Event Management, Vol. 23, pp. 527–539 1525-9951/19 $60.00 + .

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CHALLENGES IN MANAGING PERIPHERAL WORKERS

WITHIN DIVERSE ENVIRONMENTS

ELENI (ELINA) MICHOPOULOU AND CLAUDIA MELPIGNANO

Centre for Contemporary Hospitality and Tourism, University of Derby, Buxton, UK

This article explores the HR issues that tour operators experience in the planning, coordination, and
management of tours revolving around cycling events. It does so by using a tour operator based in
the UK as a case study and by deploying a qualitative ethnographic approach. This methodology was
deemed as the most fitting to enable an in-depth and rich analysis of the issues that characterize the
complex management of core (office-based employees) and peripheral workers (tour guides on the
event site). Not only do the different operations, time frames, environments, and activities within
which the employees operate result in the company’s workforce division into two distinctive groups,
but they also determine low levels of professional satisfaction and motivation among the tour guides.
Investigating the stances held by the company’s employees in relation to the difficulties encountered
in the workplace is necessary to develop a strategy that allows for retaining peripheral workers, for
creating synergy between the two different teams, and consequently for ensuring the achievement of
the organization’s goals and objectives. The findings highlight how the adoption of HR practices that
aim at enhancing the company’s internal marketing would entail an optimistic shift in the tour guides’
perception of their position within the company, resulting in improved product delivery and reduced
absenteeism, burnout, and turnover challenges.

Key words: Human resources; Peripheral workers; Tour guides; Internal marketing;
Tourism; Events

Introduction tour guides (tour guides are seasonal event work-

ers), are common to international case studies of
This study looks at the difficulties encountered by tourism and event companies and their practices
a UK-based cycling tour operator (STA) in retain- in managing noncontingent employees (Ababneh,
ing peripheral workers and managing two teams of 2017; Ap & Wong, 2001; Cohen, 1985; Gavino,
employees operating across different environments Martinez, & Malos, 2010; Guerrier & Adib, 2003;
and with different work conditions. Such challenges, Mackenzie & Kerr, 2013; Mak, Wong, & Chang,
which characterize the professional landscape of 2011; Melubo & Buzinde, 2016; Min, 2014).

Address correspondence to Eleni (Elina) Michopoulou, Associate Professor, Centre for Contemporary Hospitality and Tourism,
University of Derby, 1 Devonshire Road, Buxton, SK176RY, UK. E-mail: [email protected]

527
528 MICHOPOULOU AND MELPIGNANO

Given that the literature regarding the manage- to the poor social welfare conditions and insuffi-
ment of peripheral workers within diverse envi- cient financial recognition that their career entails
ronments is limited to studies on tour guides in (Ap & Wong, 2001; Mak et al., 2011; Mckenzie &
developing countries, on the employees of hotel Kerr, 2013; Melubo & Buzinde, 2016; Min, 2014).
chains in rich countries, or on strategies to retain Although this broad depiction may suffice to justify
festival volunteers, the study sets to understand the tour guides’ low professional satisfaction, it is
the challenges entailed in small businesses operat- important to mention other factors that contribute to
ing in the human resource (HR)-dependent service the disadvantageous employment condition of this
industries, to provide a more efficient personnel category of workers. Previous studies on the sub-
approach. By presenting the analysis and evalua- ject reveal that the classification of tour guides as
tion of the existing issues among small tour/event contingent workers of the tourism industry, which
operators from a human resource perspective, the employs them as independent contractors and sea-
study proposes internal marketing strategies as a sonal workers, constitutes one of the main triggers
means to enhance the company’s human resource for occupational stress (Ap & Wong, 2001; Hwang,
management (Beech & Chadwick, 2006; Costen, Lee, Park, Chang, & Kim, 2014; Mak et al., 2011;
Johanson, and Poisson, 2010; Evans, Campbell, & Mackenzie & Kerr, 2013; Melubo & Buzinde,
Stonehouse, 2003; Hughes & Rog, 2008; ­Kotler, 2016; Min, 2014). In fact, tour guiding contracts
Bowen, & Makens, 2014; Kusluvan, Kusluvan, usually present functional, numerical, spatial, and
Illhan, & Buyuruk, 2010; Van De Vorde, Van De pay flexibility based on the event characteristics.
Voorde, & Veld, 2016), to minimize staff turnover Such an approach, although it can prove to be a
and facilitate the management of the workforce beneficial solution for the challenges that managers
across the two different work environments. of tourism and hospitality businesses face through-
out the different seasons (Guerrier & Lockwood,
1989), also entails a pessimistic view of the work
Theoretical Background environment from the employees’ perspectives.
More precisely, the negative emotional conse-
Tour Guides: Challenges and Issues
quences of being a peripheral worker are usually
Tour guides are often referred to as the front-line due to the perceived job insecurity and unpredict-
staff of tour operators and event organizers (Cohen, ability which, together with the detachment from
1985; Guerrier & Adib, 2003; Mak et al., 2011; the operational core of the company, foster a sense
Melubo & Buzinde, 2016). In fact, the empha- of being disadvantaged in comparison to noncon-
sis that service-based industries put on the direct tingent workers (Ababneh, 2017; Gavino et al.,
interaction with the customers and the role that 2010; Kalleberg, 2000; Mak et al., 2011; Min,
tour guides play in the cocreation of tourist product 2014). In addition to this, the unconventionality of
suggest that tour guides become part of the travel the employment relationship, which usually results
and event product itself (Guerrier & Adib, 2003; in limited direct interactions with managers and
Kusluvan et al., 2010). More specifically, many coworkers, determines a lack of perceived organi-
authors point out that tour guides directly influence zational support (Kalleberg, 2000; MacKenzie &
the customers’ experience, because they function as Kerr, 2013; Min, 2014).
“the company’s spokes-persons” (Mak et al., 2011; Furthermore, if service-oriented jobs are renowned
Melubo & Buzinde, 2016), “pathfinders” (Cohen, for entailing unsociable hours and intensive physi-
1985; Mak et al., 2011; Melubo & Buzinde, 2016), cal and emotional labor (Boella, 2013; Dimitriades,
“brokers” (Guerrier & Adib, 2003), and “anima- 2017; Kotler et al., 2014; Kusluvan et al., 2010;
tors” (Mak et al., 2011). Nickson, 2013), the frontline position that tour
However, despite their pivotal role in the tourism guides occupy within tour operators determines
and events industries (Ap & Wong 2001; Melubo an even more intense workload, whose extent and
& Buzinde, 2016), tour guides, just like many other overwhelming power often remain obscure to the
event- and tourism-related job roles, are usually managers and office-based workers (Bharwani
perceived as occupants of a low status position due & Jauhari, 2013; MacKanzie & Kerr, 2013; Min,
 CHALLENGES IN MANAGING PERIPHERAL WORKERS 529

