BEEF184T10 DC MACHINES

Class Notes

Prepared By

Dr.D.Vanitha
&
Mrs. S. Lavanya

Assistant Professor,
EEE Dept.
 UNIT- 1
D.C MACHINE CONSTRUCTION
Field System-Armature Core-Commutator and Brushes-Armature winding- E.M.F
equation- Methods of Excitation- Armature Reaction-Commutation-Load Characteristics of
D.C generators-Series, shunt and compound machines-Parallel operation of D.C Generators

Introduction
DC machines are broadly classified into two types DC motor and DC generator. DC
motor is a device which convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. When a current
carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, it experienced a force. DC generator is a
device which converts mechanical (rotational) energy into electrical energy. It works based
on the principle of faradays law of electromagnetic induction. Whenever the conductor cuts
by the magnetic field emf is induced on it.

Construction
Based on the working principle DC motor & generator, requirement for the both
machines are magnetic fields, conductor & mechanical movement. So construction wise both
motor & generator are same. Depends upon the types of input (electrical or mechanical)
given to the machines it should be differentiated by either motor or generator.
Field Systems:
Field
ield windings to be used to produce uniform magnetic flux.
flux. The winding are placed
in a poles which is located in the yoke. The yoke is a circular outer part of DC machines
which is made upon cast iron and projecting even number of poles.It
poles.It provides space for the
field windings. Field windings are excited by dc supply uniform magnetic
magnetic field is produced.
Windings are made with conducting materials like
like aluminium or copper. Poles shoe are
extended and widen because of flux part distribution over to the armature.

Armature Systems:
It is the rotating part of the machine. It consist of two major parts. One is armature
core and other is armature winding
winding.

A shaft carries cylindrical shaped with slot which is used place the rotating
(armature) windings.. Usually rotating part of the machines are generally called Rotor. It
provides house for the armature conductors and also provides low reluctance to magn
magnetic flux
created by the field coils.
 Interconnection of armature conductors/coils is called Armature Windings
Windings. It is
placed over to the periphery of the armature slots.
Main function of the armature coil is to generate e.m.f. also carries current in case of
D.C motor. Usually copper are preferred to making materials for this windings.
Commutator:
Induced e.m.f in a D.C generator are alternating nature. Rectification is required so
commutator are used for this purpose.

It is cylindrical shaped and ea

each
ch commutator segments are made with copper and
connected to armature coil with strips. Connections are shown in figure.

Brushes:
It is stationary part & seated over to the commutator. It collects current from
commutator and given to stationary external circuit. Usually it is made with carbon like soft
materials. It is in rectangular shape and
an made to press on thee surface of the commutator with
help of a spring. For D.C machines two carbon brushes are required.

Types of Armature Winding:

More number of conductors arranged in a systematic manner is called windings. Depending
upon the conductors connections the armature windings classified as two types,
1. Lap winding
2. Wave winding

Lap winding:
First conductor connected to 3rd conductor for return path and continuation is join or
overlap into 2nd conductor and move into so on. In this conductor connection are number of
poles is number of parallel paths. i,e., P= number of parallel paths.
paths. Figure shows the Lap
winding diagram.

Wave winding
First conductor is move forwarded shown in figure. The conductor moves ahead like
wave. For this connection the total conductors are divided into two parallel paths always i.e.,
A=2
Pole pitch – Peripheral distance between the two adjacent coils. Also defined as number of
armature conductors per pole

ℎ =

Coil Pitch or Coil span – It is the angular distance between two coils. Measured in terms of
armature slots. If the coil pitch is equal to the pole pitch than is called as full pitched coil. If
the coil pitch is less than the pole pitch it is called as short pitch or fractional pitch coil.
Back pitch(Yb) - Distance between top and bottom of an armature conductor. It is denoted by
Yb .
Front Pitch (Yf)– It is the distance between armature conductors which connected in a same
commutator segments
Commutator Pitch(Yc) - Distance between the commutator segments to which the two ends
of a coil are connected.It is denoted by Yc.
Resultant pitch(Yr) - Distance between the beginning of one coil and the beginning of the
next coil to which it is connected.It is denoted by Yr.
Winding Pitch (Y) – Distance between starting of two consecutive conductors. It is denoted
by Y.
= −

