Course: ICPC 13 Sensors & Transducers

Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments

Dynamic characteristics
➢ The characteristics of the system which changes with respect to
time and frequency (time response/frequency response).

➢ The relationship between the input to the sensor/ instrument and

output when the input varies rapidly.

➢ Dynamic characteristics tell us about how well a sensor responds

to changes in its input. For dynamic signals, the sensor or the
measurement system must be able to respond fast enough to keep
up with the input signals.

2
 Generalized Mathematical Model of Measurement System:-
The widely useful mathematical model for the study of measurement
system (Instrument) dynamic response is the ordinary linear
differential equation with constant coefficients. The relation between
input and output can be written as
d n qo d n −1qo dq0 d m qi d m −1qi dqi
an n
+ a n −1 n −1
+ .... + a1 + a q
o o = bm m
+ bm −1 m −1
+ ... + b1 + b0 qi
dt dt dt dt dt dt

where q o = output quantity

q i = input quantity

t = time

a' s, b' s = combinatio ns of system physical parameters
d 
define the differenti al operator D =
dt 3
then the above equation can be written as

(a D
n
n
) ( )
+ an −1 D n −1 + .... + a1 D + ao qo = bm D m + bm −1 D m −1 + .... + b1 D + bo qi

❖ Zero order instrument /sensor/system

❖ First order instrument/ sensor/system
❖ Second order instrument / sensor/system

➢ The model is adequate for handling any linear measurement

system, certain special cases occur so frequently in practice
that they warrant separate consideration.

➢ More complicated systems can be studied profitably as

combinations of these simple cases.

4
Zero order instrument:-
d n qo d n −1qo dq0 d m qi d m −1qi dqi
an n
+ a n −1 n −1
+ .... + a1 + a q
o o = bm m
+ bm −1 m −1
+ ... + b1 + b0 qi
dt dt dt dt dt dt
All a’s and b’s other than ao and bo are taken as zero, the differential equation
then degenerates into the simple algebraic equation
ao qo = bo qi
Any instrument or system that closely obeys the above equation over its
intended range of operating conditions is defined to be a zero order
instrument.
The above equation can be b
qo = o qi = Kqi
b ao
K= o
= static sensitivity
ao
The zero order instrument represents ideal or perfect dynamic performance.
Input and output are related by an equation of the type
qo
qo = kqi  =K
qi
Potentiometer Zero order instrument:-
Displacement sensors using potentiometric principle have no energy storing
elements. The output voltage e0 can be related with the input displacement
xi by an algebraic equation:

where xt is the total length of the potentiometer and E is the excitation

voltage. So, it can be termed as a zeroth order system.

A potentiometer, which measures motion, is a good example of such an

instrument, where the output voltage changes instantaneously as the
slider is displaced along the potentiometer track.
Sensors and Transducers 6
Zero order instrument:-

An example of a zero order linear instrument is a wire strain gauge in which the
change in the electrical resistance of the wire is proportional to the strain in the
wire.

A zero order linear instrument has an output which is proportional to the input at
all times in accordance with the equation
y(t) = Kx(t)

where K is a constant called the static gain of the instrument. The static gain is a
measure of the sensitivity of the instrument.

Zero-order is the desirable response of a sensor

No delays
Infinite bandwidth
The sensor only changes the amplitude of the input signal
Zero-order systems do not include energy-storing elements

All instruments behave as zero order instruments when they give a static output in
response to a static input.
7
First order instrument:-
d n qo d n −1qo dq0 d m qi d m −1qi dqi
an n
+ a n −1 n −1
+ .... + a1 + a q
o o = bm m
+ bm −1 m −1
+ ... + b1 + b0 qi
dt dt dt dt dt dt

All a’s and b’s other than a1 , ao and bo are taken as zero, we get
dq
a1 o + ao qo = bo qi
dt
Any instrument that follows the above equation is, by definition, a first
order instrument.
The time constant τ always has the
The above equation can be dimensions of time, while the static
a1 dqo bo sensitivity K has the dimensions of output
+ qo = qi
ao dt ao divided by input.