2014). Several studies show that this lack of under- In order to tackle such issues and reduce the
standing of the physical challenges and emotional related expenditures, HR experts suggest the adop-
pressure, to which tour guides are exposed while tion of a successful talent management strategy
on the event site, is often the main reason why tour (Boella, 2013; Guerrier & Adib, 2003; Hughes &
guides feel unappreciated in the work environ- Rog, 2008; Kusluvan et al., 2010; Mak et al., 2011;
ment and unsatisfied with their professional career Melubo & Buzinde, 2016), especially in human-
(Ababneh, 2017; Guerrier & Adib, 2003; Kotler driven businesses within the service-based indus-
et al., 2014; Melubo & Buzinde, 2016; Min, 2014). tries. In fact, from a business-like point of view,
Hence, it becomes evident that the most common human resource management aims at the effective
challenges and issues that affect tour guiding jobs are exploitation of the human talent, which is of core
linked to the inadequate HR practices implemented relevance in the service sectors, where service qual-
by the operations manager on behalf of the event/ ity, customer satisfaction, and loyalty ­(Kusluvan
tourism company (Ababneh, 2017; Ap & Wong, et al., 2010), as well as product and program
2001; Cohen, 1985; Gavino et al., 2010; Guerrier & development, mostly depend on the employees’
Adib, 2003; Mackenzie & Kerr, 2013; Mak et al., performances (Baum, 2008; Beech & Chadwick,
2011; Melubo & Buzinde, 2016; Min, 2014). In fact, 2006). Therefore, in this context especially, human
it is found that in the operations manager’s perspec- resource management plays an important role in
tive the management of financial and material assets supporting the organization’s competitive strategy,
is often prioritized, determining inadequate inter- as the implementation of more efficient practices is
actions with the human resources of the company believed to facilitate the achievement of the orga-
(Costen et al., 2010; Gavino et al., 2010; Kotler nization’s goals and objective (Ababneh, 2017;
et al., 2014; Mackenzie & Kerr, 2013; Min, 2014). Baum, 2008; Beech & Chadwick, 2006; Evans
et al., 2003; Hughes & Rog, 2008; Kusluvan et al.,
2010; Prayag & Hosany, 2015).
Through the Human Resource Lens
Implementing good HR practices becomes
HR practices have undergone increasing sophis- more complex in companies such as tour opera-
tication throughout the past few decades across tors, where it is often physically unfeasible to sys-
every business sector, as personnel management tematically interact with the employees, supervise
has developed from being perceived as one of the their performances, understand, and evaluate their
components of an organization to being treated as work conditions and the consequences that these
an essential and distinctive managerial department have on the employees’ quality of life (Nickson,
(Boella, 2013; Nickson, 2013). 2013). However, given the central role of person-
More specifically, the high turnover rate, which nel in service industries and the limited studies
characterizes the tourism, hospitality, and event on unconventional employment relationships, the
businesses, where human resources tend to be deployment of the HR lens is necessary to inves-
simultaneously the most significant cost and valu- tigate those issues that underlie the poor perfor-
able assets (Akgunduz & Bardakoglu, 2017; Boella, mances of event and tourism companies; and to
2013; Costen et al., 2010; Evans et al., 2003; Hughes analyses and discuss the challenges faced by the
& Rog, 2008; Kotler et al., 2014), has prompted organizations in the complex management of core
academics and practitioners to reflect upon the and peripheral workers.
need for more efficient HR practices, as to reduce
the costs associated to the leaving, replacement,
Case Study Context
and training of employees (Beech & Chadwick,
2006; Boella, 2013; Tag-Edleen & El-Said, 2011). The STA case study is a UK-based cycling travel
In addition to these tangible expenses, events and agency, which attracts customers from all over the
tourism businesses often fail to recognize the indi- world and has been operating event trips across
rect costs related to the inadequate management of Europe since 2008. The company delivers lifetime
human capital within the organization: the decline experiences targeted to an emerging niche con-
in service quality and consistence (Boella, 2013). sumer of sport event tourism: road cyclists.
530 MICHOPOULOU AND MELPIGNANO