= +
Working principle of D.C generator
D.C generator works based on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction.” Whenever the conductor cuts by the magnetic field e.m.f (electro motive force)
induced on the conductor. Direction of the induced e.m.f can be determined using Fleming’s
right hand rule.
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule:
Stretch the thumb, index finger and middle finger of right hand perpendicular to each
other. If index finger point out the direction of the magnetic field and thumb represents the
direction of the motion conductor means than middle finger gives the direction of the induced
e.m.f. In this way we can identify the direction of induced e.m.f using Fleming’s right hand
rule.

Induced E.M.F equation

Let
P = Number of poles in the filed systems
Ф = flux per pole (webers)
N = Speed of the armature(revolution per minute –rpm)
Z = Total number of conductors
= Number conductors X slot per conductor
A = parallel paths
For Lap winding, A=P
Wave winding A=2

According to faraday’s law, the rate of change of conductor’s cuts by the magnet filed e.m.f
induced on the conductor
!
. . ∝ −−−−−1

! = #! − − − − − 2
60
= −−−−−3

! #!
. . = 1# = ()
*

For total conductors per parallel path

! + !+
= # = - −−−−−−4
60 , 60,

Equation-4 general equation of a D.C. generator.

For Lap wound machine, A = P, then induced e.m.f

!+
/0123452 =
- −−−−−−5
60
For wave wound machine, A = 2, then induced e.m.f

!+
/0123452 = - −−−−−−6
120
Problems
1. A Lap wound D.C machines having 4 poles and flux per is 0.07 webers. Total number of
conductors in the armature are 440.The machine rotates at a speed of 900rpm. Calculate the
induced e.m.f in the generator.
Given data
For lap wound machines, A = P
P=4
Ф = 0.07wb
N = 900 rpm
Z = 440

To find
Induced e.m.f = ?
For Lap wound machine, A = P, then induced e.m.f

!+
/0123452 = -
60
= 0.07*440*900/60
= 462 volts
2.A wave wound D.C machines having 4 poles and flux per is 0.07 webers. Total number of
conductors in the armature are 440.The machine rotates at a speed of 900rpm. Calculate the
induced e.m.f in the generator.
Given data
For wave wound machines, A = 2
P=4
Ф = 0.07wb
N = 900 rpm
Z = 440
To find
Induced e.m.f = ?
For wave wound machine, A = 2, then induced e.m.f
!+
/0123452 = -
120
= 0.07*440*900*4/120
= 924volts

Classification of D.C generator

The classification of generators are made based on the field how is getting excited by
the D.C supply, it may be classified as
1. Separately excited D.C generator
2. Self-excited D.C generator
1. Separately excited D.C generator
There is no inter connection between the armature and its field. Field winding is excited by
separate D.C supply.so it is called separately excited D.C generator.

2. Self-excited D.C generator

Part of the generated D.C armature voltage is utilised for the excitation of its field
than these types of generators are called self-excited D.C generators. Depends on the way
field is connected with the armature it may be classified as
i. Shunt generator
ii. Series generator
iii. Compound generator
a. Long shunt compound generator
b. Short shunt compound generator
D.C shunt generator:
The field winding of the generator is connected parallel to its armature than its called
as shunt generator. Voltage across the field winding is same as that of terminal voltage.

Shunt generator Series generator

D.C Series generator:
The field connected in series with its armature than it is called as series generator. In
series connection all current are same i.e., the armature current, series filed current & load
current are equal.
D.C Compound generator:
In this type of generator having more than one field winding are used, than it is called
compound generators. Both fields systems are produced more flux. How these two filed coils
are connected with its armature than compound generator classified as long shunt compound
generator and short shunt compound generator.

