select
services or films.
A traditional inflight entertainment (IFE) system contains three basic functions: audio, video and
flight data. Many of the entertainment systems on the newest aircraft also host internet access
functions. It allows the passengers to access their favorite websites or to pay for services with
credit cards using an integrated card reader. Some airlines and operators may choose to block
certain types of web sites and services from being accessed while onboard the aircraft.
Cabin Zone Out

Typical Speaker Installation in the Cabin
The entertainment system usually includes items such as passenger input control devices, cabin
control panels, audio and video equipment. The IFE system interacts with the cabin services
system but is designed to be functionally separate in order to prevent IFE system faults from
affecting the functions and safety of the cabin core system. The IFE system interfaces with the
passenger address (PA) system to provide audio for prerecorded announcements, boarding music
and audio included with video being shown throughout the entire cabin such as the predeparture
passenger safety briefing. Videos and interactive programs/ applications associated with the IFE
system may be stored on a separate server (line replaceable unit) within the core network or on a
separate memory component within the cabin controller. Passenger inputs to the IFE system,
video or audio selections, is usually accomplished on a passenger control unit handset built into
the seat assembly or with a touch screen capability. Control of the reading light and attendant
call functions comes through the IFE system interface with the cabin controller. Under no
circumstance or scenario shall a passenger have access to core functions of the cabin controllers
or any other system on the aircraft.
These functions are run by a centralized source, the inflight entertainment computer. This is
connected to the core cabin system by ARINC data buses. Data is sent using the core cabin
system to the corresponding seat, where it is retrieved. Video and audio are distributed from the
IFE server function and cabin controllers to cabin and inseat video displays and cabin
loudspeakers through cabin zone units located at various points in the cabin and electronic boxes
attached to seat group assemblies.

As numerous passengers retrieve very different data and data quantities, the inflight
entertainment computer sends addressed data packets. The addressing ensures that the correct
data are received by the user at their individual seat in the cabin. This procedure is known as
multiplexing. The data is distributed via a data bus. At each end of the data bus the system
extracts the addressed package and formats the data back to its original format (music, video,
etc.). This process is known as de-multiplexing.
External Communication System
The cabin services system is also used to communicate with external sites outside the airplane.
The communication is done via wired connections to the airplane or via data radio transmission
systems.
The external communications system functions generally apply to programs, applications and
connections that are normally not a part of the cabin services system and can be completely
separate components but still communicate with the cabin controllers. One such program or
application is the electronic cabin logbook. Data is input in a predetermined format by the cabin
crew. Information is transmitted to the airline operations and maintenance controllers who will
document the input and coordinate the aircraft schedule for needed maintenance. Another
external communications function is USB ports or connections to hookup a laptop computer for
uploading new programs and software to the cabin services controllers. It is also possible to
connect a laptop computer to the cabin services system to perform required maintenance status,
troubleshooting and repairs. Some aircraft may allow the possibility of a wireless connection to
the cabin controller in addition to the physical connection with cables.

External Maintenance Laptop Display
The maintenance laptop is one option but a drawback is that it requires a mechanic to be onboard
the aircraft or in close proximity. Also, the plane must be on the ground for most of the related
functions to work. Another option available to aircraft operators and airlines is to allow the
Cabin Network Service to communicate with ground stations in order to improve customer
service and passenger satisfaction.
During flight, the method of choice is connecting to the satellite communications (SATCOM)
system. This will allow the cabin attendants and cabin systems to communicate directly with
cabin service providers on the ground such as catering, cabin servicing and of course, the
company operations center for operational and maintenance issues.
The complete functional capabilities and any limitations due to security concerns will be decided
by the airline/ operator and controlled via software programming.
One more option for external communications is a Terminal Wireless IAN Unit (TVVLU)
connection. A TVVLU system will transmit in digital format, aircraft and cabin data through a
dedicated transmitter onboard the airplane with its own antenna. Information is collected from
the various aircraft and cabin systems and then transmitted after the aircraft has landed (weight-
on- wheels). This data will be received and processed by the airline/operator operations center at
that airport. The receiving antenna on the ground is usually on top of one of the terminal
buildings that has a line-of-sight to the airfield and aircraft parking areas. Contracted service
providers may also be able to use the TWLU function. The capabilities and functions of the
TWLU system lie with the airplane's common core system.
Cabin Mass Memory System
The cabin mass memory system is used to store and process cabin related data such as systems
configuration data and cabin services programs. Included items are controllers, terminals,
keyboards, touch screens, disk drives, printers and modems. A backup copy of the core software
program may be stored on a separate server if the original files become corrupted.
The cabin core systems for which data is stored include these cabin systems:
• Cabin Services - cabin controls and maintenance