(D + 1)q0 = Kqi


bo 
where K = = static sensitivit y The operational transfer function of first
ao order instrument is
=
 a1 
= time constant
qo
(D ) = K
ao qi D + 1
First order instrument:-

9
10
11
Thermocouple
A bare thermocouple has a mass (m) of the junction. If it is
immersed in a fluid at a temperature Tf , then its dynamic
performance relating the output voltage e0 and the input
temperature Tf , can be expressed by the transfer function:

where, Kv= steady state voltage sensitivity of the

thermocouple,
τ = time constant of the thermocouple, m = mass of the
junction, C = specific heat, h = heat transfer co-efficient,
A = surface area of the hot junction.

Hence, the bare thermocouple is a first order sensor. But if the

bare thermocouple is put inside a metallic protective well (as
it is normally done for industrial thermocouples) the order of
the system increases due to the additional energy storing
element (thermal mass of the well) and it becomes a second
order system. Sensors and Transducers 13
Second order Instrument or System
d n qo d n −1qo dq0 d m qi d m −1qi dqi
an n
+ an −1 n −1 + .... + a1 + ao qo = bm m + bm −1 m −1 + ... + b1 + b0 qi
dt dt dt dt dt dt
All a’s and b’s other than a2 , a1 , ao and b o are taken as zero, we get
d 2 q0 (t ) dq0 (t )
a2 2
+ a1 + a0 q0 (t ) = b0 qi (t ) (1)
dt dt
a2 d 2 q0 (t ) a1 dq0 (t ) a0 b0
2
+ + q0 (t ) = qi (t ) (2)
a0 dt a0 dt a0 a0
Any instrument that follows the above equation is, by definition, a second order
instrument.

a0
n =  un damped natural frequency, in rad/time (3)
a2
a1
=  damping ratio dimension less (4)
2 a0 a2
b0
K=  static sensitivit y (5)
a0
Second order Instrument or System
 D 2 2 D 
 2 + + 1 q0 (t ) = K qi (t ) (6) qi (s )
K
q0 ( s )
 n n    s 2 2 s  
 2 + + 1 

 n  n 
 
 a1 
2 D
 D2 2 a0 a 2  b
 + + 1 q0 (t ) = 0 qi (t )
  a0   a0 
2
 a0
     
 a2 
   q0 ( s) K
a 2
 G( s) = =
qi ( s)   s 2 2 s  
 2 + + 1 
 a1    n n 
 2 D 
 D + 2 + 1 q0 (t ) = 0 qi (t )
2
a0 a 2 b
a   a0  a0
 0    
  a2   a2  

q0 ( s) K
q0 (t ) K = (8)
= (7) qi ( s)   s 2 2 s  
qi (t )   D 2 2 D    2 + + 1 
 2 + + 1    n n 
  n n 
Second order Instrument or System

Force measuring spring scale

16
Seismic Sensors
Seismic sensors are commonly used for vibration
or acceleration measurement of foundations. The
transfer function between the input displacement
xi and output displacement x0 can be expressed
as:

where, M = mass of the seismic body,

B = damping constant, K= spring constant.

From the above transfer function, it can be

easily concluded that the seismic sensor is a
second order system.

Sensors and Transducers 17

 Dynamic Characteristics of first order instruments:
• The sensor response to a variable input is different from that exhibited when the
input signals are constant (the latter is described by the static characteristics)

• The reason for dynamic characteristics is the presence of energy-storing

elements.

➢ Inertial: masses, inductances

➢ Capacitances: electrical, thermal

• Dynamic characteristics are determined by analyzing the response of the sensor

to a family of variable input waveforms:

➢ Impulse, step, ramp, sinusoidal, white noise…

18
Step function:

e − at

Fig: Step function 19

20
Step Response of the First order instrument

dqo (t )
a1 + ao qo (t ) = bo qi (t )
dt
a1 Dqo (t ) + ao qo (t ) = bo qi (t )

[ D + 1] q 0 (t ) = K qi (t ) Let a unit step input u(t) be applied to the first

order instrument
𝑎1
= 𝜏 − time constant i.e qi (t ) = u (t )
𝑎0
Taking Laplace transform
𝑏0
= 𝐾 − static sensitivity
𝑎0 1
Qi ( s ) =
Taking Laplace transform s
K
q0 (t ) =  qi (t )
𝜏 𝑠 + 1 Q 0 𝑠 = 𝐾 𝑄𝑖 𝑠
( D + 1)
Q0 (𝑠) K
G(𝑠) = = (𝜏 𝑠+1)
𝑄𝑖 (𝑠)
Transfer function for first order system
21
 Q0 (s) 1 1
=  ( K = 1)
K ( s + 1) s
Taking partial fractions and applying Laplace inverse transform
1