Long shunt compound Short shunt compound

D.C Long Shunt compound generator
There are two field windings named by shunt field and series field winding. The
series field is connected in series with armature and this combination are connected in
parallel with the shunt filed winding.
D.C. ShortShunt compound generator
The shunt field is connected parallel to armature and this combination are connected
in series with series field.
Voltage and Current Relations
E – induced e.m.f in volts
Vt – terminal voltage in volts
IL – load current in amps
Ia - armature current in amps
Ise -current in the series filed
Ish - current in the shunt filed
Ra - armature resistance in ohms
If - filed current in amps
Rse - series field resistance in ohms
Rsh – shunt field resistance in ohms
Vbrush – Brush drop
Voltage equation for separately excited generator can be written as
/ = 78 + 9: ;: + 7 <3=> Volts
!+
, /=
60,
Shunt generator

Form this diagram

9: = 9? + 9=>
78
9=> = @;
=>

Than voltage equation

/ = 78 + 9: ;: + 7 <3=>

!+
/=
60,
In practical case, drop in the brush are neglected.
Series generator
Form the diagram,armature, field & load are connected in series. So
9: = 9? = 9=5
/ = 78 + 9: ;: + 9=5 ;=5 + 7 <3=>

/ = 78 + 9: A;: + ;=5 B + 7 <3=> A∵ 9: = 9=5 B

Also
!+
/=
60,
Long Shunt Compound generator
From the diagram, armature & series field are connected in series. So current in both
are equal.
9: = 9=5

And 9: = 9? + 9=>
Current in the filed winding is
78
9=> = @;
=>

Voltage equation for this type of generator is

/ = 78 + 9: ;: + 9=5 ;=5 + 7 <3=>

/ = 78 + 9: A;: + ;=5 B + 7 <3=> A∵ 9: = 9=5 B

Also
!+
/=
60,
Short Shunt Compound generator
From the diagram,
9: = 9=5 + 9=>
And 9=5 = 9?

∴ 9: = 9? + 9=>
/ = 78 + 9: ;: + 9? ;=5 + 7 <3=>
Cumulative compound and Differential
Compound generator
Compound generator have two filed winding,
shunt filed and series field winding. Both field
flux( => & Bhelps each other than it is called ““cummulative
produced magnetic flux. Both flux(∅
compound generator”.
∅ F = ∅=> + ∅=5

( => & B opposes each other than it is called

Both field produced magnetic flux. Both flux (∅
“differential
differential compound generator”.
∅ F = ∅=> − ∅=5
Where
∅ F - Total flux produced
∅=> - Flux produced by the shunt field winding
∅=5 - Flux produced by the series field winding

Problems
1. A lap connected 4 pole shunt generator has supplying load of 55KW at 420V. The
armature and field resistance are 0.06Ω and 110Ω respectively. Calculate the field and
current and induced e.m.f. Take brush drop as 2V for the both brushes.
Given data:
For Lap connected machine
Poles – 4
Power P – 55KW = 50X103 watts
Terminal Voltage Vt – 420Volts
Ra - 0.06Ω
Rsh - 110Ω
 Brush Drop for 2 brushes – 2Volts
To find :
Induced e.m.f = ?

IL= P/Vt = 50X103/420

= 130.95A
Ish = Vt/ Rsh
= 420/110
= 3.82A
Ish =IL+Ish
= 130.95 + 3.82
= 134.77A
Induced e.m.f
Eg = Vt + IaRa + brush drop
= 420 + 134.77*0.06 + 2
= 430.09 Volts