• Passenger Address - announcements and alerts in the cabin
• Passenger Services - attendant call, reading lights, and information signs
• Cabin Interphone - cabin and Cabin crew communication
The CAPs have menu screens for operation of cabin services and maintenance functions. A
maintenance laptop can also do CAP maintenance functions through an onboard data network to
the CSSC.
The CSSC sends data to and receives data from a maintenance laptop through the core network.
Cabin layout definition and other airline specific data is also stored on the CSSC:
• Cabin zoning
• Seat relation to loudspeakers and passenger signs
• Chime sequences
• Audio levels
The data storage system is able to store large quantities of a wide variety of data formats. This
includes audio and video files, as well as automated announcements that can be played in the
cabin. The cabin mass memory system can be accessed from the Cabin Attendant Access Panels
(CAP). The system is updated by an independent data loading system.
Cabin Reports are sent to the Crew Information System (CIS) where they are saved to a universal
serial bus memory.
Accessing the Software Management function within the cabin services maintenance pages on
the CAP will give a variety of task options related to the storage of data and software.
• Management of CSS Memory Storage Device (MSD)

• List of Files on USB memory
• Back-Up to Cabin Attendant Panel (CAP) storage device
• Store a copy of the Cabin Services System Controller (CSSC) internal software and database
in the CAP
• Restore to CSS MSD
• Management of CAP storage device
• IP addressing
• System Log/LRU reset
Cabin Monitoring System
In addition to the condition of the cabin equipment being monitored, so is the security of the
cabin via the Cabin Monitoring System (CMS).
The CMS is the portion of the cabin system used to monitor parts of the cabin area. It includes
items such as surveillance cameras and internal cabin doors sensors. It does not include external
anti-hijack devices or external video monitoring.
Generally, most passenger aircraft will have cameras monitoring the area around the
cockpit/flight deck entry door. These cameras are controlled and viewed from inside the cockpit.
Some operators of large aircraft may have cameras monitoring aisles and other locations in the
cabin (not inside lavatories) which cannot not be easily monitored from a flight attendant seat.
This is to ensure passengers remain seated while the fasten seat belt light is on and to detect any
suspicious behaviors. Where these additional cabin videos may be viewed is generally at the
discretion of the operator.
Other monitors may be installed in the cabin to detect internal cabin door open/closed status,

smoke detectors, noise and vibration sensors and status of galley and passenger cabin
components.
Cockpit Video Near-Infrared Security Camera
Cabin Video Security Camera

