HYDROSTATICS

When a fluid is at rest, there is no shear stress and the pressure at any point in the fluid is the
same in all directions. The pressure is also the same across any longitudinal section parallel with
the Earth’s surface; it varies only in the vertical direction, that is, from height to height. This is
the phenomenon of hydrostatics. Pressure is defined as the total force applied normal
(perpendicular) to a unit surface area.

Force is a vector. It has a magnitude and a direction of action. Area is a scalar as only a
magnitude is needed to define it sufficiently. It should be noted that pressure is a scalar.

Pressure has the units N/m2. N/m2 is called a Pascal (P) in honour of Blaise Pascal, a French
mathematician and a physicist whose work on static fluids lead to understand the concept of
pressure. The other most widely used unit is mercury millimetres (Hg mm).

Pascal’s Law states that the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is independent of direction as long
as there are noshearing stresses present.

Consider the Figure showing the relationship between gauge and atmospheric pressure. It is
essential to understand that the pressure is measured relative to the atmospheric pressure. In
other words, some measuring techniques measure the pressure difference between the fluid and

the atmosphere.
This is called the gauge pressure. For instance, P-Patm gives the gauge pressure. To obtain the
absolute pressure one has to add the atmospheric pressure to the gauge pressure. Absolute
pressure is measured relative to an absolute vacuum (zero pressure).

The absolute value of the atmospheric pressure is 101325 Pa. In most cases 1.01×105 Pa
(101kPa) is used for simplicity.

Consider the element in the figure shown to explain the relationship between the pressure and
the height of the fluid.

The further the depth of fluid from the surface the more pressure that is produced by the fluid.
This is the reason that in a tank or storeof water the pressure at the bottom is more than at the
surface of the water. Since

Pb = Patm + hpg

Where the downward direction is positive.

2
Buoyancy

In a fluid, the pressure increases linearly with the depth. As a result, any submerged body feels an
upward force due to the difference of pressure acting on it. To illustrate this point consider a
cylindrical object immersed in a liquid as shown.

Consider the pressure exerted by the fluid is different at the top and the bottom surfaces. Upward
force due to the hydrostatic pressure is given by

This equation does not depend on

the geometric shape of the object immersed in the fluid but only the volume, therefore, the
upward force (buoyancy) acting on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of an
equivalent volume of the fluid.

This law is first discovered by the Greek philosopher, Archimedes.

Law of buoyancy suggests that despite the material the bodies were made of, equal volumes
experience the same buoyancy force. For example, the buoyancy acting on10 cm3 of wood
immersed in water is as same as the buoyancy acting on 10cm3 of lead.

Then for a body of mass m

a) if the body sinks to the bottom
b) if the body floats and
c) if the body rises to the surface.

3
The buoyancy acting on partially immersed bodies like floating buoys and ships is equal to the
weight of the fluid of thepartial volume immersed in the fluid.

Pressure within a closed vessel

A cylindrical vessel with hemispherical ends is vertically mounted on its axis. The vessel contains
water of density 1000 kgm-3 and the head space is pressurized to a gauge pressure of 50 kNm-2.
The vertical wall section of the vessel has a height of 3 m and the hemispherical ends have radii
of 1 m. If the vessel is filled to half capacity, determine the total force tending to l(it the top dome
and the absolute pressure at the bottom of the vessel.

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 Transfer of process liquid to a ship

A liquid hydrocarbon mixture of density 950 kgm-3 is transferred by pipeline to a ship at a

loading terminal. Prior to transfer, the ship has an unloaded displacement of 5000 tonnes and
draft of 3 m. Transfer of the hydrocarbon is at a steady rate of 125 m3h-l. If the sea bed is at a
depth of 5.5 m, determine the quantity delivered and time taken if the ship requires at least 1 m
of clearance between the sea bed and hull to manoeuvre away safely from the loading terminal.

7
It should be noted that the approach illustrated is rather simplistic. No account is made for the
dimensions of the ship in terms of its length and beam nor the variation of the water plane area
with depth. The beam is an important dimension in terms of stability where the stability is
dependent on the relative position of the ship's centre of gravity and centroid of the displaced
volume called the centre of buoyancy.