1 A
= +
B
s ( s + 1) s ( s + 1)
 
L−1 1 = 1
s
−1  1  − at
L 
( + )=e
A =1 B = −  s a 
1 
Q0 ( s ) = −
s ( s + 1)
1 1
Q0 ( s ) = −
s  1
s + 
 
Taking inverse Laplace transform
− t
q 0 (t ) = 1 − e
The output rises exponentially from zero value to the
22
final value of the unity.
 Step function response of first order instrument
Settling-time definition
Time constant:
The time constant is the time taken for the Settling time:
output of the transducer to reach 63.2% of The settling time is the time taken for the
the final value is determined by the graph output to reach and stay within a specified
percentage of steady state value.
which gives the time constant of the system.
The dynamic error is for step response of first order instrument
em (t ) = qi (t ) − q0 (t )
−t
we know q i (t ) = 1 & q 0 (t ) = 1 − e 
− t
em (t ) = 1 − (1 − e )
−t
em (t ) = e  23
➢ The dynamic characteristics useful in
characterizing the speed of response of any
instrument is the settling time.
➢ This is the time (after application of a step
input) for the instrument to reach and stay
within in the stated plus-and -minus
tolerance band around its final value.
➢ A small settling time thus indicates fast
response.
➢ The numerical value of settling time
depends on the percentage tolerance band
used.

24
Impulse Response of first order Instruments:-
Impulse Function:-
It is defined as, the input applied instantaneously(for short duration of time ) of
very high amplitude.
It is the pulse whose magnitude is infinite while its width tends to zero.

Area of impulse = Its magnitude

If area is unity, it is called Unit Impulse Input denoted as r(t)

r (t ) = A for t = 0
Mathematically it can be expressed as 0 for t  0

In Laplace Transform R(s) = 1 if A = 1

25
Impulse Response of first order Instruments:-

Fig:1 Impulse response of first order instrument.

26
Impulse Response of first order Instruments:-

Consider the pulse function p(t) defined graphically in Fig. The impulse
function of “strength” (area) A is defined by the limiting process

Impulse function of strength A = lim p(t )
T →0

If area A is taken as 1,it is called the unit impulse function δ(t).

Thus an impulse function of any strength A is written as Aδ(t).
Response of first order instrument to Impulse input is derived by finding the
response to the pulse p(t) and then applying the limiting process to the result.
For 0<t<T , we have

(D + 1)q0 = Kqi = KA

T

Since, up until time T, this is no different from a step input of size A/T,
our initial condition is q0 = 0 at t = 0 + , and the complete solution is
27
 −t
KA
q0 = (1 − e  )
T
This solution is valid only up to time T. at this time we have

−T
KA
q0 at t =T = (1 − e  )
T
Now for t>T, our differential equation is

(D + 1)q0 = Kqi = 0

Which gives

−t
q0 = Ce 

28
The constant C if found by imposing initial condition

−T −T
KA
(1 − e  ) = Ce 
T
−T
KA(1 − e  )
C= −T
Te 
−T −t
KA(1 − e  )e 
Gives finally q0 = −T
Te 

29
Fig.1b shows a typical response, and fig.1c shows the effect of cutting T in
half. As T is made shorter and shorter, the first part(t<T) of the response
becomes of negligible consequence, so that an expression for q 0 is obtained
by taking the limit of above equation as T 0.