The STA’s success revolves around the high- tour guides, especially during high season, when
quality event and tourism products delivered to its the workload is at its fullest. As a consequence,
customers: from the booking to the inbound flight the reputational image of the STA has been dam-
every detail is taken care of, both by the office team aged, the recruitment of new tour guides has been
and by the knowledgeable tour guides on field. The inaccurate and solely aimed to quickly fill in the
STA team aims at conveying the idea of cycling vacant positions, and the returning customers have
prosupport, providing the customers with suitable lamented the absence of those tour guides with
nutrition, transfers, mechanic support, feed sta- whom they had previously cocreated an emotional
tions, vehicle back up, and masseurs throughout the bond on the basis of the sportsmanship and memo-
sportive event. By designing and producing such ries shared at the events.
complex events and travel packages, the STA has Therefore, it is important to explore the issues
been able to combine a traditional, relaxing holiday faced by the STA case study and the challenges
atmosphere with a professional support, which aims entailed in tour guide management in order to gain a
at fulfilling the costumers’ main interest for attend- deeper understanding of the underlying factors that
ing the STA trips: having an authentic cycling event result in staff attrition and turnover; a phenomenon
experience. that presents itself far too often within the events
The complex production of cycling travel and and tourism industries.
event products entails careful planning, coordina- Research with regards to the management of
tion, and management of the tours both from office- peripheral workers in event and tourism organiza-
based employees and from a team of tour guides on tions is scarce, mainly focused on studies related to
the road. The synergy between these two teams has tour guides’ conditions in developing countries, and
proved to be complicated, due to the different opera- even then, it is usually limited to the investigation
tions, time frames, environments, and activities that of the problem rather than the exploration of ade-
bound the STA workforce in two distinctive groups. quate strategies to be adopted (Ababneh, 2017; Ap
Both the teams are managed by the Operations Man- & Wong, 2001; Cohen, 1985; Gavino et al., 2010;
ager who, being based in the office, gains a thor- Guerrier & Adib, 2003; Mackenzie & Kerr, 2013;
ough insight of the office employees’ performances, Mak et al., 2011; Melubo & Buzinde, 2016; Min,
but has a limited understanding of the tour guides’ 2014). Therefore, this study aims to understand
labor while delivering the cycling experience at the and tackle the HR issues of the STA understudy to
event. As a consequence, the office team benefits facilitate the management of the workforce across
from a close relationship with their manager, who its two different work environments. This will be
has the chance to monitor the employees’ activi- achieved through the following objectives:
ties, to appraise their conduct when suitable, and to
evenly distribute the workload. However, simulta- • to explore the significance of human resource
neously, the tour guides often feel disregarded and practices in the management of peripheral
misunderstood by the Manager, and consequently ­workers in the events and tourism industry;
by the organization, due to their being detached • to forward recommendations for the adoption of
from the rest of the team who doesn’t witness the more efficient human resource practices.
implications of the trip/event delivery. At this stage,
it is important to specify that the on the road staff
Methodology
is composed of employees with different contracts,
and different experiences within the STA. As the phenomenon understudy is constructed
The above-mentioned issues, together with the and revised mostly according to people’s experi-
precariousness of being a freelancer, the inade- ences, the methodology adopted is of qualitative
quate and delayed payments, the lack of training, nature (Corbin & Strauss, 2008; Creswell, 2013;
which would be crucial in order to handle critical Crotty, 1998; Denzin & Lincoln, 2013; Gratton &
situations that may occur during the delivery, and Jones, 2004). Moreover, it is worth mentioning that
a more general discontent with the working condi- at the time of the data collection, the researcher was
tions, have caused high turnover rates among the directly involved in the day-to-day operations of
 CHALLENGES IN MANAGING PERIPHERAL WORKERS 531