A ship is unstable and will capsize when, for a heel of up to 10°, a line drawn vertically up from
the centre of buoyancy is below the centre of gravity - a point known as the metacentre. The safe
transfer of liquids to and from tanks within ships requires a careful sequence of operation. Tidal
effects on moored ships and the effects of the liquid free surface in the tanks must also be taken
into consideration. It was the British politician Samuel Plimsoll (1824-1898) who was responsible
for getting legislation passed to prohibit 'coffinships' - unseaworthy and overloaded ships - being
sent to sea. The Merchant Sea Act of 1874 included, amongst other things, enforcement of the
painting of lines, originally called Plimsoll marks and now known as load line marks, to indicate
the maximum load line which allows for the different densities of the world's seas in summer and
winter.

Questons

(20) A ship has a displacement of 3000 tonnes in sea water. Determine the volume of the ship
below the water line if the density of sea water is 1021 kgm-3.

Answer: 2938 m3

A closed cylindrical steel drum of side length 2 m, outer diameter 1.5 m and wall thickness 8 mm
is immersed in a jacket containing water at 20°C (density 998 kgm-3). Determine the net
downward and upward forces when the drum is both full of water at 20°C and empty. The
density of steel is 7980 kgm-3.

Answer: 5.17 kN, -29.4 kN

8
MOMENTUM OF FLUID

The momentum of a system is defined as the product of the mass and velocity of the system.

Momentum = (Mass x Velocity)

The three principles underlying the analysis of fluid flow are: conservation law of mass,
conservation law of energy, and conservation law of momentum.

The first is expressed in the form of a material (mass) balance, the second in the form of an
energy balance, and the third in the form of a momentum balance

Conservation of Mass

The conservation of mass was first considered by Leonardo da"vinci (1452-1519) in 1502 with
respect to the flow within a river.Applied to the flow through a pipe the basic premise is that mass
is conserved.

Assuming no loss from or accumulation within the pipe, the flow into the pipeis equal to the flow
out and can be proved mathematically by applying a massbalance over the pipe section. The
flow of incompressible fluids at a steady rateis therefore the simplest form of the continuity
equation and may be readilyapplied to liquids.

The conservation law for mass can be applied to any process or system. The general form of this
law is given by Equation 1

{mass in} + {mass generated} = {mass accumulated} +{mass out}

………………1

or on a time rate basis

{rate of mass in} - {rate of mass out} + {rate of mass generated}

= {rate of mass accumulated}

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 …………………….2

This has also come to be defined as the continuity equation

This law can be applied to steady-state or unsteady state (transient) processes and to batch or
continuous systems. A steady-state process is one in which there is no change in conditions
(pressure, temperature, composition, etc.) or rates of flow with time at any given point in the
system. The accumulation term in Equation is then zero. (If there is no chemical or nuclear
reaction, the generation term is also zero.)

In a continuous process, reactants are continuously removed from one or more points. A
continuous process may or may not be steady-state. A coal-fired power plant, for example,
operates continuously.

However, because of the wide variation in power demand between peak and slack periods, there
is an equally wide variation in the rate at which the coal is fired. For this reason, power plant
problems may require the use of average data over long periods of time. Most industrial
operations are assumed to be steady-state and continuous.

Example 1

The inlet flue to a furnace is at 200°C. It is piped through a 6.0-cm inside diameter duct at 25
m/s. The furnace heats the gas to 1900°C. In order to maintain a velocity of 40 m/s, what size
duct would be required at the outlet of the furnace?

Solution

Applying the continuity equation, the volumetric flow rate into the furnace

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11
For most operations involving transport four important processing concepts are bypass, recycle,
purge, and makeup.

With bypass, part of the inlet stream is diverted around the equipment to rejoin the (main) stream
after the unit (see Fig.1). This stream effectively moves in parallel with the stream passing
through the equipment.

In recycle, part of the product stream is sent back to mix with the feed. If a small quantity of
nonreactive material is present in the feed to a process that includes recycle, it may be necessary
to remove the nonreactive material in a purge stream to prevent its building up above a
maximum tolerable value. This can also occur in a process without recycle; if a nonreactive
material is added in the feed and not totally removed in the products, it will accumulate until
purged. The purging process is sometimes referred to as blowdown. Makeup, as its name implies,
involves adding or making up part of a stream that has been removed from a process. Makeup
may be thought of, in a final sense, as the opposite of purge and/or blowdown

Fig. 1. Process flow showing important process concepts

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Fig. 2. Process flow Diagram

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Application of Continuity Equation

Example

A gaseous waste is fed into an incinerator at a rate of 4000 kg/hr in the presence of 8000 kg/hr
of air. Due to the low heating value of the waste, 550 kg/hr of methane is added to assist the
combustion of the pollutants in the waste stream. Determine the rate of product gases exiting the
incinerator in kg/hr. Assume steady-state operation.