 −T  −T
 KA(1 − e  )  −t −t 1− e

lim  −T  e = KAe 
lim −T
T →0 T →0
 Te   Te 
 

 −T 
1 − e   0
lim 
T →0
= an indeterminate form
 T  0
 
30
 Applying L’Hospital’s rule yields

 −T   1 −T 
1 − e    ( )e   1
lim   = lim  =
 
T →0 T →0
 T   1
   

Thus finally the equation for the impulse response of a first-order

instrument is

−t
KA
q0 = e


31
Fig:1 Impulse response of first order instrument.
32
Impulse Response of first order Instruments:-
➢ The output qo is peculiar in that it has an infinite (vertical) slope at t=0 and thus goes
from zero to a finite value infinitesimal time. Such behavior is clearly impossible for a
physical system, since it requires energy transfer at an infinite rate.
➢ In thermometer example, for instance, to cause the temperature of the fluid in the bulb
suddenly to rise a finite amount requires an infinite rate of heat transfer.
➢ Mathematically, this infinite rate of heat transfer is provided by having the input Ti(t)
be infinite, i.e., an impulse function.
➢ In actuality, of course, Ti cannot go to infinity: however, if it is large enough and of
sufficiently short duration (relative to the response speed of the system), the system may
respond very nearly as it would for a perfect impulse.
➢ Graphical comparison of the exact and approximate response, showing excellent
agreement. The agreement is quite acceptable in most cases if T/ τ is even as large as
0.1. It can be shown that the shape of the pulse is immaterial; as long as its duration is
sufficiently short, only its area maters.

33
Fig:2 Exact and approximate impulse response (more points for discussion).
34
 Ramp function:

An example of a ramp input is the pressure f(t)

head from a tank which is constantly filling up.
If something is connected downstream of the
tank, it will experience a ramp change in the
pressure.

35
Fig: Ramp function
Ramp Response of first-order instrument:-

q0 (s) 1 Applying Laplace inverse transform

=
qi ( s) s + 1
1
( s ) = 1 L (1 s − a ) = e
L−1 1
−1 at
( s )= t
L−1 1 2

qi ( s ) = 2 −t
s
q0 ( s ) = 2
1 qo (t ) = t −  + e 
s (s + 1)  −t

qo (t ) = t −  1 − e 
 t0
Taking partial fractions and applying
Laplace inverse transform  
1 A B C
= + 2+
s (s + 1) s s
2
( s + 1)

A = − B = 1 C = − 2
1 − 1 2
= + 2+
s (s + 1)
2
s s ( s + 1)
36
Ramp Response of first-order instrument:-

➢ The first term of em gradually will disappear as time goes by, and so it is called the TRANSIENT
ERROR.
➢ The second term, however, persists forever and is thus called STEADY-STATE ERROR.
➢ The transient error disappears more quickly, if time constant τ is small.
➢ The steady-state error is directly proportional to time constant, thus small-time constant τ is
desirable here also.
➢ Steady-state error also increases directly with magnitude of input, the rate of change of the
measured quantity.
➢ In steady state, the horizontal (time) displacement between input and output curves is seen to be
the time constant τ and so we may make the interpretation that the instrument is reading what the
input was τ seconds ago. 37
An important property of linear time invariant systems:-

1. In the analysis above, it has been shown that for the unit-ramp input
the output q0 (t ) is
−t
q0 (t ) = t −  − e  (t  0)
2. For unit-step input, which is the derivative of unit-ramp input, the
output q0 (t ) is
−t
q0 (t ) = 1 − e  (t  0)
3. Finally, for the unit impulse input, which is the derivative of unit step
input, the output q0 (t ) is
−t
1
q0 (t ) = e  (t  0)
 38
Comparison:- of the system response to these three inputs clearly
indicates that

“Response to the derivative of an input signal can be obtained

by differentiating the response of the system to the original
signal”.

It can also be seen that the “response to the integral of the

original signal can be obtained by integrating the response of
the system to the original signal and determining the
integration constants from the zero output initial condition”.

39
Step Response of Second order Instrument or System:-

qi (s ) K
q0 ( s )
 s2
2 s  
 2 + + 1 
  n n 

qi (t ) = 1 K 1
q0 ( s) = 
1  s 2
2 s   s
qi ( s ) =  2 + + 1 
s   n n 

qi (s )

qi (s )

time
Unit step input function
Sensors and Transducers 40
 K As + B C
= 2 + (11)
 s 2
2 s    s 2 s  s
 2 + + 1  s   2 + + 1
  n n    n n 

 s 2 2 s 
k = As + Bs + C  2 +
2
+ 1 (12)
 n n 

 Cs 2
2C s 
k = As + Bs +  2 +
2
+ C (13)
 n n 

if k = 1 (14)

C =1 (15)