the STA. This enabled the author to actively engage manifesting in the day-to-day activities of the
with the research participants, and to provide an business, in the team meetings, and in the virtual
emphatic analysis of the meanings and actions that communications with the peripheral workers when
result from the dynamics that influence the research abroad. Qualitative answers and notes underwent
problem (Creswell, 2013; Saunders, Lewis, & thematic analysis (Denzin & Lincoln, 2013; Sil-
Thornhill, 2009; Silverman, 2016; Veal, 2011). verman, 2016), which allows for the identification
A case study design has been deemed as the most of key concepts emerged by the corroboration of
fitting because of its potential in achieving a vivid visual and verbal data. Threats to the production of
and in-depth analysis of the overall phenomenon and trustworthy data were counterbalanced by schedul-
its subunits, and in conveying both uniqueness and ing a time for debriefing, as to ensure consensus
completeness to the problem investigation (Denzin construction with the participants (Saunders et al.,
& Lincoln, 2013; Stake, 1998; Thomas, 2011; Yin, 2009). Also, in order to produce an authentic and
2009). Furthermore, in light of the internal knowl- unbiased report, a personal journal was deployed
edge of the company and of the researcher’s famil- during the observation period as to adopt a self-
iarity and role within the reality understudy, the reflexive stance (Crang & Cook, 2007).
deployment of semistructured interviews and par-
ticipant observation make of this research project an
ethnographic study characterized by direct access Findings and Discussion
to the data (Crang & Cook, 2007; Gray, 2014; Hol-
The research findings are hereby presented
loway, Brown, & Shipway, 2010; Saunders et al.,
according to the aim that guided the research proj-
2009; Silverman, 2016; Veal, 2011).
ect: understanding and tackling the HR issues faced
Selected through a purposive sampling strat-
by the STA, so to facilitate the management of the
egy (Bryman, 2015; Saunders et al., 2009; Veal,
workforce across the events and, consequently,
2011), the research participants were observed over
determine the company’s success.
a 9-month span (March–September 2016), and
A total of 15 employees have been interviewed
mainly interviewed in September (due to the dif-
throughout the research process, resulting in a total
ficulty in reaching them when on the road). This
of 15 interviews. Although participant observation
enabled to monitor and detect the development of
was particularly focused on the 12 research partici-
their experiences and perceptions in relation to their
pants, it also extended to the overall investigation
professional life throughout the different times of
of the STA as a company, which comprises a total
the working season. The participants were mainly
of 20–32 employees (depending on the season),
part of the on-the-road team (tour leaders, tour
both core and peripheral workers.
guides, mechanics, masseurs); however, some of the
office-based employees participated in the research,
allowing for a more thorough understanding of the The Voices of the Peripheral Workers on
problem by comparing and contrasting the differing Event Trips: Challenges and Implications
stances that characterize the two workforces.
All the participating interviewees were asked for The findings of this research show that a vari-
approval to be involved in the study, were guaran- ety of factors ranging from job insecurity to lim-
teed anonymity, and made overtly aware of the role ited interactions with the core workers underlie the
of the researcher as a participant observer. After occupational and emotional stress and consequent
devising questions based on the gaps identified low professional motivation and satisfaction expe-
through a study of the existing knowledge on HR rienced by the research participants. This is clearly
practices for the management of peripheral work- expressed in the following citations:
ers in event and tourism companies, a total number
of 15 semistructured interviews were conducted It’s a beautiful job, but at some point, you need
to face reality. No fixed income, no guarantees,
(ranging from 20 to 50 min). The notes taken were no social life. My girlfriend split up with me in
integrated with those of the observation sessions, July because I managed to see her only twice in
which focused on the dynamics and interactions 4 months. One day she calls me, and she says she
532 MICHOPOULOU AND MELPIGNANO

could never make family-oriented plans with me. 2000; Mackenzie & Kerr, 2013; Mak et al., 2011;
As tour guides we end up being alone most of the Min, 2014; Prayag & Hosany, 2015).
time, with no real place to come home to. (Partici-
The adoption of the above-mentioned solu-
pant 4, 64–68)
tions entails the integration of various departments
And: within the organization, such as marketing, man-
agement, communication, and human resources
I don’t even hear from the Managers once we (Kotler et al., 2014), resulting in the enhancement
come back home after the event. It’s not like they of the company’s internal marketing strategy. The
follow up or something. At some point, they will internal marketing approach is based on the per-
phone up expecting me to get on a plane on the ception of employees as customers (Baum, 2008;
following day. . . . And they know we will say yes.
There are bills to pay. (Participant 9, 26–31) Kusluvan et al., 2010; Kotler et al., 2014). More
precisely, it finds roots in the assumption that in
Such findings are in alignment with the main order to deliver high quality services to the com-
issues identified in international case studies on the pany’s external customers, it is necessary to satisfy
challenges embedded in tour guiding as a profes- the needs and demands of internal customers by
sion where job unpredictability, low financial and designing job opportunities that attract and develop
professional recognition, and problematic social the employees, and by creating a set of positive
life determine unfavorable conditions (Ababneh, values that apply to both external and internal cli-
2017; Ap & Wong, 2001; Cohen, 1985; Gavino & ents (Beech & Chadwick, 2006; Kusluvan et al.,
Martinez, 2010; Guerrier & Adib, 2003; Hwang 2010; Tag-Eldeen & Elsaid, 2011). Hence, internal
et al., 2014; Mackenzie & Kerr, 2013; Mak et al., marketing is believed to encourage and enhance
2011; Melubo & Buzinde, 2016; Min, 2014). the employees’ performances which, in turn, has
However, throughout the research process, the positive impact on those factors that determine the
peripheral workers interviewed have often mani- company’s organizational performance: customer
fested a sense of detachment and disregard on the value, product and service quality, and customer
part of the STA concerning their evaluation and satisfaction (Joseph, 1996; Kusluvan et al., 2010;
treatment as internal customers, which suggests that Tag-Eldeen & Elsaid, 2011).
the poor internal marketing strategy of the company In order to promote an internal marketing plan
has great influence on the context understudy: within the organizational culture landscape of the
company, it is important to encourage the personi-
I mean, once they (referring to the managers) make fication of employees with their organization by
a profit out of the trip, they are done. The custom- adopting a perceived organizational support strat-
ers are happy, that’s all they care about! We are the egy. However, participants claimed that their degree
ones making it happen though! And considering
what we go through to deliver a trip successfully of integration within the company is remote:
. . . well, we are not treated the way we deserve.
(Participant 5, 18–21) It is two separate worlds really. They do their job,
send us a spreadsheet and a road book and that’s
it. That’s all the interaction we have with the office
HR Framework: Internal Marketing before leaving for an event. (Participant 9, 10–11)