2. A 20 KW, 200 Volt shunt generator has an armature resistance of 0.5Ω & shunt field
resistance of 200Ω.Calculate the power developed by the shunt generator.
Given data:
Generator capacity (load capacity) = 20KW = 20X103
Terminal Voltage Vt = 200 Volts
Armature resistance Ra = 0.5Ω
Shunt field resistance Rsh = 200Ω
To find:
Power developed by the generator?
Power delivered to the load = VIL
Power delivered in an armature = EgIa
IL= P/V = 20X103 / 200 = 100A
Ish= V/Rsh = 200/200 = 1A
For the shunt generator Ia = Ish + IL
= 100 +1 = 101A
Eg = Vt + IaRa = 200 + 101*0.05
= 205.05 volts
Power developed by the armature = Eg*Ia = 205.05*101
= 20.71KW
Building of E.M.F in a self-excited generator
Self-excited D.C generator produced voltage based on its own filed. Even though generator is
in standstill condition, there some amount flux is there in the poles. This is called as “residual
flux”. Due to this small amount of flux, conductors cuts the residual flux, induced
proportional voltage. This voltage produce some more filed current, the will increase the flux.
Due to increase in flux induced e.m.f developed more. In this way e.m.f or voltage is built in
an generator.

Characteristics of D.C generator

D.C Generator having the following characteristics
 Open circuit characteristics (O.C.C) / Magnetisation characteristics curve/ No load
characteristics curve
 Load characteristics curve
Open circuit characteristics (O.C.C) / Magnetisation characteristics / No load
characteristics curve
Form the name itself, no-load is connected, only generated e.m.f alone there with their flux.
This curve is drawn between generated e.m.f(Eo) and field current(If) at no load condition and
speed of generator is maintained at constant.
!+
/=
60,
H*I
Except ! rest of parameters are constantans/ = ()J

/) ∝ !
Flux is produced based the filed current so, ! ∝ 9
Field current increases flux in the poles also increases linearly up to saturation. While
reaching the saturation even though further increase in field current magnetic field is
saturated in the core.

Load characteristics curve

Load is connected to the generator. The curve will plotted against terminal voltage or
Eg Vs current (IL or Ia) than called as Load characteristics curve. There are two types of load
characteristics curve are there.
i. Internal characteristics curve (Eg Vs Ia)
ii. External characteristics curve(Vt Vs IL)

Load characteristics curve of series generator

Load characteristics curve of shunt generator

Load characteristics curve of Compound generator

Applications of D.C Generators

1. Separately Excited D.C generator

• Accurate supplies for testing labs
• Ward-Leonard
Leonard speed control systems

2. Series generator
There are very few applications in these types
• Series arc lighting
• Arc welding supplies
• Series incandescent lighting
• Series booster for increasing the voltage

3. Shunt generator
• Power supply
 • Lighting
• Battery charging

4. Compound generator
• Heavy service railways
• Line voltage booster for D.C systems
• Arc welding
• Lighting
 UNIT- II
DC MOTOR
Principle of Operation of a D.C Motor
The principle of operation of d.c motor can be stated in a single statement as “when a
current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field; it experiences a mechanical force”.
In dc motor, field winding produces a required magnetic field while armature
armature conductors play
a role of a current carrying conductors and hence armature conductors experience a force. As
conductors are placed in the slots which are on the periphery, the individual force
experienced by the conductors acts as a twisting or turning force on the armature which is
called a torque.

Torque Equation:
Turning or twisting force about an axis is called torque. Consider a wheel of radius R
meter acted upon by a circumferential force F newton as shown in fig

2L
ꙍ= /
60
work done in one revolution is,
W = F * Distance travelled in one revolution
 = F*2πR joules
NO<P2O15
P= - =
F0Q5
RSTUV RSTUV
= = YZ
F0Q5 O< W <5X
[

TU*
= A S ;B S
()

P = T *ꙍ Watts
T = Torque in N.m
Let Ta be the gross torque developed by the armature of the motor and it is called as armature
torque. The gross mechanical power developed in the armature is EBIa
Power in armature = Armature torque * ꙍ
TU*
EBIa = Ta *
()

Then., EB in a motor is given by,

∅H*I
EB =
()J
∅H*I TU*
∗Ia = Ta ∗
()J ()
IH
Ta = 0.159∅Ia Nm
J

This is the torque equation of a d.c motor.