Sensors and Transducers 41

 2C 2C 2
B+ = 0; B = - =−
n n n
2 (16)
B=−
n

C 1 1
A+ = 0; A + = 0; A = − (17)
 2
n  2
n  2
n

−s 2
−
 2
n 1
q0 ( s) = 2 n
+
s 2 s  s
  2 +  + 1
 n n 
Sensors and Transducers 42
 −1  s 
  + 2 
n  n  1
q0 ( s) = + (18)
1 s 2
 s
  + 2 s + n 
n  n 

 s 
−  + 2 
 n  1
q0 ( s ) = 2 +
s  s
  + 2 s + n 
 n 
−1
 s + 2 n 
n 1
= +
1
n

 s 2 + 2 n s + n2 s 
Sensors and Transducers 43
 1
q0 ( s) = − 2
s + 2n 

s s + 2 n s + n
2

1 s +  n +  n
q0 ( s ) = −
s (s +  n )2 + n2 (1 −  2 )

1 s +  n  n
q0 ( s) = − − (19)
s (s +  n ) + n (1 −  ) (s +  n )2 + n2 (1 −  2 )
2 2 2

Sensors and Transducers 44

 For ζ=0 ; damping ratio is zero UNDAMPED RESPONSE

1 s
q0 ( s) = − 2 −0
s s + n
2

1 s
q0 ( s) = − 2
s s + n2
Taking Inverse Laplace transform

q0 (t ) = 1 − cos nt
(21)
n − Undamped natural frequency rad/sec
If the damping ratio ζ is equal to zero, the
response becomes undamped and
oscillations continue indefinitely. Sensors and Transducers 45
 For ζ=1 ; damping ratio is
Critically damped case
equal to one

1 s + n n  1 
q0 ( s) = − − −1
L  2
= te − at

s (s + n ) + 0 (s + n )2 + 0
2
 ( s + a ) 

1 s + n n
q0 ( s) = − −
s (s + n ) (s + n )2
2

1 1 n
q0 ( s) = − −
s (s + n ) (s + n )2
Taking Inverse Laplace transform
− n t − n t
q0 (t ) = 1 − e − nte
q0 (t ) = 1 − e −nt 1 + nt 
Sensors and Transducers 46
For ζ<1 ; damping ratio is
UNDER DAMPED SYSTEM
less than one

0   1

1 s +  n  n
q0 ( s) = − −
s (s +  n ) + n (1 − ( ) ) (s +  n )2 + n2 (1 − ( ) 2 )
2 2 2

1 s +  n  n
= − −
s (s +  n )2 + n2 −  2n2 (s +  n )2 + n2 −  2n2

1 s + n n
= − 2 −
s s + 2n +  2n2 + n2 −  2n2 s 2 + 2n +  2n2 + n2 −  2n2

Sensors and Transducers 47

 1 s + n n
= − 2 − 2
s s + 2n + n s + 2n + n2
2

1 s + n n
= − 2 − 2
s s + 2n + n s + 2n + n2
2

1 s + n n
qo ( s) = − −
s ( s + n ) + d (s + n ) 2 + d2
2 2

where d = n (1 −  2 )  the frequency d is called the

damped natural frequency

Sensors and Transducers 48

 By Taking Inverse Laplace transform

 s +  n  − n t
−1
L  2
= e cosd t
 ( s +  n ) + d 
2

 d  − nt
−1
L  2
=e sin d t
 ( s +  n ) + d 
2

− nt − nt 
qo (t ) = 1 − e cosdt − e sin dt
1−  2

e − nt  1 −  2 
qo (t ) = 1 − sin( dt + tan −1  ) t0
1−  2   
 
Sensors and Transducers 49
 d = n (1 −  2 )
d
n =
(1 −  2 )

n  d
= 
( s + n ) + d
2 2
1−  2 ( s + n ) 2
+  2
d

• This result can, of course, be

obtained directly by using a table of
LT. it can be seen that the frequency
of transient oscillation is the damped
natural frequency  d and thus varies
with the damping ratio .