Secondary resources show a variety of internal The above implicates that the noncontingent
marketing strategies that can be implemented as workers’ poor interaction with the company acts as
to develop the HR practices of businesses such as a barrier in the fosterage of a positive organizational
the STA understudy: perceived organizational sup- culture landscape where the employees experience
port, empowerment and decision-making authority attachment to the company, feeling valued and sup-
of the workforce, career development and train- ported. Ensuring perceived organizational support
ing programs, compensations, cross-training, and means fulfilling the employees’ emotional needs
internalization (Ababneh, 2017; Ap & Wong, 2001; for acceptance and socially recognized incorpora-
Beech & Chadwick, 2006; Cohen, 1985; Gavino & tion in the teamwork (Akgunduz & Bardakoglu,
Martinez, 2010; Guerrier & Adib, 2003; Kalleberg, 2017; Allen, Shore, & Griffeth, 2003; Kusluvan
 CHALLENGES IN MANAGING PERIPHERAL WORKERS 533

et al., 2010; Nickson, 2013), which as a result is in ensuring the correct implementation of human
believed to improve the affective attachment to the resources practices within the companies that operate
company (Allen et al., 2003; Eisenberger, Fasolo, in the hospitality, tourism, sport, and leisure indus-
& Davis-La Mastro, 1990; Kusluvan et al., 2010; tries (Ababneh, 2017; Ap & Wong, 2001; Beech &
Lashley, 2002; Tag-Eldeen & El Said, 2011). In Chadwick, 2006; Boella, 2013; Costen et al., 2010;
fact, the organizational support theory asserts that Evans et al., 2003; Kalleberg, 2000; Gavino et al.,
putting emphasis on interactional justice—the 2010; Guerrier & Adib, 2003; Hwang et al., 2014;
set of organizational procedures that regulate the Kotler et al., 2014; Mackenzie & Kerr, 2013; Mak
interpersonal interactions within the work envi- et al., 2011; Melubo & Buzinde, 2016; Min, 2014).
ronment—is a key element for fostering positive This means that in the first place the Operations
working behaviors among the employees (Allen et Manager needs to acknowledge his responsibility
al., 2003; Baum, 2008; M. Cheung & Law, 2008; in achieving the attraction, retention, training, moti-
Gavino et al., 2010; Hughes & Rog, 2008). vation, and commitment of the appropriate labor
Although interpersonal justice refers to the force by designing, forecasting, monitoring, and
degree of dignity and respect with which employ- developing the company’s resources, with a particu-
ees are treated, informational justice pertains to the lar concern for the employees’ professional, social,
level and adequacy of shared information within and financial welfare (Beech & Chadwick, 2006;
the organization (Allen et al., 2003; Beech & Chad- Boella, 2013; Costen et al, 2010; Hughes & Rog,
wick, 2006; Evans et al., 2003). The relevance of 2008; Hwang et al., 2014; Kotler et al., 2014):
these two components of interactional justice con-
firms that the successful implementation of inter- I called in to say I was exhausted from the June
nal marketing actions requires strong commitment trips . . . I was speaking on behalf of the other
guys as well. I just wanted a couple of days off for
from the managers, who must show a positive atti- the team before leaving to set up for the Norway
tude towards the employees (Beech & Chadwick, events, with the Etape coming straight after. I told
2006; M. Cheung & Law, 2008; Costen et al., 2010; him we are understaffed for that trip . . . that it’s
Kotler et al., 2014; Van De Vorde et al., 2016). risky for that sort of sportive event, and we are not
More specifically, it further stresses the crucial in condition to cover for others. It was like talking
to the wind. I could tell he (the Manager) wasn’t
role and responsibility of the operations manager, taking me seriously. He thinks we are just moan-
as primary interpersonal and informational contact ing all the time. (Participant 1, 37–42)
available to tour guides (Gavino et al., 2010), in
determining the tour guides’ positive perception of The above indirectly suggests that managers
the tour/event operator. As one of the participants need to recognize and acknowledge the needs and
suggested, the operations managers’ failures in effi- motives that drive the individual employees by
ciently engage with the peripheral workers deter- engaging in an open and constructive dialogue with
mines negative feelings that the employees then them. This also brings out the need for improved
project on the company as a whole: interaction among employees at all level of the
organization as a means to manifest the company’s
It’s degrading really. I have seen X [the Manager]
once on a Skype call, and heard from him three concern for the difficult work conditions that tour
times over phone since I started working for the guiding entails. In fact, experts point out the vital
company. How are we supposed to feel like our importance of effective ongoing communication
job is valued and the company cares about us if he in the work place (Boella, 2013; Hwang et al.,
is not interested in knowing who we are, what we 2014; Kotler et al., 2014; Kusluvan et al., 2010;
do and what we need? (Participant 10, 55–57)
­MacKenzie & Kerr 2013; Park, 2016; Van De
Vorde et al., 2016), especially in cases like the one
The Key to the Improvement of HR under study, where the tour guides suffer from feel-
Practices: Operation Managers ing disregarded and emotionally left out:

The literature review and the data collected high- It sounds silly, but sometimes showing inter-
light the central role that Operations Managers play est could really mean a lot to us . . . especially
534 MICHOPOULOU AND MELPIGNANO

considering we give up our social life for this job. The Need for Compensations
It is hard to keep my guys motivated on the road
when after signing the contract they don’t hear This leads to the consideration of having a perfor-
from the office anymore. (Participant 3, 22–24) mance evaluation schedule in place, as a means of
assessing and rewarding the delivery of quality per-
In order to minimize such perceived marginal- formances (Ap & Wong, 2001; Gavino et al., 2010;
ization, it is suggested that managers increase their Kotler et al., 2014; Kulsuvan et al., 2010). Such
attention to employee communication as a way of human resource practice stresses once again the key
involving the staff in the organization’s goals while role of Operations Managers, being the ones who
reflecting the company’s interest and appreciation conduct the review and appraisal, in ensuring high
of the workforce (Beech & Chadwick, 2006; Kotler levels of motivation and commitment among the
et al., 2014). tour guides, which translate in positive job attitude,
For what concerns the complicated manager– expectation, and sense of accomplishment (Allen et
employee relationships that result from having al., 2003; Baum, 2008; Beech & Chadwick, 2006;
temporary workers on multiple job sites (Kalle- Costen et al., 2010; Gavino et al., 2010; Guerrier
berg, 2000), the adoption of a more decentralized & Lockwood, 1989; Kotler et al., 2014; Kusluvan
organizational structure has been recommended as et al., 2010). This form of compensation is verbal,
to tackle the difficulties encountered in supervising and it aims at recognizing that the achievement of
and monitoring tour guides while at events (Evans the company’s organizational goals depends on the
et al., 2003; Kotler et al., 2014; Mohr & Zoghi, contribution of each of the team members, regard-
2008). Not only would this reduce the work load less the role within the company:
of Operations Managers by diverging some of their
many responsibilities to other subunits of the orga- I have rarely been complimented on a successful
trip or feedback from the customers. Not to men-
nization, but also it would entail the empowerment tion financial rewards. (Participant 6, 28–29)
of tour guides with some degree of decision-mak-
ing authority, which in turn would increase their job And:
satisfaction, engagement, and commitment to the
company (Baum, 2008; Beech & Chadwick, 2006; Hah! Sometimes we laugh with the guys . . . we
Evans et al., 2003; Kotler et al., 2014; Kusluvan et think of us as soldiers. It is us winning the battles,
al., 2010; Mohr & Zoghi, 2008; Park, 2016; Van De but we never receive the merit. The office guys go
Vorde et al., 2016). Also, this would reduce con- out celebrating on a successful trip every Friday
night, while we wash the bikes and set them up for
siderably the time necessary to take key decisions the following trip! (Participant 4, 78–81)
related to on-the-road events and accidents that
need a prompt and proactive response: Financial compensation should also be com-
bined to verbal one, as a way of rewarding the tour
I think they perceive us as “legs” only. Our capac- guides’ hard labor with material appraisals (Allen
ity and expertise of delivering and finalizing a et al., 2003; Baum, 2008; Beech & Chadwick,
product they have created in the office is not
recognized. Have they ever sat down listening to 2006; Gavino et al., 2010; Kotler et al., 2014; Kus-
OUR feedback at the end of a trip . . . our points of luvan et al., 2010). Both tangible and intangible
view on how we can improve the next trip? At the compensations are bound to ensure the employees’
end of the day it is us running the tours, being at commitment to the organization with effective con-
the events. (Participant 1, 81–84) sequences on the turnover rate (Allen et al., 2003;
Baum, 2008; Beech & Chadwick, 2006; Hughes
Demonstrating the organization’s genuine com- & Rog, 2008); the same way external marketing
mitment to the well-being of employees through strategies ensure the customers’ loyalty by design-
direct communication is believed to inspire and ing programes that reward the customers’ good
spur the workers to deliver high quality perfor- conduct towards the organization. Adequate com-
mances (Beech & Chadwick, 2006; Kusluvan et al., pensation also implies the ability of the company
2010; Van De Vorde et al., 2016). to avoid missing the payment deadlines, a factor
 CHALLENGES IN MANAGING PERIPHERAL WORKERS 535