Significance of back EMF:
This induced emf in the armature always acts in the opposite direction of the supply
voltage. This is according to the Lenz’s law which states that the direction of the induced emf
is always so as to oppose the cause producing it. So as this emf always oppose the supply
voltage, it is called back emf. And denoted as Eb.
∅+
/ =
60,

Back emf in a dc motor Equivalent circuit

Voltage Equation of a DC motor:

V = Eb +IaRa+ Brush drop

Neglecting brush drop, then

V = Eb +IaRa
DC Motor Characteristics:
The characteristics of DC motor under various condition are
 Torque- armature current characteristics (T Vs Ia)
 Speed -armature
armature current characteristics (N Vs Ia)
 Speed – Torque characteristics (N Vs T)
Torque - armature current characteristics (T Vs Ia)
For Shunt Motor:
T = ∅Ia
For constant value of Rsh& voltage supply V, shunt field current constant, hence flux is also
constant.
T α Ia
When armature current increases, the torque increase linearly and the armature current
depends on load. So, L ↑, Ia↑ , T ↑

For Series Motor:

T = ∅Ia
In series motor, the series field winding is carrying the entire armature current.
∅α Ia
Hence
T α∅ Ia = Ia2
As load increase, armature current increase and torque increase proportional
to the square of the armature current Upto certain limit. the entire current passes to the field
winding, the winding get saturated, hence flux remains constant.
Speed - armature
re current characteristics (N Vs Ia)
For shunt Motor:
From speed equation
7−9 ;
= ∝7−9 ;
∅
∅ is constant
As load increase, the armature current increase and hence IaRa drop increase. For constant
voltage supply V-IaRa
IaRa decrease and speed get reduced.

For Series Motor:

From speed equation
7−9 ; −9 ;
=
∅
Eb = 7 − 9 ; − 9 ;
∅ ∝ Ia in series motor
The value of Ra and Rsh are so small, Eb = V and assume constant
W
Then ∝
`:

As load increases, the armature current increases and speed decrease

Speed – Torque characteristics (N Vs T)
For shunt Motor:
Ta ∝ Ia
` `
= hence =
`: F:

As load increase, the armature current increase, the torque increases hence speed decrease
which is similar to speed armature current characteristics.

For Series Motor:

Ta ∝ Ia2
` `
= hence =
`: √F:

As load increases, the armature current increases, torque increase and speed decrease

Factors affecting the speed of a dc motor:

bc`:V:
Speed equation =
∅

Eb = 7 − 9 ;
/
=
∅
Thus, the factors affecting the speed of a motor are
 Eb = 7 − 9 ; − 9 ;
  The flux ∅
 The voltage across the armature
 The applied voltage V

Speed control of DC Motor:

For Shunt Motor:
Flux Control:
W
= ∅
V is assumed constant

The speed is inversely proportional to the flux

∅ ∝If, at start supply voltage is rated value, the rated current flow through shunt field winding
is rated and R is minimum, hence the speed is also rated value called normal speed.
Then R is increased due to that shunt field current is decrease, flux decrease and speed
beyond the rated speed value. Thus, by this method, the above rated speed control is possible.
Armature voltage control method:
N ∝ Eb∅ is assume constant
The speed is directly proportional to the voltage across the armature. As supply voltage is
constant, the voltage across the armature can be controlled by adding a variable resistance in
series with the armature.
Applied voltage control:
In this technique the shunt field of the motor is permanently connected to a fixed
voltage supply, while the armature is supplied with various voltages by means of suitable
switch gear arrangements.
Necessity of starter:
When motor is switched on with normal voltage and as armature resistance is very
small, the armature current at start is very high.

Now at the starting instant the speed of the motor is zero N = 0. As speed is zero, back emf is
also zero, since Eb d N
Eb at start is Zero
V = Eb + IaRa
V = IaRa
7
9 =
;
So, at start, motor is showing a tendency to draw an armature current which is 15 to 20 times
more than the full load current.
In a constant voltage system, such high inrush of current may cause tremendous line voltage
fluctuations. This may affect the performance of the other Equipments connected to the same
line. Such excessively high armature current, blows out the fuses.
To restrict this high starting armature current, the variable resistance is
connected in series with the armature at start. This resistance is called starter or starting
resistance.
So, starter is basically current limiting device. In the beginning the entire
resistance is in series with armature and then gradually cur off as motor gathers speed,
producing the back emf.
In addition to the starting resistance, there are some protective devices provided in a starter.