Sensors and Transducers 50

 Maximum
over shoot

Delay time

Rise time

peak time
Settling time

Fig: Transient response of second order system

Sensors and Transducers 51

 For ζ>1 ; damping ratio is
OVER DAMPED SYSTEM
greater than one

1 s +  n  n
q0 ( s) = − −
s (s +  n ) + n (1 −  ) (s +  n )2 + n2 (1 −  2 )
2 2 2

Equation 10 can be written as, (assume K=1)

n2
q0 ( s ) =
s (s + 2sn + n )
2 2

 2
q0 ( s ) = n
( s +  n + jd )( s +  n − jd ) s

Sensors and Transducers 52

  2
q0 ( s ) = n
( s +  n + jd )( s +  n − jd ) s

d = n ( 2 − 1)
n2
q0 ( s) =
( s +  n + jn ( 2 − 1) )( s +  n − jn ( 2 − 1) ) s

By Taking Inverse Laplace transform

 − −  2 −1  t  − +  2 −1  t
1 1
q0 (t ) = 1 +
( ) −
( )
  n   n
e e
2  −1  −  −1
2 2
2  −1  +  −1
2 2

Sensors and Transducers 53

 n  e − s1t
e 
− s 2t
q0 (t ) = 1 +  −  t0
2  2 − 1  s1 s2 

( )
where s1 =  +  2 − 1 n and s 2 =  −  2 − 1 n ( )
Thus, the response qo (t ) includes two decaying exponential terms.

q0 (t ) = 1 − cos n t t  0 if  = 0

Sensors and Transducers 54

 • We see that n represents the undamped natural frequency of the system.
n is that frequency at which the system would oscillate if the damping
were decreased to zero.  → 0

• If the linear system has any amount of damping, the undamped

natural frequency can not be observed experimentally. The frequency
which may be observed is the damped natural frequency  d which is equal
to n 1 −  2

•  d Damped natural frequency lower than the undamped natural

frequency. An increase in ζ would reduce the damped natural frequency  d .

• If ζ is increased beyond unity, the response becomes over damped and

will not oscillate.

Sensors and Transducers 55

 − n t
  
Under damped : 1 − e cosdt + sin dt 
 1−  2 

• It can be seen that the frequency of transient oscillation is the damped

natural frequency  d and thus varies with the damping ratio ζ.

•The error signal for this system is the difference between the input and
output is
e(t ) = qi (t ) − qo (t )

− n t
  
e(t ) = e cosdt + sin dt  t0
 1−  2

• This error signal exhibits a damped sinusoidal oscillation. At steady
state or at t →  , no error exists between input and output.
Sensors and Transducers 56
Fig: Step response of second order system damping cases

Sensors and Transducers 57

Fig: Effect of different damping ratio, ξ
Sensors and Transducers 58
 Maximum
over shoot

Delay time

Rise time

peak time
Settling time

Fig: Transient response of second order system

Sensors and Transducers 59

1. Delay time:- t d :- Is the time required for the response to reach
half of the final value he very first time.

2. Rise time:- t r :- Is the time required for the response to rise from
10 to 90% or 5 to 95% or 0 to 100%of its final value. For under
damped second order systems, 0 to 100% rise time is normally
used. For over damped systems, the 10-90% rise time is commonly
used.

3. Peak time:- t p :- Is the time required for the response to reach the
first peak of the overshoot.

Sensors and Transducers 60

4. Maximum(Percent) over shoot:- M p :-The maximum overshoot
is the maximum peak value of the response curve measured from
unity. If the final steady state value of the response different from
unity, then it is common to use the maximum % overshoot.
C (t p ) − C ( )
Maximum percent overshoot = 100 %
C ( )

The amount of maximum(percent) overshoot directly indicates the

relative stability of the system.

5. Settling time:- t s :-The settling time is the time required for the
response curve to reach and stay with in a range about the final
value of size specified by absolute percentage of the final value
(usually 5% or 2%). The settling time is related to largest time
constant of a control system.

Sensors and Transducers 61

Comments:-
1. The time domain specifications just given are quite important since
most control systems are time-domain systems; that is they must
exhibit acceptable time responses. (This means that the control
system must be modified until the transient response is
satisfactory)

2. Note that if we specify the values of t d , t r , t p , t s and M p then the

shape of the response curve is virtually determined. This may
clearly from fig.

3. Note that not all these specifications necessarily apply to any given
case. For example, for an over damped system, the term peak time
and maximum overshoot do not apply.