Solution

Apply the conservation law for mass to the incinerator on a rate basis.

See

{rate of mass in} - {rate of mass out} + {rate of mass generated) = {rate of mass accumulated}

Rewrite the equation subject to the conditions in the example statement

{rate of mass in} = {rate of mass out)

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Example 5

Water (  = 1000 kg/m3) flows in a converging circular pipe (see Fig. ). It enters at Section 1 and
leaves at Section 2. At Section 1, the inside diameter is 14 cm and the velocity is 2 m/s. At
Section 2, the inside diameter is 7 cm. Determine the mass and volumetric flow rates, the mass
flux of water, and the velocity at Section 2. Assume steady-state flow.

Solution

(Station) 1: Calculate the flow rates, q and mass flow rate m^, based on the information at
Section (station) 1:

Fig. 3. Schematic diagram for Example 5

As expected, the decrease in cross-section area results in an increase in the flowvelocity for
steady-state flow of an incompressible fluid.

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Example

A fluid device has four openings, as shown in Fig. 4. The fluid has a constant density of
800kg/m3. The steady-state conditions arelisted in Fig. 4. Determine the magnitude and
direction of the velocity, u4. What is the mass flow rate at section 4?

Solution Calculate the volumetric flow rate through each section

Fig. 4. Process flow Diagram in a four-way valve

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17
FURTHER APPLICATION

Flow in branched pipes

Water flows through a pipe section with an inside diameter of 150 mm at a rateof 0.02 m3s-l. The
pipe branches into two smaller diameter pipes, one with aninside diameter of 50 mm and the
other with an inside diameter of 100 mm. Ifthe average velocity in the 50 mm pipe is 3 ms-l,
determine the velocities andflows in all three pipe sections.

Solution

The continuity equation is effectively used in solving the problem a mathematical statement
describing the conservation of mass of a flowing fluid where the mass flow into a pipe section is
equal to the mass flow out. That is

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CONSERVATION LAW FOR ENERGY

Any fluid confined in a stationary enclosure has static pressure simply because the molecules of
that fluid are in constant random motion and are continually colliding with the container walls.
The bulk velocity of this stationary fluid is zero, and the total pressure is then equal to the static
pressure. If the same fluid is flowing and the temperature has not changed, it possesses the same
static pressure since its molecules still have the same degree of random motion. Its total pressure
is now higher, however, because it also possesses the second pressure component, velocity
pressure.

Thermodynamics is defined as that science that deals with the relationships among the various
forms of energy. A system may possess energy due to its temperature (internal energy), velocity
(kinetic energy), position (potential energy), molecular structure (chemical energy), surface

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(surface energy), etc. Engineering thermodynamics is founded on three basic laws. As described
earlier, energy, like mass and momentum, is conserved.

The conservation of energy was first considered by the Swiss scientist Daniel Bernoulli (1700-
1782) in 1738 to describe the conservation of mechanical energy of a moving fluid in a system.
The basic premise is that the total energy of the fluid flowing in a pipe must be conserved. An
energy balance on the moving fluid across the pipe takes into account the reversible pressure
volume, kinetic and potential energy forms, and is greatly simplified by considering steady,
inviscid and incompressible fluid flow.

The Conservation of energy is written in mathematical form of equation 3 and is usually referred
to as the Bernoulli equation of flow. The Bernoulli equation (named after Daniel Bernoulli) is

The first, second and third terms of the equation are known as the pressure head, velocity head
and static head terms respectively, each of which has the fundamental dimensions of length. This
is an important equation for the analysis of fluid flow in which thermodynamic occurrences are
not important. It is derived for an incompressible fluid without viscosity. These assumptions give
results of acceptable accuracy for liquids of low viscosity and for gases flowing at subsonic speeds
when changes in pressure are small.