The information can be accessed by the pilots and flight attendants in real time. It can be saved
and accessed during a subsequent error search. Parameters of the CMS and the components
involved will also give feedback to the Cabin Services System Controller (CSSC) for trend
monitoring and any maintenance or servicing required.
Internal cabin door sensors can also be used to indicate if access panels have been opened. This
will alert the crew that a passenger may be overly curious about the aircraft. The sensors are
normally simple proximity switches that sense a near or far condition and report the signal to the
cssc.
Cabin video monitoring systems are primarily used to monitor the areas in the cabin immediately
around the cockpit/flight deck door. This system is known as a Video Surveillance System. The
flight deck entry camera gets video images of the area adjacent to the camera. Each camera
makes a black and white analog video signal that goes to the SCIU (Surveillance Camera
Interface Unit). The SCIU converts the analog data into digital. The cameras get 12 Volts DC
power from the SCIU. Each camera assembly uses an integrated near-infrared (IR) light emitting
diode. Near-IR lighting supplies illumination that is visible to the video camera but not to the
human eye. This makes it possible to receive viewable video images even in complete darkness.
The video can be displayed on any display unit capable of receiving and processing the data and
displaying the video. Electronic Flight Bags (EFB) and Flight Management System Control
Display Units (FMS CDU) are typically used for this purpose.
Operators may choose to install additional cameras to help the cabin attendants monitor cabin
areas not easily viewable from a flight attendant seat.
The Cabin Video Monitoring Surveillance System (CVMSS) monitors and stores audio and
video data from the passenger cabin. The CVNISS uses cameras which are wired directly to a
camera recorder unit or uses internet protocol cameras feeding video signals onto a Digital Video
Recorder (DVR). Some camera models may also be equipped with audio sensing units
(microphones). The DVR stores the data on a removable memory module. The DVR will usually
store video from the cabin attendant video feeds while a separate unit will store the video from
cameras around the cockpit door. The DVR (Digital Video Recorder) also connects to the Video
Surveillance System Surveillance Camera Interface Unit (VSS SCIU) and can store data from
the flight deck entry cameras when the ECAS (Emergency Crew Alerting Switch) is on. A
maintenance port gives a connection to the video recording units from a maintenance device.
Miscellaneous Cabin System
Cabin systems, such as inflight entertainment systems are subject to continuous development by
third-party suppliers. Older airplanes that were supplied without corresponding systems can be
retrofitted. In this way, airlines can make their fleet more attractive to passengers. Miscellaneous
functions are normally defined by the operator and can be assigned to vacant control channels of
the cabin controllers or on a separate controller.
When a new cabin service or passenger amenity is introduced, it will normally be classified into
an already existing system but still stand on its own. Onboard wireless networks for passengers
are found on many long-range aircraft. This service capability has been expanded to allow
passengers seated in different areas of the aircraft to maintain contact. Some airlines also use this
capability to offer passengers the ability to identify their choices from an inflight dining menu or
to place an order from a duty-free catalog. Of course, many of these same functions have already
been available via a wired connection from each seat.
Information Systems (ATA46)
Aircraft General Information System
The purpose of aircraft information systems is to improve flight, cabin and maintenance
operations, and provide services for passengers. The function is to replace paper documentation
carried onboard an aircraft with electronic documentation and various applications used as part
of the flight planning and operations functions. The networking of information and sharing of
data in an integrated modular avionics system also allows these same information sources to be
used for electronic log books, aircraft defect and damage lists and many maintenance activities
through a central maintenance computing function. An airline/operator selectable option in the
aircraft information system is a flight deck entry video surveillance system. The electronic
documentation and applications are hosted within the common core system and data shared via a
common data network. Airline operations and technical engineering also uses this system to
monitor the technical status of the entire aircraft in a program referred to as Airplane Health
Management and for trend monitoring. With the aircraft information systems connections to
ground station and satellite communications, possibilities exist for the crew and maintenance
personnel to exchange this information on a live basis with someone outside the aircraft.
Passengers also have the possibilities for internet based services.
Aircraft without the newest modern integrated modular avionics system may use a separate
portable electronic computer tablet in place of the paper documentation and some applications.
Paper documents which have been replaced include Flight Crew Operations Manual (FCOM),
Airplane Flight Manual (AFM), Minimum Equipment List (MEL), Quick Reference Handbook
(QRH) and navigation data and maps. A significant weight savings is realized and updating
documentation is much easier.