Types of staters:
 Three-point starter
 Four-point starter
 Two-point starter
Three Point starter:
The starter is basically a variable resistance, divided into number of sections. The contact
points of these sections are called studs and brought out separately as OFF, 1,2…. upto RUN.
There are three main points of this starter
L – line terminal to be connected to positive of supply

A – to be connected to the armature winding

F – to be connected to the field winding
Initially the handle is in the OFF position. The dc supply to the motor is switched on. Then
handle is slowly moved against the spring force to make a contact with stud no 1. At this
point, field winding gets supply through the parallel path provided to starting resistance,
through NVC. While entire starting resistance comes in series with the armature and armature
current which is high at start, gets limited. Finally, when the starter handle is in RUN
position, the entire starting resistance gets removed from the armature circuit and motor starts
operating with normal speed.
Losses in a dc machine:
Thevarious losses in a dc machine are
 Copper losses
 Iron losses
 Mechanical losses
Copper losses:
The copper losses are the losses taking place due to the current flowing in a
winding. The copper losses are proportional to the square of the current flowing through
armature and field winding. This loss is also called variable loss
Armature copper loss = Ia2Ra
Shunt field winding = Ish2Rsh
Series field copper loss = Ise2Rse
Iron Losses:
These losses are called magnetic losses or constant loss or no-load power
loss. This loss includes hysteresis loss and eddy current loss.
P0 = V0I0Cos∅0
Mechanical losses:
These losses consist of friction and windage losses. Some power is required
to overcome mechanical friction and wind resistance at the shaft. The magnetic and
mechanical losses together are called stray losses.
Thus, for a dc machine
Total losses = Constant losses + Variable losses
Efficiency of a dc Machine
FO8:fO38g38
Overall efficiency is given byȠ =
8O8:f01g38

%ƞ = S 100
+ +
Pout = Total output power
Pin = Total input power
Pcu = Variable losses
Pi = Constant losses
Condition for maximum efficiency:
Variable losses = Constant losses
Pi = Pcu
Testing of dc Motors:
The various losses taking place in a dc motor and efficiency can be calculated by carrying out
testing of dc motors. The two methods are
•Brake
Brake test
Direct testing

•Swinburne's
Swinburne's test
Indirect testing •Hopkinson's
Hopkinson's test
•field
field test

Swinburne’s Test or No-load

load test:
In this method of testing, the flux
flux remains practically constant ie in case of
shunt motor and compound motor. Without loading the motor, the losses and efficiency at
different loads can be calculated.
When motor runs at its rated voltage at no load, high starting current is decrease by some of
resistance connected in series with armature is cut off to attain sufficient speed. Now the
speed of the motor is adjusted to the rated speed with the help of shunt field rheostat. The no
load armature current is measured by ammeter A1 where as the shunt current is measured by
ammeter A2.
The motor input at no load will be,
Power input at no load = V (Ia +Ish) = W0
There will be some cu loss in the field is given by
 Field copper loss = VSIsh
 Armature copper loss = Ia2Ra
Thus, the stray losses which includes iron, friction and windage losses can be obtained as,
Stary losses = input at no load – Field copper loss – no load armature copper loss
Stary losses = V (Ia +Ish) - VSIsh- Ia2Ra = Wa
To find efficiency at Full load current
Now the full load current is IFL
IFL = Ish + Ia
Ia = IfL + Ish
Full load armature copper loss = Ia2Ra in watts
Total losses = Full load armature Cu loss + Constant losses
PT = Ia2Ra + W0 in watts
Full load motor input = V.I
Full load motor output = input – total losses

%ƞ = S 100