APPLICATION

Example

Consider the flow system shown in Fig , To determine the velocity in the pipe, the Bernoulli
equation is applied between the free surface (point 1) and the end of the pipe (point 2) which are
both exposed to atmospheric pressure. That is

P1 =P2 =Patm

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The tank is presumed to be of sufficient capacity that the velocity of the water at the free surface
is negligible. That is velocity at point 1 is zero

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22
Forceona pipereducer

Water flows through a pipe of inside diameter 200 mm at a rate of 100 m3h-l.1f the flow
abruptly enters a section reducing the pipe diameter to 150 mm, for which the head loss is 0.2
velocity heads based on the smaller pipe.

Determine the force required to hold the section in position. Upstream of the reducer, the gauge
pressure is 80 kNm-2.

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Tutorial questions

(I) Water flows upwards through a pipe which tapers from a diameter of 200 mm to 150mm over
a distance of 1m. Neglecting friction, determine the rate of flow if the gauge pressure at the 200
mm section is 200 kNm-2 and at the 150mm section is 150 kNm-2. Water has a density of 1000
kgm-3.

2.Water flows through a pipe section with an inside diameter of 150 mm at a rate of 0.02 m3s-l.
The pipe branches into two smaller diameter pipes, one with an inside diameter of 50 mm and
the other with an inside diameter of 100 mm. If the average velocity in the 50 mm pipe is 3 ms-l,
determine the velocities and flows in all three pipe sections.

Water is discharged from a tank through an external cylindrical mouthpiece with an area of
100cm2under a pressure of 30 kNm-2. Determine the rate of discharge if the coefficient of
contraction is 0.64.

Answer: 0.0645 m3s-1

(5) Water is added to a process vessel in the form of ajet and directed perpendicularly against a
flat plate. If the diameter of the jet is 25 mm and the jet velocity is 10 ms-l, determine the power
of the jet and the magnitude of the force acting on the plate.

Answer: 491 W, 49.1 N

(6) A process liquid of density 1039kgm-3 is fed continuously into a vessel as a jet at a rate of
12m3h-l. If the jet, which has a diameter of 25 mm, impinges on a flat surface at an angle of 60°
to the jet, determine the force on the plate.

Answer: 2004N

Water is discharged through a horizontal nozzle at a rate of 25 litres per second. If the nozzle
converges from a diameter of 50 mm to 25 mm and the water is discharged to atmosphere,
determine the pressure at the inlet to the nozzle and the force required to hold the nozzle in
position.

Answer: 150kNm-2, 133N

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Application of fluid flow in instrumentation

Differential flowmeters indirectly measure velocity, and therefore flow, of afluid by measuring a
differential head. Consequently, they are also known ashead or rate meters with the main group
of meters being venturi, orifice, nozzleand Pitot tubes - although there are others. Such meters
are based on the principlethat when liquid flows through a restriction, its velocity increases due
tocontinuity. The increase in kinetic energy evolves from the reduction in pressurethrough the
restriction and it is this relationship which allows a measurementof pressure drop to be related to
the velocity and therefore flowrate. Therelationship is derived from the Bernoulli equation and is
essentially an applicationof the first law of thermodynamics to flow processes.

Venturi meters are simple fluid flow

measuring devices which operate
byrestricting the flow of fluid, thereby
increasing velocity and
consequentlyreducing pressure at the
point of restriction. By measuring the
differential pressuredrop at the point
ofrestriction the flowrate can be readily
determined. The device, which has no
moving parts, consists of a rapidly tapered
section to athroat and gentle downstream
expansion section. This design prevents
thephenomenon of separation and thus a permanent energy loss. For a welldesignedventuri, the
discharge coefficient should lie between a value of 0.95and 0.98. If the discharge coefficient is not
known or is unavailable for aparticular venturi, a value of 0.97 may be reasonably assumed.
Although theventuri meter can be installed in any orientation, care must be taken to use
theappropriate equation for flow derived from the Bernoulli equation.