Sensors and Transducers 62

Ramp Response of Second Order System:-

1
The ramp input has a finite slope equal to T
is applied to a second order
system, the differential equation is

 D 2 2D  .
 2 + + 1q0 = K qis t
 n n 
dqo
qo = =0 at t = 0 +
dt
 For ζ>1 ; damping ratio is
OVER DAMPED SYSTEM
greater than one

The solution is found to be

.
qo . 2 qis  2 2 − 1 − 2  2 − 1  − +  2 −1 n t − 2 2 + 1 − 2  2 − 1  − +  2 −1  t 

= qis t − 1+ e 
+ e   n
K n   4  − 12
4  − 1
2 


For ζ=1 ; damping ratio is

Critically damped case
equal to one

The solution is found to be

.
qo . 2 qis  −nt  n t  
= qis t − 1 − e 1 +  
K n   2 
For ζ<1 ; damping ratio is
UNDER DAMPED SYSTEM
less than one

The solution is found to be

.
qo
K
.
= qis t −
2 qis 
1−
e − nt
n  2 1 −  2
(
sin 1 −  2 nt +  )





2 1 −  2
tan  =
2 2 − 1
 Fig: Ramp response of second order instrument
.
1. Steady state error 2 qis .
n
2. The steady state error can be reduced only by reducing ζ and
increasing n .
2
3. Steady state time lag .
n
Sensors and Transducers 66
 Impulse Response of Second Order System:-

The impulse response is equivalent to the free (unforced) response if the

initial conditions (t = 0 + ) produced by the impulse are taken into account.
.
at t = 0 , q o = 0 and q o = KAn2
+

The differential equation to be solved is then

 D 2 2D 
 2 + + 1q0 = 0
 n n 
dqo
qo = 0 ; = KAn2 at t = 0 +
dt
 For ζ>1 ; damping ratio is
OVER DAMPED SYSTEM
greater than one

The solution is found to be

qo 1   − +  2 −1  n t  − −  2 −1  t


=  e 
−e   n

KAn 2  2 − 1  

For ζ=1 ; damping ratio is

Critically damped case
equal to one

The solution is found to be

qo −n t
= nte
KA n
For ζ<1 ; damping ratio is
UNDER DAMPED SYSTEM
less than one

The solution is found to be

qo
KAn
=
1
1−  2
e − nt
(
sin 1 −  nt
2
)
Fig: Non dimensional impulse response of second order instrument

Sensors and Transducers 70

 Frequency response:-

• A linear transducer is excited with a sinusoidal input the output will

also be a sinusoid after the transient has died down.

• The amplitude and phase of the output may be different from that of
the input.

• The output comprises of two parts namely transient and steady state.

• Frequency response is defined as the steady-state output of a

transducer when it is excited with sinusoidal input.

• The frequency response of any system can be obtained from the

frequency transfer function. Frequency transfer function is obtained
by replacing s by jω, in the Laplace transfer function.
Fig: Sinusoidal input and output of linear system
Sinusoidal response of first order systems:

Consider the sine wave f (t) = sin ωt, with unit amplitude and angular
frequency ω.

The laplace transform of f(t) is f (s) = ω/(s2 + ω2).

Thus if a sine wave of amplitude Î is input to a first-order element, then

the Laplace transform of the output signal is
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
 Frequency response of first-order Instrument:-

The frequency transfer function of a first-order transducer is given by

qo ( j ) K
=
qi ( j ) 1 + j
Apply complex conjugate for term 1+jωτ
K 1 − j
= 
1 + j 1 − j

K (1 − j )
=
1 +  2 2
 qo ( j ) K jK
= −
qi ( j ) 1 +  
2 2
1+  
2 2

Magnitude:- The magnitude of complex number a+jb is a 2 + b2

qo ( j )  K   K 
2 2

=  2 2 
+ 2 2 
qi ( j ) 1+    1+   

qo ( j ) K (1 +  
2 2 2
)
=
qi ( j ) (1 +   )
2 2 2

qo ( j ) K
=
qi ( j ) (1 +   )
2 2
 b
Phase angle:- The phase of complex number a+jb is tan  =
a

b
 = tan −1  
a

The phase shift between output and input is given by

 K 
− 
 = tan  1 +  
2 2
−1

 K 
 
 1 +  2 2 
  = tan −1 (−  )

 = − tan −1 ( )

• The time constant τ becomes smaller the amplitude ratio plot tends to
become flatter, approaching an ideal situation.