The aircraft general information system contains an electronic document database. This
electronic documentation replaces the paper documents crew members had to work with in the
past. The main focus of the electronic documentation lies on giving the crew an attractive set of
documents. Information has to be easy and quick to find.
The system contains information about the following areas:

• Flight operations
• Cabin operations
• Maintenance
• Passenger services
• Crew services
The applications are saved on the NSS (Network Server System), which is split into three
subsystems:
• Avionics domain
• Flight operations domain
• Communication and cabin domain
Avionics Domain
The avionics domain contains applications that communicate data with the aircraft's avionics
systems. Examples of the avionics domain's applications are:
• Documents supporting maintenance (electronic logbook)

• Electronic documents for the crew (minimum equipment list)
• Service applications for fueling
• Communication tools for sharing data with the airline's operations center
Flight Operations Domain
The flight operations domain (flight OPS) contains applications that support the crew both while
in the air and on the ground. Examples for applications within this domain include:
• Automatic takeoff and landing weight calculations

• Weight distribution calculation
• Electronic documents (flight manual)
• Navigational and meteorological charts

Communication and Cabin Domain
The communication and cabin domain contains applications for cabin operation and maintenance
as well as passenger service. Examples for applications included in this domain are:
• Passenger services (e-mail, credit card payments)

• Applications for troubleshooting in the cabin and its communication system
• Wireless network
Information System
Flight Deck Information System
The human interface with the aircraft information system in the flight deck is the Electronic
Flight Bag (EFB) and the maintenance laptop. Here, the pilots will have direct access to the
formerly paper manuals stored onboard the airplane and many applications needed for
preparation of flight and operation of the aircraft. Some of the applications available in the EFB
include mass (weight) and balance and aircraft performance calculations. Calculated data may be
transferred or manually entered into the aircraft flight management system. With the aircraft on
the ground, additional functions may be available with the EFB. Both pilots and maintenance
may use the EFB or the front panel multi-function display unit to access systems and
maintenance related data. Using a cable connection or a wireless connection, a portable laptop
computer may also be connected with the aircraft providing for most of the same functions found
using the components in the cockpit.
Flight Deck Information System on a Boeing 787
The cockpit crew can access the aircraft general information system via a terminal or a separate
wired electronic device. The system's user interface is navigated with the help of a keyboard and
additional buttons. Pilots choose between the avionics and fight operations domain using
switches.
Within the avionics domain, the pilots can find applications for the following areas:
• Communications
• Maintenance
• Servicing
• Documentation (CDL, MEL, etc.)

The flight operations domain provides applications for the following topics:
• Documentation (FCOM, MEL, CDL, AFM, etc.)

• Performance (COG calculations, etc.)
Mission (navigation charts, meteorological information, electronic flight folder)
Maintenance Information System
The maintenance information system gives access to maintenance applications for the
maintenance personnel. In the cockpit, maintenance personnel can access maintenance related
applications through the electronic flight bag or control and display systems. Another possibility
is a fixed, installed onboard maintenance terming or a portable maintenance laptop. Portable
access devices may also have the capability to connect to the aircraft maintenance information
system via a secure and coded wireless connection. On the Boeing 787, the Central Maintenance
Computing Function (CMCF) accesses the maintenance information data in the common core
system to collect, correlate, store and indicate information when requested. Many systems and
components testing and other maintenance tasks can be accomplished using access via the
CMCF. Other aircraft manufacturer have similar systems.
Maintenance Information System on the Boeing 787

Maintenance staff can access the maintenance applications of the avionics domain including the
logbook using an OMT (on-board maintenance terminal).
In the cabin, maintenance personnel can access cabin maintenance applications on the flight
attendant panels or via a wireless connection. In the cockpit or cabin, maintenance personnel will
have access to an onboard maintenance system or centralized maintenance computing function,
electronic logbooks, aircraft maintenance status reports and the aircraft health monitoring
systems. Some applications may be accessed only with a password available to authorized
maintenance personnel. Maintenance reports can be printed using an onboard printer or the data
downloaded to an external memory device.
Maintenance staff can also access the aircraft general information system through laptops, called
PMATs (Portable Maintenance Access Terminals).
Passenger Cabin Information System
The cabin information system gives access to cabin applications and documentation for the cabin
crew. On the Boeing B787, these functions are hosted on the Cabin Systems Server. On the
Airbus A380, these are hosted in the Open world Server Function Cabinet (OSFC). Information
and data reports may be printed on a cabin printer or downloaded to an external memory device.
Using the same onboard wireless system that allows passengers and crews access to internet
based services, some airlines are using this capability to allow passengers to request specific
services during flight using an application on the passenger's personal electronic device to send a
message to the flight attendants. This wireless message stays within the cabin services system
and never leaves the aircraft.
Cabin Window Control on a Boeing 787