that often lies at the core of the tour guides’ sense Newton et al., 2016; Slaski & Cartwright, 2003). In
of frustration (Gavino et al., 2010; MacKenzie & fact, Goleman’s (1995) findings on the beneficial
Kerr, 2013; Mak et al., 2011; Melubo & Buzinde, impacts of emotional intelligence trainings within
2016). Therefore, the administration department the work environment corroborated the relevance
should be concerned with ensuring timely pays by of such emerging human resource trend for the
carefully monitoring and forecasting the cash flow achievement of competitive advantage, especially
of the organization. in customer-oriented and experience-based indus-
tries (Bharwani & Jauhari, 2013; Dimitriades,
2017; Goel & Hussein, 2015; Tsai & Lee, 2014):
Development of the Human Side:
Emotions and Empathy We ride all day long for over 3 weeks at times.
We finish one trip and we are straight into another
In addition to the above solutions, attention one, without even catching a breath . . . it’s not
should be given to the several studies that show just the cycling itself to be honest. It’s more about
that the ability to manage occupational stress in being constantly busy with keeping demanding
the work environment is inversely related to low customers happy, while dealing with the daily
hitches of operating a complex event. (Participant
productivity, episodes of absenteeism, burnout, and 3, 12–15)
turnover (S. Cheung, Gong, & Huang, 2016; Dimi-
triades, 2017; Goleman, 1995; Hwang et al., 2014; And:
Lindebaum, 2013; Min, 2014; Min & Peng, 2012;
Newton, Teo, Pick, Ho, & Thomas, 2016): They (referring to the office-based workers) will
never understand what it feels like to have an
It is stressful and it can consume you. Simon (a intercontinental call at 4 am to inform your cus-
former tour guide), last year . . . he kind of lost it tomer’s wife that he injured himself during the
at the Haute Route. It was his fourth consecutive race event and he is now being taken to intensive
event. I called the office to tell them we had to take care . . . he could have died under my responsibil-
him to the hospital for a nervous breakdown. His ity. (­ Participant 1, 101–103)
brother flew from the UK to take him back home
and have him seen by a specialist. (Participant 2,
96–100)
Lastly, with regards to the inconsistent and
ambiguous relationships among coworkers (Gavino
et al., 2010; MacKenzie & Kerr, 2013; Min, 2014),
Because the very nature of tour guiding as a form
which are due to the hybrid arrangements that tour
of employment is based on the events seasonality
guides have with the company, it may be worth
and doesn’t allow for the deployment of conven-
considering the planning and implementation
tional techniques for managing emotions such as
of a job rotation schedule (Beech & Chadwick,
work breaks and conventional shifts (Kotler et
2006; Evans et al., 2003; Kotler et al., 2014). The
al., 2010), providing preemployment and on-the-
enhancement of perceived organizational support
job trainings on emotional intelligence (Dimitria-
would be facilitated by providing all the member
des, 2017; Goleman, 1995; Kay & Neilson, 2012;
of the staff with an understanding of the activities
MacKenzie & Kerr, 2013; Min, 2014; Min &
that characterize the different job positions and
Peng, 2012; Newton et al., 2016) could be a win-
landscapes (Campion, Cheraskin, & Stevens, 1994;
ning solution to minimize those issues arising from
Cannon-Bowers, Salas, Blickensderfer, & Bow-
the inability of detecting, expressing, and manag-
ers, 1998; HRfocus, 2008; Park, 2016), as to create
ing personal emotions, as well as those of people
internal empathy and reduce the perceived physical
who surround us (Bharwani & Jauhari, 2013;
and emotional distance among core and peripheral
Goleman, 1995; Min, 2014; Tsai & Lee, 2014).
employees (Campion et al., 1994; Park, 2016):
The emotional intelligence development program
would provide the attendants with the appropriate
Sometimes it feels like we are alone out here. The
theories and tools for the effective management of guys in the office are great at their job, but they
stressful work conditions and contingency situa- don’t see the effort that is needed on the road as
tions (Cheung et al., 2016; Goel & Hussein, 2015; well. Arranging for hotels, restaurants, race entries
536 MICHOPOULOU AND MELPIGNANO