• Ideal transducer is one whose amplitude ratio is constant for all

frequencies.
Fig: Frequency response of first-order transducer
x-axis in the logarithmic scale
Y-axis in decibel gain and phase angle in degrees.

Fig: Frequency Response of First-Order Transducer

 Frequency response of second-order Instrument:-

The frequency transfer function of a second-order transducer is given by

replacing s by jω
qo ( j ) K
=
qi ( j )  j  2 j
  + 2 +1
 n  n
The magnitude of system is given by

qo ( j ) K
=
qi ( j ) 2 2
     4 2 2
1 −    +
  n   n2
 
The phase shift between output and input is given by

 
 
−1  2 
 = − tan
 n  
  − 
 n 
• The various frequency response plots namely, bode plot, polar plot and
Phase angle Vs Magnitude plot can be obtained for the above function.

• The normalised frequency response plot is shown in fig. This can be

obtained by plotting

qo ( j )  qo ( j )
Vs Let M=
Kqi ( j ) n Kqi ( j )
 
n
Fig: Amplitude plot-Second order system.
 
n
Fig: Phase angle plot-Second order system.
• A transducer is considered to be good if it has a flat amplitude plot and
zero phase shift for all frequencies.

• In a practical situation, it is difficult to get a transducer with zero phase

shift for all frequencies. In that case a linear variation of phase shift with
frequency is acceptable.

• From the above fig it is observed that, the amplitude plot is flat for the
largest frequency range when damping ratio, ζ lies between 0.6 to 0.7.

• The phase shift, ϕ also varies linearly with frequency ω for the same range
0.6 to 0.7.
 Bandwidth:-

Fig: Bandwidth of a transducer-frequency response.

• Bandwidth is used to quantize the flat useful region of the amplitude plot
of the frequency response.

•The bandwidth is defined as the frequency range in which the amplitude

ratio is more than 0.707 of the final value.
 AR = Amplitude ratio,
1
f1 & f2 are - 3db or AR frequencie s
2

• Transducer will faithfully reproduce the input if all the frequency

components of the input lie within the bandwidth of the transducer.

•The input signal contains frequency component outside the bandwidth, the
output will be distorted.
Dynamic Characteristics:
Frequency response:
Describe how the ratio of output and input changes
with the input frequency. (sinusoidal input)

Bandwidth:
the frequency band over which M(ω) ≥ 0.707 (-3 dB in
decibel unit)

Cut-off frequency:
the frequency at which the system response has fallen to
0.707 (-3 dB) of the stable low frequency.
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95
• General concepts and terminology of measurement systems, transducer
classification, general input-output configuration, static and dynamic
characteristics of a measurement system, Statistical analysis of measurement data.

Text Books:
1. John P. Bentley, Principles of Measurement Systems, Pearson Education, 4th Edition, 2005.

2. Doebelin E.0, Measurement Systems - Application and Design, McGraw-Hill, 4th Edition, 2004.

3. S.M. Sze, Semiconductor sensors, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 3rd edition, 2006.
Reference Books:
1. James W. Dally, Instrumentation for Engineering Measurements, Wiley, 2nd Edition,1993
2. John G. Webster, Sensors and Signal Conditioning, Wiley Inter Science, 2nd edition,2008
3. Patranabis, Sensors and Transducers, Prentice Hall, 2nd edition,2003.
4. Alok Baura, Fundamentals of Industrial Instrumentation, Wiley India Pvt. Ltd,2011.
5. Murthy D. V. S, Transducers and Instrumentation, Prentice Hall, 2nd Edition,2011
6. Neubert H.K.P, Instrument Transducers - An Introduction to their Performance and Design,
Oxford University Press, 2nd Edition,1999.
7. Waldemar Nawrocki, Measurement Systems and Sensors, Artech House,2005
8. B.E. Noltingk, Instrumentation Reference Book, Butterworth- Heinemann, 2
nd Edition 1995.
9. Kirianaki N.V., Yurish S.Y., ShpakN.O., Deynega V.P., Data Acquisition and Signal Processing
for Smart Sensors, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, UK, 2002.
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