27
The orifice meter is cheaper to manufacture than the venturi meter, but hasthe disadvantage of a
higher permanent energy loss. The device consists of aplate or diaphragm ideally manufactured
from a corrosion and erosion-resistantmaterial, positioned between two flanges in a pipeline. The
plate is oftencentrally drilled, although eccentric and segmental diaphragms are used. Themeter
operates by increasing the velocity of the fluid as it flows through therestriction and measuring
the corresponding differential pressure across thedevice. There is, however, a region of high
turbulence behind the orifice givingrise to a high permanent energy loss and consequently the
discharge coefficientis considerably less than that obtained using the venturi meter. A value of 0.6
isfrequently used for high flowrates although the coefficient varies with the sizeof orifice relative
to the pipe diameter and rate of flow.

Pitot tube

The Pitot tube, named after the eighteenth

century French engineer Henri dePi tot (1695-
1771) who invented it, is a device used to
measure the local orpoint velocity of a fluid in a
pipe or duct. A Pitot tube is used to determine
the velocity of air at a point in a process
ventilationduct. It can also be used to
determine flowrate by measurements of local
velocities in the cross-section of the pipe orduct
and is particularly useful therefore where the
velocity profile is irregular.

The device operates by measuring the difference between the impact and staticpressures in the
fluid and usually consists of two concentric tubes arranged inparallel; one with an opening in the
direction of flow, the other perpendicular tothe flow. A typical pitot tube is shown.

The instrument measures by applying the Bernoulli equation, where there is virtually no head
loss due to the proximity of the two points(static and flow)

28
Examples

Considera manometer that contains a fluid of SG 0.84 and indicates a differential head reading
of 30 mm obtained by a pitot tube. Determine the local velocity in the duct if the density of air is
1.2 kgm-3 and may be assumed constant.

By applying the Bernoulli equation to the two points 1

and 2

Horizontal venturi meter

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This fluid flow measuring device, first named after the Italian physicistGiovanni Battista Venturi
(1746-1822) by Clemens Hershels in 1886, consistsof a tapered tube which constricts flow so that
the differential pressureproduced by the flowing fluid through the throat indirectly gives a
measure offlowrate. The rate of flow can be determined by applying the Bernoulli equationat
some point upstream of the venturi (point I) and at the throat (point 2) asshown

Consider this example.

A horizontal venturi meter with a discharge

coefficient of 0.96 is to be used tomeasure the
flow rate of water up to 0.025 m3s-1 in a
pipeline of internal diameter100 mm. The
meter is connected to a differential
manometer containingmercury of SG 13.6. 1f
the maximum allowable difference in
mercury levels is80 cm, determine the
diameter of the throat and the shortest possible overalllength of the meter.

The rate of flow can be determined by applying the Bernoulli equation at some point upstream
of the venturi (point I) and at the throat (point 2). For a horizontal venturi

30
31
throat diameter is found to be 48 mm.

The dimensions of the venturi are important to minimize permanent energy losses. The
recommended dimensions of a venturi suggest an inlet entrance cone to have an angle of 15° to
20° with an exit cone angle of 5°to 7.5°. The throat length is 0.25 to 0.5 pipe-diameters with
tapping points located between 0.25 and 0.75 pipe-diameters upstream.

In this case, the shortest possible overall length of venturi is therefore an entrance cone of 7.1 cm
length (20°), a throat of 2.5 cm (0.25 pipe-diameters) and an exit cone of 19.7 cm (7.5°) giving an
overall length of 29.3 cm.

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Differentialpressureacrossa verticalventurimeter

A process liquid of density 850 kgm-3 flows upward at a rate of 0.056 m3s-l through a vertical
venturi meter which has an inlet diameter of 200 mm and throat diameter of 100 mm, with
discharge coefficient of 0.98. Determine the difference in reading of two pressure gauges located
at the respective tappingpoints a vertical distance of 30 cm apart.

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Flowmeasurement by orificemeterina verticalpipe

Oil of density 860 kgm-3 flows up a vertical pipe section of diameter 225 mm. A manometer
filled with fluid of density 1075 kgm3 is used to measure the pressure drop across an orifice plate
with a throat diameter of 75 mm. Determine the flowrate of oil if the deflection of the
manometer fluid is 0.5 m. Assume a discharge coefficient of O.659 for the orifice.

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Tutorial Questions

A uniform pipeline of circular cross-section is to carry water at a rate of 0.5 m3s-1. If an orifice
plate is to be used to monitor the flowrate in the line, determine the differential pressure reading
across the plate at the design flowrate. The pipe has an internal diameter of 45 cm and the orifice
has a concentric hole of 30 cm. If the differential pressure is to be measured using a mercury-
filled manometer, determine the difference in level between the two legs. The coefficient of
discharge for the plate may be taken as 0.6.