logistics, and event set-ups . . . it doesn’t prevent emotional intelligence of the organization’s employ-
incidents from happening. And when they do hap- ees by creating sustainable team building real-life
pen, it is us facing the consequences and dealing
activities (Campion et al., 1994; HRFocus, 2008;
with the pressure. (Participant 1, 65–69)
Park, 2016; Saravani & Abbasi, 2013), it may be
worth mentioning that this strategy could be used in
Moreover, job rotation would spontaneously turn event and tourism businesses as a way of prevent-
out to be a cross-training practice (Ho, Chang, Shih, ing knowledge and experience loss whenever one
& Liang, 2009; HRFocus, 2008; Park, 2016), which of those individual suppliers, such as a tour leader
would prove to be beneficial for the implementa- whose expertise is critical to the successful running
tion of the empowerment strategy as well (Cannon- of a specific product, leave the company (Evans
Bowers et al., 1998; HRFocus, 2008). In fact, by et al., 2003; HRFocus, 2008).
periodically internalizing the tour guides within the
office environment, it would be possible for them
to familiarize with the activities of the office-based Managerial Implications for the Event Sector
staff through an alternative form of career devel- To sum up the above in more practical terms,
opment program, which in turn would foster job by strategically rethinking the job arrangements
motivation (HRFocus, 2008; Ho et al., 2009; Park, under a more flexible and creative prospective
2016; Saravani & Abbasi, 2013). Simultaneously, and by evaluating the most common HR prac-
the same approach should be applied to the full- tices deployed in the tourism and event industries,
time office employees by including them in the it is possible to identify a series of solutions that
delivery of the trips. Not only would this provide would help achieve organizational commitment
the office staff with the satisfaction of seeing their and attachment, while enhancing the cohesiveness
work materialized, but it would also equip them between the employees, as well as the company’s
with an understanding of the practicalities of tour internal marketing. More precisely, the promo-
and event running, as to expand their theoretical tion of perceived organizational support theory
expertise on the planning: through improved communication and compen-
sation (Allen et al., 2003; Baum, 2008; Beech &
How could they know, if they are never on the
Chadwick, 2006; M. ­Cheung & Law, 2008; Gavino
road with us, doing what we do for half of the year
instead of filling in excel sheets? (Participant 9, et al., 2010; Kalleberg, 2000; Kotler et al., 2014;
41–42) ­Kusluvan et al., 2010), the introduction of emo-
tional intelligence trainings (Dimitriades, 2017;
And: Goleman, 1995; Kay & ­Nelison, 2012; MacKenzie
& Kerr, 2013; Min, 2014; Newton et al., 2016; Tsai
I have always wanted to have a chance to see how & Lee, 2014), and the implementation of job rota-
it actually works, I mean, being on the trip, with tion schedules (Beech & Chadwick, 2006; Evans
the customers. It would help having an overview et al., 2003; Kotler et al., 2014) have been identi-
of the whole package, of our job in the office and fied as effective strategies to foster a positive work
of the one of the guides. Maybe, experiencing
what actually happens on the road could help me environment for both core and peripheral workers.
getting on with the job, and anticipate some of the Also, the Manager’s positive attitude and com-
needs of the guys onsite (referring to the periph- mitment have been stressed as key factors for the
eral workers). (Participant 11, 53–57) correct implementation of the suggested solutions
(Costen et al., 2010; Gavino et al., 2010; Kotler
Therefore, such process of job enrichment would et al., 2014; Mckenzie & Kerr, 2013; Min, 2014).
bring benefits to both groups of employees, as it Arguably, the identified issues and recom-
would train additional skills while fostering flex- mendations are transferable to those hotels, tour
ibility and multitasking (Campion et al., 1994; operators, event companies, and festival producers
Cannon-Bowers et al., 1998; HRFocus, 2008; Sara- that, due to the nature of the respective industries,
vani & Abbasi, 2013), which may be exploited in have to rely on external workers, freelancers, and
emergency contingencies. Beside reinforcing the contractors.
 CHALLENGES IN MANAGING PERIPHERAL WORKERS 537

Conclusion by incorporating multiple organizations. Not only

would this enable to test the generalization and
This study considered the challenges encoun-
validity of the findings of this study, but it could
tered by organizations operating within the events
also further corroborate the need for industries
and tourism industry in managing and coordinat-
subjected to seasonality factors and dependent on
ing core and peripheral workers (Ababneh, 2017;
front line employees to implement more efficient
Baum, 2008; Beech & Chadwick, 2006; Evans et
HR practices that would facilitate the management
al., 2003; Hughes & Rog, 2008; Kusluvan et al.,
of core and peripheral workers at event-based trips.
2010). It has done so by using a cycling tour opera-
Also, investigating organizations specializing in
tor based in the UK (STA) as a case study, with the
different event and tourism products (i.e., adven-
purpose to broaden our understanding of HR issues
ture, cultural, religious, creative) would bring light
and to forward recommendations for HR-related
on the work-related factors that contribute to or
practices that are arguably transferrable to tour-
impact on the occupational and emotional stress of
ism, hospitality, leisure, and event organizations.
peripheral job roles (i.e., physical workload, health
The core problem of the company understudy has
and safety issues, level of education).
been that of retaining the noncontingent workers of
the tours and events; namely, tour leader, guides,
mechanics, and masseurs, whose performance qual- References
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