The cabin crew accesses the communications and cabin domain via a FAP (Flight Attendant
Panel). The panel also gives access to the CCOM (Cabin Crew Operations Manual).
Miscellaneous Information System
Additional miscellaneous systems connected to the aircraft information system may also be
installed on the aircraft as options to the operators discretion or as new and improved
technologies are introduced to aviation. Some of the optional functions may also be mandated by
responsible airworthiness authorities.
One example is an Air Traffic Control (ATC) system connection that is a relatively new
navigation function interacting with the aircraft information systems. Controller-Pilot Data Link
Communications (CPDLC), also referred to as Controller-Pilot Data Link (CPDL), is a method
by which air traffic controllers can communicate with pilots over a datalink system without any
voice communications with an ATC controller. Using the VHF or 1--1F radio systems as the
standard methods of communication, an air/ ground data link application is established enabling
the exchange of navigation related text messages between controllers and pilots. Information can
be electronically transferred or manually entered into the navigation and flight management
systems. Access and control of this application will depend upon the aircraft type and equipment
installed.
This category includes the ATC system (Air Traffic Control), which facilitates communication
between ATC and the aircraft, supporting the crew in communications, navigation and
monitoring. Datalink communication between aircraft and ground network is established via HF,
VHF or SATCOM.
The ATC application comprises the following functionalities:

• Identification (IDENT)
• Datalink Communication
• Automatic Independent Flight Monitoring
Identification
There is a Datalink connection between the aircraft and ATC, which is used for transmitting
identity information (flight number, registration).
alot frequency
Datalink Communication

This connection allows the pilots to:
• Send requests
• Send reports
• Read messages
• Answer messages
• Receive ATIS information
ATC System Layout


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MODULE 11 - AEROPLANE

AVIATION TRAINING HUB

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

Emergency Equipment Requirements..................................................................................... 286

Aileron and Asymmetrical Roll Spoilers ................................................................................ 323

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Rudder Limiter ........................................................................................................................ 340

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Hot Air Anti-lcing Systems .................................................................................................... 406

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Emergency .............................................................................................................................. 492

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Structure Monitoring (Damage Tolerance Monitoring) ......................................................... 546

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

Airplane Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

Motion of Aircraft about three axis

As mentioned in the section on high-speed aerodynamics, commercial airliners and corporate

Use of Ailerons During Crosswind Takeoffs and Landings

Effect of Ailerons During Engine Failure (Asymmetric Power)

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

Measures to Prevent Adverse Yaw

Operating Principle of the Differential Aileron

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

Operating Principle of the Rudder Aileron Cross-Coupling

In aileron-rudder cross-coupling, the respective control lines are mechanically linked by a

Operation of the Aileron Shut-Off With the Use of Roll Spoilers

Yaw Roll Moment

Slip Roll Moment

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

Ice Formation on the Tailplane

Location of the Center of Gravity

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

Moments Caused by Engine Thrust

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

Elevator Position Versus Airspeed (IAS)

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

Factors Influencing the Elevator Position and Speed Graph

disturbance moment about the pitch axis.

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

Relationship between rudder deflection and sideslip angle

The V-tail offers the following advantages:

The V-tail has the following disadvantages:

• Complicated control surface activation for rudder functions

High Lift Devices

The types of landing flaps are:

Types of Landing Flaps

reached in a conventional aerofoil by deflecting the flaps to approx. 40 to 450. In addition to an

Plain Slotted Flap

Plain Split Flap

Plain Fowler Flaps

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

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For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00