Answer: 55.8 kNm-2, 45.1 cm

A venturi meter measures the flow of water in a 100 mm inside diameter horizontal pipe. The
difference in head between the entrance and the throat of the meter is measured by a U-tube,
containing mercury (SG 13.6) with the space above the mercury in each limb being filled with
water. Determine the diameter of the throat of the meter such that the difference in the levels of

35
mercury shall not exceed 300 mm when the quantity of water flowing in the pipe is 10 kgs-l.
Assume the discharge coefficient is 0.97.

Answer: 39 mm

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Tankdischargethrougha horizontalpipe with laminarflow

A viscous Newtonian liquid of density 1100 kgm-3 and viscosity 0.08 Nsm-2 is fed to a process
from a vessel of diameter 1.2 m through a 3 m length of horizontal pipe with an inside diameter
of 25 mm attached near to the base of the vessel. If the initial level of liquid in the vessel is 1.5 m
above the pipe and the flow through the pipe is laminar, determine the time tofeed O.75 m3 of
the liquid to the process.

37
38
Flowmeasurement byorificemeterina verticalpipe

Oil of density 860 kgm-3 flows up a vertical pipe section of diameter 225 mm. A manometer
filled with fluid of density 1075 kgm-3 is used to measure the pressure drop across an orifice plate
with a throat diameter of 75 mm. Determine the flowrate of oil if the deflection of the
manometer fluid is 0.5 m. Assume a discharge coefficient of O.659 for the orifice

Applying the Bernoulli equation between points 1and 2

From continuity for an incompressible fluid

For the manometer

39
The theoretical velocity through the pipe is therefore 0.523 m/s, using the dischare coefficient
given

The rate of flow is found to be 0.014 m3/s.

40
Definitions Associated with Fluid

Absolute pressure: Pressure measured above a vacuum.

Absolute roughness: Average height of undulations and imperfections on the inner surface of a
pipe wall.

Angular velocity: Rotational speed expressed in radians per second.

Archimedes’ principle: States that the upthrust on a partially or totally immersed body is
equal to the weight of liquid displaced.

Average velocity: Defined as the total flow rate per unit flow area.

Boundary layer: Region between a wall and a point in the flowing fluid where the velocity
is at a maximum.

Coefficient of discharge: Ratio of actual flow rate to theoretical flow rate through an
opening or restriction.

Fluid: A substance which offers no resistance to change of shape by an applied force.

Frictional head: Head required by a system to overcome resistance to flow in pipes and
associated fittings.

Gate valve: Device used to regulate flow in a pipe, consisting of a vertical moving section
across the flow area.

Gauge pressure: Pressure measured above atmospheric.

Head: Pressure of a liquid expressed as the equivalent height a column of the liquid would exert.

Laminar flow: Flow that occurs when adjacent layers of fluid move relative to one another in
smooth streamlines. Flow occurs in pipes for Reynolds numbers below 2100.

Mass flow rate: Mass flow of a fluid per unit time.

Newtonian fluids: Class of fluids in which viscosity is independent of shear stress and time.

Non-Newtonian liquids: Liquids in which the viscosity depends on shear stress and/or time.

41
Pipeline: Long section of large bore pipe.

Pitot tube: Device used to measure velocity head of a flowing fluid.

Pressure: Force of a fluid applied over a given area.

Pressure differential: Difference in pressure between two points.

Pressure head: Pressure-volume energy of a fluid expressed in head form.

Reynolds number: Dimensionless number expressing the ratio of inertial to viscous forces in a
flowing fluid.

Static head: Potential energy of a liquid expressed in head form.

Steady flow: No change of fluid velocity with respect to time.

Streamline: An imaginary line which lies in the direction of flow

Transition flow: Flow regime between laminar and turbulent flow

(2100<Re<4000).Velocity fluctuations may be present and impossible to predict.

Turbulent flow: Flow regime characterized by fluctuating motion and erratic paths above
Reynolds numbers of 4000. Flow occurs when inertial forces predominate resulting in
macroscopic mixing of the fluid.

Uniform flow: No change in fluid velocity at a given time with respect to distance.

42